CENSUS OF INDIA, 1911
VOLUME XIV,
PUNJAB
Part I.
REPORT
BY
PANDIT HARIKISHAN KAUL, r.b, c.i.e.,
SUPERINTENDENT OF CENSUS OPERATIONS,
PUNJAB.
Price :— Rs. 6 or 8s.
PRINTWfcAT THE "CIVIL AND MIMTAUT GAZSriE: " [MIEBS.
i;'i2.
LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
RIVERSIDE
''^''''^Jlir^
CENSUS OF INDIA. 19IL
VOLUME XIV.
PUNJAB.
Part I.
REP O R T
BY
PANDIT HARIKISHAN KAUL, r.b., c.i.e.,
SUPERINTENDENT OF CENSUS OPERATIONS,
PUNJAB.
l^ahovc;
PBrNTED THE " CIVIL AND MILITAUT GAZKTTh' " PItESS.
1912.
A-l
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TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Paeageaph.
Paqh^
Inteodoction
1 — vu
Chapter I. — Distribution of the Population.
GENERAL.
1 Geographical position and boundaries of the Province ...
2 Internal Changes ...
3 Administrative Divisions
4 Natural Divisions ... ... ...
AREA, POPULATION AND DENSITY.
5 Reference to Statistical Tables ...
6 Area and Population
7 Comparison with other Provinces and Countries
8 Cultivable, gross cultivated and net cultivated area explained
9 Cultivated area
10 Density ... ... ... .- ••■
Classification op Districts and States according to Density.
11 Density on total area
By Districts and States
By Tahsils in Indo-Gangetic Plain ...
Ditto Himalayan Division ...
Ditto Sub-Himalayan Division
Ditto North-West Dry Area
12 Classification of Tahsils according to density ...
13 Density on cultivated area...
1 4 Causes conducing to high density
TOWNS AND VILLAGES.
15 DeBnition of town
16 Number of towns ... ... ... ...
The Urban popdlation.
17 General ... ... ... ... ... ...
18 Size of Towns
19 Sex proportion in Towns ... ...
20 Distribution of Urban population by religion
Its composition...
21 Density of population in Towns ... ...
22 Other characteristics of Towns ...
23 Recent growth of Towns
24 Distribution and growth of population in Towns classified according
size
25 Distribution of population between Towns and Country
The Roral Population.
26 Definition of village ...
27 Variations in the number of villages
28 Character of village sites ... ...
In Indo-Gangetic Plain
In Himalayan and Sub-Himalayan tracts ...
In North- West Dry Area
Court-yards ... ... ... .. ... ... ...
29 Villages classified according to population
30 Average population per village in different Natural Divisions ...
31 Mean distance between villages ...
32 Average area per village ...
Cities and Selected Towns.
33 Cities
Delhi
Lahore ...
Amritsar
34 Selected Towns
Multan
Rawalpindi ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Ainbala ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
1
1
1
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
8
9
12
12
13
13
13
14
1.5
15
15
16
17
17
18
(9
20
20
21
21
21
21
22
22
23
23
23
24
24
25
25
25
25-
Fabaobaph. PAaK.
Jullundur ... ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ••• "5
Sialkot 25
Ferozepore ... ... ... -•■ ••• ■•• 25
Houses and Families.
35 Description of houses ... ... •■• ••• ••• ••• ••• 25
Houses in rural tracts... ... ... ... ••• •■■ ••• 25
Houses in towns and cities ... ... ... ••• •-• ••• 26
Material used ... ... ... ••• •■• ■•■ ■•• ••• 26
36 Recent improvements in the type of houses 26
37 Definition of house ... ... ••• ••• 27
38 Number of houses per square mile ... ... ••• ... ... 28
89 Average number of persons per house ... ... ... ... 28
40 Proximity of houses ... ... ... ... •.• ... ... 29
41 The joint family system ... ... ... ••• ••• ••• ... 29
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
I. — Density, water supply and crops... ... ... ... ... 31
II. — Distribution of the Population classified according to Density... 32
III. — Distribution of the Population between towns and villages ... 32
IV. — Number per millo of the total Population and of each main
religion who live in towns ... ... ... ... ... 32
V. — Towns classified by Population ... ... ... ... ... 33
VI. — Cities and Selected Towns ... ... ... ... ... 33
VII. — Persons per house and houses per square mile ... ... ... 33
Chapter II. — Movement of population.
HISTORY.
42 Movements prior to 1901 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 34
43 The pre-historic period ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 34
44 The Historic period ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 37
Ancient History ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 37
Modern History ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 38
Wild animal.s and jungles in early days .. ... ... ... 38
45 Results of the pa.st Censuses ... ... ... .-• ... ... 39
46 The Census ol 1911 39
47 Variation since 1 88 1 ... ... ... 39
CONDITIONS OF THE DECADE (1901-1911).
48 Public Health 40
49 Plague 41
50 Fever 42
Measures adopted for the prevention of Malaria ... ... ... 43
51 Small-pox ... ... ... ... ... 43
52 Steps taken for the improvement of public health ... ... ... 44
53 The earthquake of 1905 44
54 Agricultural Conditions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 45
55 Co-opprative Credit Societies ... ... ... ... ... ... 45
Their scope ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 46
Urbar) Societies ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 46
Central Banks ... ... ... ... ... ... .. ... 46
Rural Societies ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 46
56 Famines ... 47
57 Price of food grains ... ... ... .. ... 48
58 Rise in wages ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 49
Agricultural labourers ... ... ... ... ... ... 49
Skilled labourers 50
The future course of wages ... ... .. ... ... ... 51
59 Extension of cultivation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 51
60 Introduction of new crops ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 51
61 Extension of Irrigation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 51
62 Canals 51
Irrisjation works ... ... ,.. ... ... ... ... 51
The Punjab Triple Canal Project 52
Evils of Canal Irrigation ... ... ... ... .. ... 52
63 Irrigation from wells ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 54
64 Improved communication ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 54
65 Railways 54
66 Roads 55
Paraqbaph. Page.
67 Post and Telegraph 55
68 Industrial development ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 56
69 Development of trade ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 56
70 Banks 56
71 Summary of the conditions of decade ... ... ... ... ... 56
VITAL STATISTICS.
72 System of Registration ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 56
73 The accuracy of vital statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 57
74 Comparison with Census figures ... ... ... ... ... ... 57
VARIATION OF POPULATION AT THE PRESENT CENSUS.
75 Variation by Districts and States... ... ... ... ... ... 58
76 Variation in density ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 59
77 Detailed examination of results ... ... ... ... ... ... 60
Variation by age-periods ... ... ... ... ... ... 60
78 Variation by sex ... ... ... ... 60
79 Distribution of population by religion ... ... ... ... ... 60
80 Variation by Natural Divisions ... ... ... ... ... ... 61
81 Do. in Indo-Gangetic Plain West ... 61
82 Do. in Himalayan tract ... ... ... ... ... ... 62
83 Do. in the Sub-Himalayan tract ... ... ... ... ... 63
84 Do. in the North-West Dry Area 64
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.
85 Principal causes of variations ... ... ... ... " ... ... 64
86 Room for extension of population... ... ... ... ... ... 65
87 Artificial methods of keeping down the population ... ... ... 65
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
I. — Variation in relation to density since 1881 ... ... ... 66
II. — Variation in natural population ... ... ... ... ... 57
III. — Comparison with vital statistics ... ... ... ... ... 68
rV. — Variation by tahsils classified according to density ... ,., 68
V. — Capital outlay and irrigation from canals ... ... ... 69
VI. — Deaths from plague and malaria during 1901 — 1910 ... ... 69
Chapter III.— Migration.
GENERAL.
88 Reference to Statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... .._ 17Q
89 Total migration ... ... ... ... ... ... ... _ nQ
90 Nature and types of migration ... ... ... ... ... __ 72
(a) Casual ... ... ... ... ... ... ... _ _ ni
(6) Temporary ^ '" 72
(c) Periodic ... ... ... ... 70
(d) Semi-permanent ... ... ... ... ... ,.^ _ 72
(e) Permanent ... ... ... ... ... ... .^_ __ no
EXTRA-PROVINCIAL MIGRATION.
91 General remarks ... .. ... ... ... ... ... ... 73
92 Immigration from other Provinces of India ... ... ... ... 74
93 Immigration from Rajputana ... ... ... ... ... ... 74
94 Immigration from United Provinces ... ... ... ... ... 75
95 Immigration from North- West Frontier Province ... ... ... 76
96 Immigration from Kashmir and Burma ... ... ... 76
97 Immigration from Madras ... ... ... ... ... ... 76
98 Immigration from other Countries ... ... ... ... ^. 77
99 Emigration to other Provinces of India ... ... ... ... ... 77
100 Emigration to other Countries ... ... ... ... ... .,. 73
INTRA-PROVINCIAL MIGRATION.
101 Migration by Natural Divisions ... ... ... ... ... ... 73
102 Migration by Districts and States 79
103 Immigration 80
104 Emigration ... ... ... ... ... ... .,, ... 81
105 Variation in immigration ... ... ... ... ... ... 81
106 Variation in emigration ... ... ... ... ... ... g2
IMMIGRATION IN CANAL COLONIES.
107 General remarks ... ... ... 82
Pabaokaph. Page.
The Chenab Colony.
108 Detail of immigration ... ... ... ,.. ... ... ... 83
109 Immigration by castes and occupations .. ... ... ... ... 83
110 Sex proportions and age ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 85
The Jhelum Colony.
111 Immigratio n by caste and occupation ... ... ... ... ... 8-5
112 Age distribution . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 86
MISCELLANEOUS.
113 Migration between British Territory and Native States ... ... ... 87
114 Summer Census of Hill Stations ... ... ... ... ... ... 87
115 Fairs 88
116 Passengers in Railway Trains ... ... ... ... 89
SUBSIOIARY TABLES.
I. — Immigration (actual figures) ... ... ... ... ... ... 90
II. — Emigration (actual figures) ... ... ... ... ... ... 91
III. — Proportional migration to and from each district ... ... ... 92
IV. — Migration between Natural Divisions (actual figures) compared
with 1901 93
V. — Migration between the Province and other parts of India ... ... 93
Chapter IV.— Religion.
GENERAL.
117 Introduction 97
118 Meaning of figures ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 97
119 General distribution of population by religion 97
120 Local distribution ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 98
121 Variations 99
HINDUS.
122 Local distribution ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 99
123 Variations 99
True measure of decrease ... ... ... ... ... ... 100
124 Causes of decrease ... ... ... ... ... ... 101
The Hindu Religion.
125 Nature of Hinduism ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 103
126 Definition of Hindu 104
127 Derivation 105
128 Local equivalents of the term ... ... ... ... ... 105
129 Modern Hindus 106
130 Essential of Hinduism 107
131 Hindu defined 109
132 Tests prescribed by the Census Commissioner ... ... .. ... 109
1(a). Who deny the supremacy of the Brahmans ... ... ... 110
(6). Who reject the Brahmans ... ... ... ... ... 110
2. Who do not receive the mantra from a Brahman, etc. ... 110
3. Who deny the authority of the Vedas ... ... ... ... 110
4. Who (io not worship Hindu gods ... ... ... ... 110
5. Who have no good Brahmans as family priesta ... ... Ill
6. Who have no Brahman priesta at all ... ... 11]
7. Who are not allowed into Hindu temples ... ... ... Ill
8. The untouchables ... ... ... ... ... ... Ill
9. Who bury their dead ... ... ... ... ... ... Ill
10. Who do not reverence the cow... ... ... ... ... 11]
Forms of woeship.
133 General • HI
134 Daily worship ... 112
135 Occasional worship ... .. ... ... ... ... ... ... 112
136 Worship among the masses ... ... ... ... ... ... 113
137 Worsliip in low castes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 114
138 Castes oflBciating at temples ... ... ... ... ... ... 114
Devi Cults.
189 The origin of Goddess worship ... ... ... ... .. ... 114
140 The three Goddesses US
141 The worship of earth ... ... ... 116-
Pahageaph,
Pagb.
142 Descriptive
Hindu Sects.
1. Old Sects.
143
144
145
]46
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
(a) — Religiom orders.
General
Bairagi ... ... ... ... ... ...
Discipline and Initiation ...
Udasi
Sanyasi
Ceremonies of initiation
Discipline
Jogia ... ...
Gorakhpanthi
(6) — Saint worshippers.
Dadn panthis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... •
Guga Pir ... ...
Kabir panthi
Kala panthi ... ...
Nama bansi
Jr8.DllJl ■•■ ••• ••• ••• »•• ••• •«• •••
Pan] piria ...
Rai Dasia
Ram Raia ... ,.. ... ...
Sewak Darya
(c) — Orthodox Hindus.
Sanatan Dharma ...
Vaishnava and Shaiva
Theii' classification and differences
Stages of Mukti
Question 1. Can all Hindus be classified as Vaishnavas or Shaivas ?
Classification of Census figures into Vaishnavas and Shaivas
Figures of a small portion of the Lahore City
Question 2. Standards (if any) and their application
Are Vaishnavas Monotheistic ?
Continued separate existence of soul
Maya
Effect of Karma
Mukti as believed by the masses
2. Sects worshipping Muhammadan Saints.
Influence of Islam on Hinduism
Sarwaria ... .. ...
Shamsis
3. Sects of low castes.
Balmiki, Lalbegi and Balashahi
Balmiki ... ...
Origin
Lalbegis
Ram Dasias ...
4.
178
Question 3.
Question 4.
Question 6.
Question 6.
Question 7.
Reformers.
Aryas
Strength of the Sect
Activity during the past decade
Educational
Social
Philanthropic
Is the movement, social, political or religious ?
A sect or a separate religion...
Composition of Aryas
179 Brahmo Samaj
Strength of the Sect ...
Religious, soci.il, educational and philanthropic work
Composition of the Brahmos .. .
180 Dev Samaj
Teachings
Educational
Social ...
Strength
181 Nanak Panthis
116
116
117
117
117
117
119
119
119
120
120
120
121
122
122
123
123
123
124
124
124
125
125
126
126
127
128
J 28
128
1^.9
129
129
129
130
130
130
131
131
131
133
133
133
134
135
135
135
135
135
136
137
1S7
138
138
J 88
139
139
139
140
140
140
Fabaobafh.
Page.
182
Radba Swami
Strength
5. iliseellaneous.
(a) — Miscellaneotis sects.
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
203a
Baba Isa
Vam margis
Baododa
Atheist
Hem Raji
Gulab Dasi ...
Garib Dasi
Jambhaji
Jowahir Singhi
Nirankari
Ramanandi
Charandasf ...
Ghisapanthi ...
Kaladhari
Jaikishenis ...
The Parnatnis or Chhajju Panthis
Chet Raniis ...
Hussain Bhagat
(b) — Castes returned as sects.
General
Sansi
Customs of births, deaths and marriages
Bawaria
Od
204 Unspecified
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
6. Unspecified.
7. Sects analogoiis to other religions.
General
Buddhist ... ... ...
Jains
Sunnis
Keshdhari, Sahjdhari, Sikh, Mazhabi
Shcddhi.
Descriptive
Ancient usage
The new movement
Conversion and reconversion ...
Attitude of Hindus towards the converts ...
SIKHS.
Local di.-itribution ...
Variations
Meaning of the term Sikh ...
Sects of Sikhs.
Distribution...
Gobind Singhi
Hazuri
Tat Khalsa and Khalsa
The Chief Khalsa Diwan
Khalsa Diwans and Singh Sabhas ...
Knka or Namdharis
Nihang
Miscellaneons sects ...
Sects analogous to other religions
The Sikh Hindus
Conversions to Sikhism
JAINS.
Variation and local distribution ...
The Jh in religion
Jajn Sects.
Classification
General attitude of Jaina towards Hinduism
141
14!
142
142
142
142
142
143
143
148
143
143
144
144
144
144
144
144
146
146
146
147
147
147
148
148
148
148
148
148
148
148
U8-
149
151
152
152
153
154
156
156
156
156
157
157
158
158
158
158
158
158
J 59
159
159^
160
Paeaqeaph.
PAaE.
MUHAMMADANS.
231 Local distribution ...
233 Variation
The Mdhaumadak Reliqiom.
233 Islam
MOHAMMADAN SeCTS.
234 General
235 ClassiScation of Muhammadan Sects
The Shia9.
236 Sects of Shias
The Sunnis.
237 Principal Sunni sects ...
238 Miscellaneous Sunni sects
The Reformers.
2-39 General remarks
239a Waliabis or Ahl-i-Hadis
240 Ahuiadi
Strenofth
241 The Ahl-i-Quran or Chakralvi
242 Other Reformer sects
Sects analogous to other religions.
243 Sausis, etc. ...
MiSCBtLANEODS;
244 Observances of the masses
245 Popular beliefs
Piri Muridi
Saint worship ...
Charms
Hespect for trees
Belief in magic
246 Conversions
247 Composition of Muhammadans ... ... ... _ ...
248 Influence of Hinduism on the Muhammadan population
Effects on belief and festivals
Castes ...
Marriage
Inheritance
Superstitions ...
Customs of Mula Jats (Muhammadans)
Muhammadan Rajputs of Sialkot
Customs of Muhammadan Meos
CHRISTIANS.
249 Local Distribution
250 Variation
251 Race ..- ■•• ■•• ••• •••
252 'I'he Anglo-Indians
Christian Sects.
253 Classification of sects
Protestants.
254- Anglican Communion ... . . ■•. • ■■ j'; ,
255 Armenian, Greek, Quaker, Syrian, Cougregationahsfc and Luth
Baptista
256 Met'iodists ...
257 Presbyterians
258 Salvationists
259 O^her sects included under major Protestant denominations
260 Minor Protestant denominations ...
261 Unsectarlan and Unspecified Protestants
Roman Catholics.
262 Roman Catholics "••
263 Sects not returned ...
264 indefinite beliefs
265 Gulabshahi
erau
160
J6l
162
165
165
166
167
167
168
168
168
169
170
171
171
.. 171
.. 172
.. 172
.. 172
.. 17'S
.. 173
.. 173
.. 173
.. 173
.. 174
.. 174
.. 175
.. 175
176
.. 176
... 176
176
.. 177
.. J77
.. 178
.. 178
179
Mission Work.
266 General remarks
180
181
181
181
181
182
182
182
182
183
184
184
184
184
185
Pabaoraph.
Pagb.
Protestant Missions.
267 Anglican Commanion J85
The Church Missionary Society .. ... ... ... ... 185
The Moravian Mission ... ... ... ..■ ... ... 186
The S. P. G. and Cambridge Mission 186
268 Baptists 186
269 Methodists 187
270 Presbyterians 187
271 Salvation Army _ 188
Other Missionary Institutions.
272 The Young Men's Christian Association ... ... 189
273 The Young Women's Christian Association ... ... ... ... 189
274 The Indian Sunday School Union 190
275 The North India School of Medicine for Christian women 190
276 The Christian Literature Society for India 190
277 The Punjab Religious Book Society 190
278 The British and Foreign Bible Society 190
279 The National Missionary Society of India ... ... ... ... 191
Roman Catholic Mission.
280 Roman Catholics 191
Conversions.
281 Conversions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 191
OTHER RELIGIONS.
282 Buddhist 192
283 Zoroastrian 192
284 Jew 192
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
I. — General distribution of the population by religion ... ... 193
II. — Distribution by Districts of the main religions... ... ... 194
III. — Christians. Number and variations ... ... ... ,.. 195
IV. — Races and Sects of Christians (Actual numbers) ... ... 196
V. — Distribution of Christians per mille (a) Races by Sect, and
(6) Sects by Race ... ... ... ... ... ... 196
VI. — Religions of Urban and Rural Population ... ... ,.. 196
Chapter V. — Age.
GENERAL.
285 Scope of the Chapter 197
286 Accuracy of the statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 197
287 Unintentional mistakes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 197
288 Deliberate mis-statements ... ... ... ... ... 198
289 Popularity of certain age-periods ... ... ... ... ... ... 199
290 Smoothing of errors ... ... ... 199
Special age table ... 199
Provincial Bgures ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 200
DISCUSSION OF THE FIGURES.
291 General remarks ... ... ... ... 201
292 EBects of migration 201
293 A ge distribution 201
294 Variations in age distribution ... ... ... ... ... ... 202
295 Proportion of children of both sexes ... ... ... 202
296 Mean age '„ 203
297 Age distribution by castes .. . ... ... ... ... ... ... 203
VITAL STATISTICS.
298 Birth-rate 204
299 Death-rate 205
300 Births and deaths by religion ... ... ... 206
301 Births and deaths in towns 206
302 Comparison of calculated figures of births and deaths with vital statistics 207
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
I. — Age distribution of 100,000 of each sex by annual periods ... 208
II. — Age distribution of 10,000 of each sex in the Province and
each Natural Division ... ... 209
III. — Age distribution of 10,000 of each sex in each main religion... 210
lY. — Age distribution of each sex in certain castes 211
V. — Proportion of children under 10 and of persons over 60 to
those aged 15—40; and also of married females aged 15 — 40
per 100 females 212
Paragraph. Paob..
VI. ^Variation in population at certain age-periods... ... ... 213
VII. — Reported birth-rate by Sex and Natural Divisions. (For
British Territory only) ... ... ... ... ... 215
VIII. — Reported death-rate by Sex and Natural Divisions. (For
British Temtory only) ... ... .. ... ... 215
IX. — Reported death-rate by sex and age in decade and in selected
years per mil'e living at same age according to the Census
of 1901. (For British Territory only) 215
X. — Reported deaths from certain diseases per mille of each sex ... 216
Chapter VI. — Sexes.
INTRODUCTORY.
303 General remarks ... ... 217
304 Reference to statistics ... ... ... ... ... .. ... 217
PROPORTION OF SEXES.
305 Sexes in actual population .. . ... ... ... ... ... ... 217
306 Effects of migration (proportion in natural population) ... ... ... 218
307 Proportion of females in natural population by districts and states .. 219
308 Effects of climate on proportion of sexes ... ... ... ... ... 220
309 Proportion of sexes by religions ... ... ... ... 220
" " ■ 221
224
224
226
310 Proportion of sexes by castes
311 Sexes by ages
(a) General ...
(b) By castes ...
Variation in Sex Pbopoetion.
312 Actual population 227
313 Natural population 227
814 Variation by religion at different age-periods ... ... ... ... 227
315 Comparison with vital statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 228
316 .True proportion of females 230
CAUSES OF DISPARITY OF SEXES.
317 General remarks ,. ... 230
318 Causes of high mortality in females ... ... ... 230
319 Female Infanticide 230
320 Neglect of female infant life 230
321 Changes in the life of females at certain ages ... ... ... ... 232
322 Early marriage 232
323 Deaths from parturition , etc. .. ... ... ... ... ... 233
Midwifery methods ... ... ... ... ... 233
324 'I'reatment of women after child-birth ... ... ... .. ... 233
325 Compulsory widowhood ... ... ... ... ... 233
326 Modes of living and certain customs ... ... ... 234
327 Risks from abortion ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 234
328 Treatment for sterility 235
329 Causes of low female birth-rate ... ... ... ... 235
Causation of sex ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 236
330 Measures taken to secure a male birth ... ... ... ... ... 236
MISCELLANEODS.
331 Divination of sex 237
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
I, — General Proportion of the Sexes by Natural Divisions, Districts
and States ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 238
II. — Number of females per 1,000 males at different age-perioda by
religions at each of the last three Censuses .. ... 239
III. — Number of females per 1,000 male=! at different age-periods by
religions and natural divisions (Census of 1911) ... .. 240
IV. — Number of females per 1,000 males for certain selected castes 241
V. — Actual number of births and deaths reported for each sex
during the decades 1891—1900 and 1901—1910. (For
British Territory only) ... ... ... ... _._ 242
VI. — Number of deaths of each sex at different ages ... .. 242
10
PiKAORiPH. PaOK.
Appendix to Chapter VI.
NOTE ON FEMALE INFANTICIDE.
(t) History (down to the passing of Act VIII of 1870) 243
(«) Rules for the suppression of Female Infanticide (under the Act) ... 244
{til) Subsequent history ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 246
(iv) Origin ... .. ••■ ••• •■• ••• ■•■ ••• ••• 249
(v) An important cause... ... ... ... ... .•• •.• ... 250
{vi) A cause commonly ascribed ... ... ... ... ... ... 251
(vii) The present cause ... ... ... ... ... -.• ... ... 251
{viii) Examination of figures ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 251
Jullundur District —
(ix) Census figures ... ... ... ... ... ... •.• ... 251
(«) Proportion of females to male infants ... ... 252
(xi) Vital statistics... ... .. ... ... ... ... ... 253
{xii) Extent of literacy 254
Ludhiana District —
(xiii) Census figures ... ... ... .-,. ... ... ... ... 254
Ferozepore District —
(xiv) Census figures ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 255
{xv) Enquiries made about particular families... ... ... .. ... 256
[xvi) Methods of Female Infanticide ... ... ... ... ... ... 258
{xvti) Time of commission of the deed ... ... ... ... ... ... 258
{xviii) Conclusions ... ... ... ... ... .•■ ... ... ... 258
(xix) Remedies ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 259
Chapter VII.— Civil Condition.
GENERAL.
332 Reference to statistics ... ... ... 261
333 Distribution by civil condition ... ... ... ... 261
334 Universality of marriage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 261
335 Variations 262
336 Variation by religion 262
AGE OF MARRUGE.
337 Early marriage , ... 263
338 Prevalence of the custom in different religions ... ... ... ... 264
339 Work done by Reform societies ... ... ... ... 266
Mohyals 267
Dev Samaj 267
Khatri Conference ... ... ... ... ... 267
S. S. Jain Conference... ... ... ... ... ... ... 267
Brahman Sabha ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 267
Prevalent results ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 267
840 The order in which children are married ... ... ... ... ... 268
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES.
341 Marriage seasons ... ... ... ... ... 268
Months 268
Dates 269
Days 269
Nakshatras 269
Other coneiderations . ... ... ... ... ... ... :i69
342 Inauspicious times among Muhammadans ... ... ... ... 269
843 Forms of marriage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 269
Hindus 269
Prescribed by Shastras ... ... ... ... 269
Now in vogue ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 270
344 Muhammadans and Sikhs ... ... ... ... ... ... 270
Formalities before habriaoe.
345 Preliminary steps ... ... ... ... ... , ... ... 270
346 Betrothal '. ..' '.' 271
347 Breach of contract of betrothal — Muhammadans ... ... ... 271
348 Do. Do. —Hindus 5472
349 Bride-price and Bridegroom-price ... , ... 272
n
Paeagbaph. Paob.
350 Kanya Shulka or bride-price ... ... ... ... ... ... 272
351 Vara Shulka or bridegroom-price ... ... ... ... ... ... 274
352 The invitation 274
353 Superstitions 274
Maekiage customs.
354 Hindus 274
The Arya Samaj (or Vedic) marriage ... ... ... ... 276
Brahmo marriage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 276
Dev Dharam marriage ... ... ... ... ... ... 277
Others 277
355 Sikh marriage 277
The Lawan 277
Anandbani ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 278
356 Muhammadans ... ... ... ... ... ... 278
MiSCELLANKODS CeEEMONIES.
357 Chakki Chung 279
358 Maiyan, etc 279
359 VariandKhat 279
360 Chhand 279
361 SiaSupari 280
362 Ghori 280
363 Lassi Mundri or Kangna Kholna ... ... ... ... 280
364 Khadukne 280
365 Mutthi Kholna 280
366 Consummation of marriage ... ... ... ... ... ... 280
367 Repetition of marriage ceremonies ... ... ... ... ... 280
Devkaj 281
The wedding after twenty confinements ... ... ... ... 281
Widow marbiage.
368 General ... ... 281
369 Karewa 282
370 Figures of certain castes ... ... ... 282
Mock mabriaqe.
371 Classes of mock marriage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 283
372 Mock marriage of widowers ... ... ... ... ... ... 283
373 Mock marriage of girls ... ... ... ... ... 284
MISCELLANEOUS CUSTOMS.
374 Restrictions on marriage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 284
Hindus 284
Sikhs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 285
Muhammadans ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 285
375 Mother kin 285
376 Functions performed by certain kins in ceremonials ... ... ... 286
877 Marriage by service ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 286
378 Polyandry 287
379 Polygamy 289
380 Hypergamy 290
Its origin ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 290
381 Divorce 291
Hindus, Jains and Sikhs ... .^ ... ... ... ... 291
Muhammadans ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 292
382 Premarital communism ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 292
383 Freedom after marriage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ^^^3
384 Promiscuity 294
385 Influence of civilization on sexual morality ... ... ... ... 294
386 Purdah system 294
387 Circumcision 295
888 Males 296
889 Females 296
390 Reasons for the practice ... ... ... ... ... ... 297
391 Circumcision among Tibetans ... ... ... ... ... ... 297
392 Restriction on the use of the name of certain kin ... ... ... 297
BIRTH CUSTOMS.
393 Puberty ceremonies ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 297
394 Rites during pregnancy ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 298
395 Effect of Eclipses on pregnant women ... ... ... ... ... 298
12
Paeaoeaph.
Paok^
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
414
415
416
417
418
419
Prohibited foods before or after child-birth
Seclusion of women after child-birth
Customs connected with ideas of reincarnation ...
Conduct of the father at child-birth
Rites on feeding children for the first time
Superstitions regarding illness, etc., of infants ...
Purification ceremonies
Hindus ...
Muhamuiadans
Unlucky cliildren ...
Trikhal
Supernatural power of the first born
Ideas about twins ...
Disposal of the body of a child dying in infancy
Treatment of women dying in child-birth
Name-giving
Hindus ...
Nature of names
Muhammadana
Sikhs
Ear-piercing
TERMS OP RELATIONSHIP.
Terms of relationship
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
I. — Distribution by Civil Condition of 1,000 of each Sex, Religion
and main age-period at each of the last four Censuses
II. — Distribution by Civil Condition of 1,000 of each sax at certain
ages in each Religion and Natural Division ...
III. — Distribution by main age-periods and Civil Condition of 10,000
of each Sex and Religion
IV.— Proportion of the sexes by Civil Condition at certain ages for
Religions and Natural Divisions
V. — Distribution by Civil Condition of 1,000 of each sex at certain
ages for selected castes
VI. — Terms of relationship as used in different dialects of the
Punjab ...
420
421
422
423
424
Chapter VIII.— Education.
THE MEANING OF THE STATIS'HCS.
412 Reference to statistics
413 Their scope
EXTENT OF LITERACY.
General remarks
Literacy by Natural Divisions
Literacy by Districts and States ...
Cities and selected towns ...
Literacy by age
Literacy by Religion
Jains
Christians
Hindus and Sikhs
Muhammadans
Other religions...
By locality
Education by caste ...
Males ...
Females...
Agricultural tribes
Figurss for Reform societies
The Brahmos ...
The Dev Dhamiis
The Aryas
Literacy in the vernaculars
The scripts
Other vernaculars
Use of vernaculars by religions
298
298
299
299
299
300
301
301
301
301
302
302
302
302
303
303
303
304
304
305
305
306
308
309
310
310
311
315
316
316
317
817
318
818
319
319
819
319
319
319
319
320
320
3l'2
322
822
322
S2a
823
323
323
324
324
325
13
Paeagraph. Page.
425 Variation
426 Distribation by age
427 English education ...
428 By locality
429 By religion
430 By caste
431 Female education ...
432 Prejudices against female education ...
433 Kind of education needed
434 Education of depressed classes
325
326
326
327
327
327
328
329
329
331
Comparison with Previous Censdses.
435 Progress since 1881 331
436 Comparison with 1901 331
By sexes 332
437 Local variations ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 332
By Districts and States ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 332
Statistics op the Eddcation Department.
438 Primary education ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 333
439 Higher education ... ... ... ... 333
Other Statistics.
440 Books 334
441 Newspapers ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 334
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
I. — Education by age, sex and religion ... ... 336
I A. — Education by sex and religion in vernaculars ... ... ... 336
II. — Education by age, sex and locality ... ... ... ... 337
III. — Education by religion, sex and locality ... ... ... ... 338
IV. — English Education by age, sex and locality ... ... ... 339
V. — Progress of Education since 1881 ... ... 340
VI. — English Education by Caste 341
VII. — Number of Institutions and pupils according to the returns of
the Education Department ... ... ... ... ... 342
VIII. — Main results of University Examinations ... ... ... 342
IX. — Number and circulation of newspapers, etc. ... ... ... 343
X. — Number of books published in each language ... ... ... 344
Chapter IX.— Language.
GENERAL.
442 Reference to statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 345
443 Accuracy of the retiirns ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 345
LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION.
444 Classification ... ... ... ... ... ... 346
Tibeto-Chinese Family.
445 Tibeto-Chinese Family 347
446 Burma Group ... ... ... ... ... ... 347
447 Tibetan Group 347
Tibetan and Bhotia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 348
448 Pronominalized Himalayan Group ... ... ... ... ... 348
Western Sub-group ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 348
Dravidian Family.
449 Dravidian Languages ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 348
Indo-Edkopean Family, Aryan Sub-family.
450 Eranian Branch 348
(a) Baloch or Balochi 348
(h) Pashto 348
Indian Branch.
451 General remarks ... 349
452 Non-Sanskritic Sub-branch... ... ... ... ... ... ... 350
(o) Kashmiri ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 350
[h) Kobistani 360
14
Pabageaph.
453
454
Sanakritic Sab- Branch
Sanskrit ...
North-Westem Group,
Lahndi ... ••■ ••• ••• ••• •••
Local distribution
(o) Entries in sorters' tickets
Distribution according to Sir George Grierson
My proposals
Cbaracteristics of each group
Arabic words in Bar-di-boli
455
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Siadhi
Southern Group.
Eastern Group.
Western Group.
456 Marathi
457 Oriya
Bengali
Assamese ...
458 Western Hindi
459 Hindustani ...
460 Urdu
461 Other Hindi
462 Rajasthani ...
463 Gujrati
464 Panjabi
Variations
465 Standard Panjabi ...
466 Dogri
467 Western Pahari
Classification
468 I. Simla Group
1. Jaunsari...
2. Sirmauri...
3- Baghati ...
4- Kiuthali...
a- Handuri
b. Kiuthali proper
c. Simla Siraji or Eastern Kiuthali
d. Barari ...
e. Sarachali
/. Kochi
469 II. Kulu Group
1. Kuluhi
2. Kulu Siraji
3. Sadhochi
470 III. Mandi Group
a. Mandeali
b. Chhota Banghali
r. Mandi Siraji
d. Suketi ...
471 IV. Chamha Group ...
a. Gadi or Bharraauri
b. Ghameali
c. Churahi ...
d. Pangwali
e. Bhadarwahi
472 V. Others
o. Gujari ...
b. Murree Kahuta...
c. Unspecified
Northern Group.
AilZ Central Pahari
a. Garlnvali
h. Kamaoni and Nainitali
474 Eastern Pahari
Naipali
Paqe.
350
350
350
351
351
351
352
353
353
353
354
354
354
354
354
354
354
355
356
356
356
356
357
358
358
358
359
359
359
359
359
359
359
359
359
360
360
360
360
360
360
360
360
360
360
360
360
360
360
360
360
360
360
361
361
361
361
361
361
361
361
15
Pabaqrafh.
Page.
Unspecified Gipst LANonAOEs.
475 General remarks
476 The Census figures ...
477 Labani, Labanki or Banjari
478 Bawari
479 Changri
480 Giddarki
481 Odki
482 Gandliili
483 Sansia
484 Language of European gipsies
485 Asiatic
486 European
Other Languages,
MISCELLANEOUS.
487 Urdu-Hindi-Panjabi controversy ...
488 Displacement of languages
489 Mutual intelligibility of the vernaculars ...
490 Literary activity
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
I. — Distribution of total Population by language — According to
Census
II. — Distribution by language of the Population of each district ...
III. — Comparison of caste and language tables
361
362
362
362
363
368
364
364
364
364
365
365
366
366
367
367
368
370
370
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
618
514
515
516
517
618
519
520
Chapter X.— Infirmities.
GENERAL.
Reference to Statistics
Scope of figures
Accuracy of figures
Comparison with the previous Censuses ...
INSANITY.
Variation
Local distribution ..
Insanity by castes ..
Causes
The Lunatic Asylum
DEAF-MUTISM.
500 Variation
501 Local distribution ...
502 Deaf-mutism by caste
503 Causes
BLINDNESS.
Variation
Variation by age
Local distribution
Blindness by caste
Causea
LEPROSY.
Variation
Local distribution
Infirmity by caste ...
Causes
Leper Asylums
Sabathu Asylum (Simla District) ...
Ambala Asylum
Dharamsala Asylum (Kangra District)
Rawalpindi Asylum
Bawa Lakhan A.sylum (Sialkot) ...
Tarn Taran Asylum (Amritsar) ...
Cham ba Leper Asylum
371
371
371
372
372
373
373
374
375
375
376
377
377
378
380
380
381
381
38V
382
383
383
388
8S3
384
384
384
385
385
385.
16
Paragraph.
521 Shrines and sacred places resorted to by Lepers ... ...
522 Shrine of Miana Mohra (Jhelum District)
523 Shrine of Daud .Jahanian ...
524 Shrine of Zinda Pir (Dera Ghazi Klian)
525 Sakhi Sarwar (Dera Ghazi Khan)
526 Pehowa
627 Tarn Taran and Guru Sarsatlani
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
I. — Number afiBicted per 100,000 of the population at each of the
last four Censuses
II. — Distribution of the infirm by age per 10,000 of each sex
III. — Number afflicted per 100,000 persons of each age-period and
number of females afflicted per 1,0G0 males
IV. — Number afflicted per 100,000 persons of each Caste and number
of females afflicted per 1,000 males
Chapter XL— Caste.
GENERAL.
528 Reference to statistics
529 Accuracy of the returns
CLASSIFICATION OF CASTES.
530 By status
631 By traditional occupation ...
Landholders
Cultivators
Cultivators and cattle rearers
^ Graziers and dairy men
Fishermen, boatmen, etc.
Hunters and fowlers ...
Extraction of minerals
Barbers
Washermen
Weavers and carders ...
Dyers ...
Tailors ...
Carpenters
Blacksmiths
Masons ...
Potters ...
Glass and Lac workers
Gold and Silversmiths...
Brass and Coppersmiths
Confectioners and grain parchers
Oil pressers
Distillers
Butchers
Leather workers
Chamars and Mochis
Chanals
K batiks and Pasis
Dabgars ...
Basket makers and mat makers
Changars
Scavenpers
Chuhras ...
Jlusallis ...
Dhanaks and Dagi-Kolis
Traders and peddlers . . . ■
Traders
Peddlers ...
Carriers by pack animals
Banjaras ...
Hahbaris ...
'Hioris
Priests and devotees
Bards
Astrologers
Pagk.
385
386
386
386
386
386
386
387
38y
389
390
393
393
395
395
395
396
396
396
396
396
396
397
397
397
397
397
397
397
397
397
397
397
397
397
398
398
398
398
398
398
.398
398
398
398
398
398
398
398
m
398
3i>8
398
398
398
398
398
398
398
17
■Paraobaph. Page.
Writers 399
Singers and dancers ... ... ... ... ,.. ... ... .S99
Hababi, etc. 399
Kanchans ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 399
Hesi 399
Mymists 399
'Acrobats ... 399
Labourers ... ... .,, ... ... ... ... 399
Uomeatic servants ... ... ... ... ... ... 399
Others 399
THE CASTE SYSTEM.
532 Preliminary 399
Origin of caste.
533 Chances of error in applying^ facts ... ... ... ... ... 399
534 Confusion about meaning of terms .. ... ... ... ... 400
^35 Definition 401
536 Origin 402
537 Varna 403
.538 Racial 404
539 Functional 406
540 Is tribe prior to caste or OTce ■yersa ... ... ... ... ... 407
541 Was caste convertible in the earliest days ... ... ... ... 407
542 Development of caste ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 407
543 The present condition ... ... ... ... ... ... .., 408
Caste kules anp restrictions.
5i4 General remarks ... ... ... ... ... .. ... ... 409
546 Muriiage 410
Widow marriage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 410
Early marriage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 410
Expenditure on marriage ... ... ... ... ... ... 410
546 Occupation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 410
Poaching on the preserve of other members of the Caste ... ... 4!0
547 Interdining ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 411
Hukka pani ... ... — ... ... ... ... ... 4J 1
Pakka food ... ... ... ... ... ... 412
Pollution by touch or proximity ... ... ... ... ... 413
Meat eating ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 413
Fish 413
548 The sacred thread 413
549 TheShikha 414
550 Initiation by the Guru ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 414
Caste Government.
551 General ... ... ... ... ... ... 415
552 Classes of Panchayats ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4l5
553 Castes which, have governing bodies ... ... ... ... ... 416
554 The unit represented by the Panchayat ... ... ... ... ... 417
555 Castes having a standing committee ... ... ... ... ... 418
556 Methods of appointment ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 418
557 Number of members ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 418
558 Jurisdiction ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 419
559 Matters dealt with by Panchayats ... ... ... ... ... 420
560 Institution of proceedings ... ... .. ... ... ... ... 422
561 Advice ol Mrahmans (priests) ... ... ... .. ... ... 422
562 Convening a Panchayat ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 422
563 Matters regulating the sentence ... ... ... ... ... ... 423
.564 The nature of punishment awarded ... ... ... .. ... 423
565 Treatment of contumacious offenders ... ... ... ... ... 424
666 Disposal of fines ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... 425
567 Castes which have no standing committees ... ... ... ... 425
Step taken by them for breaches of rules ... ... ... 425
Their control ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 425
568 Caste Panchayats and trade guilds ... ... ... ... ... 425
Constitution of trade guild ... ... ... ... ... ... 426
Powers of trade guild ... ... ... ... ... ... 426
569 Sabhas, Conferences, etc. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 426
570 Connection of the King with the Caste System 427
18
FABAaBAPH. ■^ ^<'^*
Caste and Sbb-caste.
571 Origin of Sub-castes 428
572 Gotras 429
573 Residence in a locality ... ..- ... ... ... .. ••• 430
574 Occupation 430
575 Variation in social practices ... ... ... ... ... ... 431
576 Status ' 432
577 Change of language ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 432
578 Divergence of religious views ... ... ... ... ... ... 432
579 Accretions by degradation ... ... ... ... ... ... 433
580 Association ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4'63
581 Intermarriage and commensality betweeu Sub-castes ... ... ... 433
582 Organization ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 434
583 Tribe and Clan 434
584 Functional Castes and Sub-castes ... ... ... ... ... 4S4
685 New Castes ... ... ... ... ... ... 435
58(5 Caste among Mubammadans ... ... ... ... ... ... 435
587 Castes of Indian Christians 436
DISTRIBUTION BY CASTE.
588 Local distribution ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 437
Jat 437
Rajput 437
Chamar ,. 438
Brahman ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 438
Arain ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 438
Chuhra 439
Castes confined to certain localities ... ... ... ... ... 439
589 Comparison with 1901 440
RACE.
590 Race 44!
591 Blue patches... ... ... ... ... ... ... 442
692 Melanoglossia 443
593 The Mendelian law 444
THE ETHNOGRAPHIC GLOSSARY OF CASTES.
594 Glossary 444
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
I.— Castes classified according to their traditional occupations ... 477
11. — Variation in caste, tribe, since 1881 ... ... ... 478
III.— Instances of sub-castes of different types ... ... ... 479
IV. — List of pigmented tongues examined at the Hospitals ... 482
V. — List of pigmented tongues examined at the Jails ... ... 483
VI. — Traceable caste names of the Smritis ... ... ... ... 483
Chapter XII. — Occupation.
INTRODUCTORY.
595 Reference to statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 486
596 The classification scheme ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 486
597 The accuracy of the statistics ... ... ... ... ... ... 487
DISCUSSION OF THE STATISTICS.
598 Preliminary Remarks ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 491
FaNCTIONAL DISTBIBUTION OP THE PEOPLE.
599 General distribution by classes and sub-classes ... ... ... 492
Sub-class I. — Exploitation of the surface of the earth.
600 Pasture and Agriculture (Order 1) ... ... ... ... ... 493
Ajjriculturo Groups (1 — 6) ... ... ... ... ... ... 493
Rent-payers ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ,., 494
Kent-receivers ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 494
Others ... ... ... ... 494
Estimate of the dependence of population on agriculture 495
Pasture (Groups 9 — L2) 495
601 Fishing and Hunting (Order 2) " 496
Fi^iung .;." ■;,' ;;; 495
19
Pabaqeafh. Page.
Sub-class II. — Extraction of Minerals.
602 Mines (Order 3j 497
Coal mines (Group l6) ... ... ... ... ... ... 497
603 Quarries of hard rocks (Group 18) ... ... ... ... ... 497
604 Co-Jimon salt (Group 19) 498
605 Extraction of saltpetre, alum, etc. (Group 20) ... ... 498
Svh-dass III. — Industry.
606 The recerit Industrial Survey ... ... ... ... ... ... 493
607 Textiles (Order 6) '. .".'.' '"* 493
608 Cotton ginning, cleaning and pressing (Group 21) ... ... ... 498
609 Cotton spuming, sizing and weaving (Group 22) ... ... ... ... 499
610 The cotton factories ... ... ... 499
611 Jute (Groups 23 and 24) ^ 5OO
61-2 Other fibres (Group 25) ... ... 5OO
613 Wool (Group 26) , .' 500
614 Silk (Group 27) ] ... 501
615 Other lace, crape, embroiilery, etc. (Group 31) ... ... ... ... 501
616 Hides, skins, etc. (Order 7) ... ... ... ... ... ... 502
Tanners, etc. (Groups 32 and 33) ... ... ... ... ... 50^
617 Wood (Order 8) ".'* '.".| 502
618 Sawyers, carpenters and joiners (Group 36) ... ... ... ... 502
619 Basket makers, etc. (Group 37) ... ... ... ... ... 503
620 Metals (Order 9) .' ". '.'' 503
Iron (Groups 38 — 41) 50,3
Brass, copper and bell metal (Group 42) ... ... ... ... 504
621 Ceramics (Order 10) 504
Glass (Group 45) 5O4
622 Potters, etc. (Group 47) ■ 604
623 Brick and tile makers (Group 48) 505
624 Chemical products (Order 11) 505
Manufacture of vegetable oil (Group 53) ... ... ... ... 50o
625 Food industries (Order 12) 506
Rice pounders and buskers and flour grinders (Group 56) 506
626 Bakers and biscuit makers (Group 57) ... ... ... ... ... 506
627 Other food industries (Groups 58 — 66) 506-
628 Industries of dress and the toilet (Order 13) ... 507
Tailors, etc. (Group 68) ,.. 507
Shoes, boots and sandal makers (Group 69) ... ... ... ... 507
Other industries pertaining to dress (Group 70) ... ... ... 507
Washing, cl-^aning and dyeing (Group 71) ... ... ... ... 507
Barbers (Group 72) 5OS
829 Furniture industries (Order 14) ... 5U8-
Cabinet makers, etc. (Group 74) ... ... ... ... ... 508
Tent makers, etc. (Group 75) 508
630 Building industries (Order 15) 508
Lime burners, cement workers ^Group 76) ... ... ... ... 508
Stone and marble workers, masons and bricklayers (Group 78) ... 508
Others (Group 79) 508
631 Construction of means of Transport (Order 16) ... ... 538
632 Production and transmission of physical force (Order 17) ... ... 508
633 Industries of luxury and those pertaining to Literature, etc. (Order 18) 509
Printers, etc, (Group 84) ... ... ... ... ... ... 509
Newspaper and magazine managers and editors, etc. (ciroup 85) ... 509
Makers of musical instruments (Group 87) ... 509
Workers in precious stones and metals, etc. (Group 89) ... ... 509
Others 510
634 Sweepers, scavengers, etc (Order 19) ... 510
Suh-class IV. — Transport.
635 Transport by water (Order 20) 510'
Persons employed on the maintenance of rivers and canals, etc.
(Group 96) 520
Boat owners, boatmen, etc. (Group 97} ... ... ... ... 510
636 Transport by road (Order 21) 5IO
637 Transport, by rail (Order 22) .. 5II
Railway employes of all kinds other than construction coolies
(Group 103) 511
Labourers employed on railway construction (Group 104) ... 514
638 Post office. Telegraph and Telephone Services (Order 23) 514
20
FaEAOBJlPH.
Sub- class V. — Trade.
639 Bank managers, money lenders, etc. (Order 24)
640 Brokers, etc. (Order 25) ...
641 Trade in piece-goods, etc. (Order 26)
ft42 Trade in skins, etc. (Order 27)
643 Trade in metals (Order 29)
644 Trade in pottery (Order .30)
645 Other trade in food stuffs (Order S3)
Fish dealers (Group 116)
Vegetable, fruit, and betel leaf, etc., seller.s (Group 120) ...
Grain and pulse dealers (Group 121)
Tobacco, opium, ganja, etc., sellers (Group 122) ...
Dealers in sheep, goats and pigs (Group 123)
646 Trade in ready made clothing, etc. (Order 34)
647 Trade in articles of luxury, etc. (Order 89)
648 Tradti of other sorts (Order 41)
Shopkeepers otherwise unspecified (Group 135)
Sub-clasfi VI. — Publir. Force.
649 Army (Order 42)
Imperial Army (Group 139)
Army, Native btates (Group 140)
650 Police (Order 44)
Police (Group 142)
Village watchmen (Group 143) ...
• Sub-classVII. — Public Administration-
651 Public Administration (Order 45) i..
Service of the State (Group 144)
Service of the Native and Foreign States (Group 145) (Group 145 a)
Municipal and other local services and village officials, etc., other
than watchmen (Groups 146 & 147)
Sub-class VIII. — Professions and Liberal Arts.
652 Religion (Order 46)
653 Law (Order 47)
654 Medicine (Order 48)
655 Ihstruction (Order 49)
Professors and teachers, etc. (Group 156)
656 Letters, Arts and Sciences (Order 50)
Sub-class IX. — Persons living on their own income.
657 Persons living on their own income
Sub-class X. — Domestic service.
658 Domestic service
Sub-class XI. — Insufficiently described occupations.
659 Insufficiently described occupations
Sub-class XII. — Unproductive.
660 Inmates of Jails, Asylums and Hospitals (Order 54)
Jail industries ..
661 Beggars, vagrants, prostitutes, etc. (Order 55) ...
Local DisTRrBUTioK.
662 Distribution by Natural Divisions
663 Distriliution by Religion
'Occupations by religion
664 Distribution by castp
Adherence to traditional occupation
665 Professions adopted
666 Selected occupations by caste
667 Castes filling high Governujent appointments
668 Share of castes in Industrial develo(>ment
669 Castes of prisoners ...
•670 Wealth of castes '. '" ' .".
Page.
514
514
515
515
515
515
515
515
515
516
516
516
516
516
516
516
516
516
517
517
517
517
517
517
517
518
518
518
518
519
519
519
519
519
519
519
520
520
521
.521
522
522
522
523
524
524
525
526
527
21
Paeaqbaph.
Paqk^
Miscellaneous,
671 Urban and rural occupations ... ... ... ... ... ... 528
Urban occupations ... ... ... ... ... • ... ... 528
Rural occupations ... ... ... ... ... ,.. ... 528
672 Workers and dependants ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 529
673 Occupations of females ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 530
By locality 531
Females and children working in factories ... ... ... ... 531
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
1. — General distribution by occupation ... ... ... ... 532
II. — Distribution by occupation in Natural Divisions ... ... 534
[II. — Distribution of the au;ricultural, industrial, commercial and
professional population in Natural Divisions and Districts 535
IV. — Occupations combin=!d with agriculture (where agriculture is
the subsidiary occupation) . ... ... ... ... 536
V. — Occupations combined with agriculture (where agriculture is
the principal occupation) ... ... ... ... ... 536
VI. — Occupations of females by sub-classes and .^elected orders and
groups ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 537
VII.— Selected occupations 1911 and 1901 539
VIII. — Occupations of selected castes ... ... ... ... ... 542
IX. — Distribution by religion ... ... ... ... ... 548
X. — Number of persons employed on the 10th March on Railways
and in the Irrigation, Post Office and Telegraph Departments 552
XI. — Distribution of prisoners by Religion and Caste ... ... 552
XII. — Distribution of Income-tax assessees by caste (for the year
1910-11) ... , 55$
INTRODUCTION.
Besides discussing the Census figures, I have, in this Report, tried to give Preface.
a certain amount of information called for by the Census Commissioner, and
ventured instead of treading the beaten track and repeating the standard views,
to present the opinions of the more reserved sections of the people on
questions -which have formed the subject of most learned discussions by eminent
scientists of the day. Persons holding such opinions are retiring by nature,
and generally lack the advantage of comparative study, without which they
are not in a position to combat the established conclusions of the Scientific world.
In attempting this pi'esentation, I have been handicapped in more ways than
one, and fully realize that I could not be equal to the task without a great deal
of research. The desire by which I have been actuated is to place on record
facts and views which might open new lines of investigation.
I have to apologise for outspokenness in describing facts concerning
different religions and persuasions and the customs of various sections of
Indian Society.
The publication of this Report has been delayed much longer than I
expected. To bej^in with, owing to a change in my staff which unfortunately
occurred at a critical time, I had to give all my time to the compilation of
statistics for close on a year after the Census ; and when I started writing the
Report, I found that the piles of notes which I had collected, required a good
deal of further enquiry and sifting before the sections to which they related could
be completed. The usual administrative diflBculties in seeing a large publication
through the Press were also not wanting.
In a work like this, it is impossible to claim absolute accuracy of statistics,
but I have tried all I could to make the tables as correct as practicable.
An accoant of the previous Censuses is given in paragraphs 45 and 46 of Past and pro.
1st January 1855. the Report. The dates are noted in the margin. The Census sentCensuses.
17th p^b"^"^^ ' 1881 of 1881 was however the first one held systematically, and
26th February i89i! since then, Ceusus Operations have been undertaken regularly
let March 1901. every ten years. The figures dealt with in this Report have
been obtained at the fourth regular Census, taken on the night between the 10th
and 11th of March 1911.
The changes, external and internal, which have taken place since 1901 Changes in
in the area dealt with have been described in paragraphs 1 and 2 of the Report. ^H^^ ^^^^
The external changes are of no importance, for with the separation of the
North West Frontier Province, the boundaries of the Punjab have for all
practical purposes, been permanently fixed on all sides.
No change has been made, since 1901, in the method of Enumeration. Procedure
Detailed notes regarding the procedure adopted, the difficulties encountered and j^^'®*! J"*"
suggestions for the future have been given in the Administration Volume. But Census,
thtit Volume being intended for local and departmental use, will not be available
for reference to many readers of this part of the Report. A very brief
description of the various stages of the operations is therefore noted in the
following paragraphs.
The Census operations commenced on the 9th April 1910, when I took Commence,
over charge of my duties. The organization was taken in hand immediately ope"/ations'*
but for want of previous records great difficulty was experienced in the initial
stages.
The first throe Chapters of the Provincial Code were issued to all Districts code and in-
and States by the middle of May, with a Circular containing a brief survey of all f;;;;;^,J;°°^/„°''
the stages of the work. This enabled the commencement of preliminary opera-
tions throughout the Province. The complete final print of Part I of tte Code
relating to Enumeration was distributed in July.
The first step taken by the local officers was to prepare the General census dm-
Village and Town Registers, showing, in rural tracts, the number of villages, etc., ^"'°"
in each Tahsil, and in urban areas, the Administrative Divisions of towns,
together with the approximate number of houses in each unit. Sketch maos of
u
Census Report, ]
INTfiODOCTION.
Census
Agency.
HoQse-
munbeniig.
Training of
Census Staff.
Preliminary
Enumeration.
Final Census.
villages and towns were then prepared and with their help, the houses were
grouped roughly into Blocks, tlie Blocks arranged in Circles and the Circles in
larger Administrative Divisions called Charges. The size of these Divisions varied
from place to place accoiding to local conditions. The Charges and Circles cor-
responded with some Administrative Division.
The Block was in charge of an Enumerator, while the persons responsible
for the work of Circles and Charges were called Supervisor and Charge Superin-
tendent, respectively. In British Territory, the Deputy Commissioner or Settle-
ment OflBcer supervised the work of the whole District, assisted by a gazetted
oflBcer who was called the District Census officer was specially told off to look
after the Census operations. Each Native State appointed a Census
Superintendent for ihe organizaticin and control of Census operations in that
State.
Altogether 854 Charge Superintendents, 13,171 Supervisors and 155,772
Enumerators conducted the Final Enumeration of over 24 million souls. The
bulk of the Charge Superintendents and Supervisors came from the official class,
while most of the Enumerators were non-officials. AU Census officers from the
Charge Superintendents down to the Enumerators were individually appointed
under the Census Act, thus giving each, the status of a public servant.
After the preliminary steps had been taken, the actual operations began
with hoiise-numbering and the preparation of house lists. The houses were counted
and numbers were painted in red in some conspicuous place on the door post or
the house wall. This work was done between the 15th September and 15th
November, 1910. When nil the houses had been numbered, the limits of Blocks,
etc., were finally determined and Enumerators were appointed to particular Blocks.
Detailed instructions for Charge Superintendents and Supervisors were
issued separately in the form of a pamphlet, while those necessary for the
Enumerators were printed on the Cover of the Enumeration book. The
training for the preparation of the Census record commenced in December, when
the District Census Officers collected the Charge Superintendents at the head-
quarters of each Tahsil or some other convenient place, and explained to them
the instructions for filling up the Schedules by making a few specimen entries in
their presence and causing each of them to fill up a Schedule. The Charge Superin-
tendents then adopted the same procedure with their Supervisors, who in turn
trained their Enumerators.
The Enumeration Book consisted of : —
(1) The Cover, on which had been printed the instructions to Enu-
merators for filling up the Schedules ;
(2) The Block list, showing the houses in each Block, and
(3) The General Schedules intended for the entries relating to the
person enumerated.
The Block list was a copy of as much of the House list for the village or
town as related to the block and was prefixed to the Schedules, to serve as an
index. It was prepared by the Enumerator or the Supervisor, when he himself
wrote up the Preliminary Record for all his Enumerators. With a view to
reduce the amount of writing, on the Final Census night, to a minimum, the
Preliminary Enumeration, i.e., the filling up of the Schedules began on the 1st
of February in the rural tracts, and on the 15th idem in towns. From the
commencement of the Preliminary Enumeration till the 10th of March, the closest
supervision was exercised by the Charge Superintendents and Supervisors. The
District Census Officers and other officials who could be spared for the work
checked most of the entries made by the Enumerators, while 1 myself arranged
to tour round the whole Province in the course of the Preliminary Enumeration
sending for and examining some of the books under preparation, in such Districts
and States ns I could not visit. This Preliminary record was completed everv-
where in good time.
The Final Census was taken on the night following the 10th Alarch.
The process consisted of correcting the record of the PreHminary Enu-
meration by scoring through the entries relating to persons who had died or
left the place since the preparation of the Preliminary Record, and entering the
I
ni
INTRODUCTION. [ Punjab, 1911.
necessary particulars for newly-born children and new comers, so as to make it
correspond witli the state of facts actually existing on that night.
Some of the tracts in the Upper Himalayas, lying beyond the passes Non-synchro-
which are blocked by snow iu or after December, become inaccessible in March. °°"^ ''■*"'••
Special arrangements had to be made to take the Census of these areas before
the closing of the passes. The Enumeration was, however, done as late as
possible, in order to minimise the chances of
'^""Bar^'BhangaT ■),-, c . migration. The names of the non-synchron-
Lahiii f °i9io. ®P®'°®'' ous tracts and the dates on which their Census
ChamlTstate :- was taken, are giveti in the margin. The popu-
Pangi -jiath September lation dealt with in these tracts was 43,883
Chamba Lahnl > 1910. j •. j ii j. c ^i
jBaskahr State:— ^nd it was arranged that any ot the persons
Chini ]^^*,„ December enumerated there who wished to come across
Dodra Koar j 1910. , i r xi c ii i j
the passes betore they were nnally closed
should be given an Enumeration pass, with a view to prevent his being
counted twice over. There were also a few ti'acts, which were accessible in
March, but where, owing to heavy snow, inclemency of weather or fear of wild
beasts, it was not possible to carry out the Final Enumeration on the night of
the 10th March. Thus in the Gurgaon District, a small jungle tract haunted by a
tiger was considered unsafe for a nocturnal visit, while the hilly tracts of Morni
(Ambala), Sowar and Kohad Kothis (Kangra), the Biioch i?-a?is- Frontier (Dera
Ghazi Khan) and a part of Bharmaur (Ctiamba) were not fit to be negotiated at
night, [n the last mentioned area, the Final Census was taken on the morning
of the 11th March, while the inhabitants of the other tracts were enumerated
before sunset on the 10th idem.
To avoid the difficulty of Indian Enumerators, unfamiliar with English Household
terms, having to prepare an Enumeration Record in that language, the European schedules.
and Anglo-Indian residents, living in isolated bungalows, were supplied with
special forms called the Household Schedules, in which they were requested to
enter the particulars relating to the members of each household. Brief instructions
for filling up each column of the form had been printed thereon together with a
Specimen Schedule. These Household Schedules were written up on the night
of the 10th and collected by the Enumeration staff on the morning of the 11th.
The arrangement however caused much trouble and delay. On the other hand,
an experiment of having the European and Anglo-Indian population enumerated
on ordinary schedules by European Enumerators, tried in some of the Railway
settlements, proved a great success.
Besides the people found at their homes, there must always be, on any Special
given night, a fairly large number of persons on the move, travelling by rail, fo^ ^ffi^^^
river or road, graziers tending their herds or flocks in the jungles, wood-cutters boats, fairs, '
felling or sawing trees in the forests, ofiicers making their inspection tours, troops ®^°-
on march and merry-making people attending fairs or on their way to join them.
Special arrangements were made for the enumeration of such population, and to
prevent the double enumeration of travellers, Enumeration passes were issued to
them wherever they happened to be finally enumerated. The Census of travellers
by rail was a task of some magnitude and required special attention. But owing to
the hearty co-operation of the Railway authorities, to whom I am greatly indebted,
the arrangements worked faultlessly and I have not heard of a single traveller by
rail having escaped enumeration. The secret of success however, lay in the detail-
ed 'organization of the preliminary arrangements and the thoroughness of the
precautions taken to meet all possible contingencies on the Final Census night.
Every booking station was provided with an Enumeration staff large enough to deal
with the maximum number of the incoming or outgoing passengers, with reference
to an estimate based on figures of the preceding week and the corresponding date
of the previous year, but to provide for cases in which large batches of intending
passengers might turn up too late to be enumerated at the Station, an empty third
class carriage was attached to every passenger train running on that night. All
incoming passengers who could not be enumerated at the Station of booking
were, instead of being detained for the next train, placed in the empty carriage
and the record relating to them was prepared by the train Supervisor and his
Enumerators before the arrival of the train at the next station, where they
IV
Census Report, ] intboduction.
were allowed to go to otber carriages with their Enumeration passes, and fresh
batches, if any, were taken in. Meanwhile some of the Train Enumerators
went from carriage to carriage, preparing the Enumeration Record of the third
class passengers and issuing passes. Household Schedules were handed by the
guard to First and Second class passengers. At or about 6 o'clock on the
morning of the 11th, every train was finally enumerated at whichever station it
happened to halt and any passenger who did not possess an Enumeration
pass was brought on the record. The Household Schedules were also collected,
but most of the work having already been done, it was not necessary to detain
the train for long.
On the other hand all passengers alighting at the stations were enumerat-
ed and given passes if they had not been previously enumerated. To facilitate
station Enumeration at large stations, gangs of Enumerators were sent out to
board the trains which were timed to arrive shortly after 7 p.m., and enumerate
as many of the passengers holding tickets for that station, as they could, an
arrangement which minimised the detention of the passengers at the stations where
they alighted. In this manner, every passenger entering or leaving a train between
the hours of 7 i'.m. on the 10th and 6 a.m. on the 11th of March was enumerated
by the Station or Train Enumerators, (unless he possessed a pass showing that he
had already been enumerated) without the least inconvenience to travellers,
or dislocation of Railway Traffic.
To guard against the issue of passes without corresponding entries in the
Enumeration books passes in booklets -with counterfoils were supplied, po that
on receiving the Enumeration Record from the Enumerators the Station Alasters
were able to compare the number of passes issued with the number of entries in
the Enumeration book.
ProTisionai After the Final Census was over, i. e. on the morning of the 11th, each
Total. Enumerator totalled up the entries in his book and having noted the population
of his Block by sexes and the total number of occupied houses, in an Abstract,
handed it over to his Supervisor. The Supervisors, in their turn, prepared
Circle Summaries from these Abstracts and sent them to the Charge Superinten-
dents, who similarly compiled totals for the Charges and submitted their Summaries
to the head-quarters of the Tahsil or to some other place previously arranged for
the purpose of collecting the Provisional totals. The figures eventually reached the
hands of the District Census Officer who compiled the Provisional Totals for the
district. These results wei'e wired, simultaneously, to me and the Census Commis-
sioner. The Census officers vied with each other in completing this stage of the
operations as speedily and accurately as possible, for the success of the arrange-
ments made for the collection of Provisional Totals had to be judged by the
promptitude with which the totals could be wired. In some places the District
Census Officers commenced the totalling at midnight, i. e., immediately after the
Census was completed in towns and villages, and the first total was wired to me
at 6 P.M. on the 11th March, while the hist was received at 5-45 p.m. on the
16th. The Provisional Totals of the Province were telegraphed to the Census
Commissioner 45 minutes after the receipt of the figures for the last district. It
is really wonderful how the District Officers and the Census Superintendents of the
Native States were able to collect their totals within 6 days from the more remote
areas which are not served by Railway or Telegraph, and are in many cases
separated from the head-quarters by rivers, hill streams, snow-clad hills and rough
country, traversable only on foot. The difficulties were greatly accentuated by
the heavy rainfall of the Census night and the snow and floods in the hills which
succeeded it, causing land-slips, blocking the roads and absolutely cutting off
communication for days together. Notwithstanding the celerity with which the
Provisional Totals were sent in, they varied from the Final figures by
only "06 per cent. Out of 49 units, the provisional and final figures were
identical in 8, and in 8 more the actual difference was less than 10.
Tabulation of '^'^^ next stage of the operations was the preparation of Sorting Slips from
iMults. the Enumeration Schedules. This work had been done in 1901 at the Central
Abstraction Offices. But I arranged to have the Slip Copying work done at the
Tahsil head-quarters, by the Patwaris who had acted as Supervisors and had
prepared the Prehminary Record of the greater pait of the rural tracts. This
V/
INTEODUCTION. [ Punjab. 1911.
plan secured the double advantage of reliability of the staff and their intimate
acquaintance "witli the entries, enabling the work to be done quickly under
the supervision of the local oflBcers. The Patwaris and Kanungos, therefore,
hastened to the Tahsil head-quarters as soon as they had despatched the Provisional
Totals. The work of Shp Copying wati commenced on the 12th and in most
places was finished between the 13th and 20th, i. e., within a week, and with the
exception of the cities, a few towns and one district, the entire work was com-
pleted within a fortnight. In tha case of the Native States, the Census Superin-
tendents were left to arrange for the work as they thought fit.
The entries relating to each person were copied on a slip measuring
4^" X 2". The rehgion was indicated by the colour of the paper, while the civil
condition was exhibited by different symbols printed on the slips. The other
entries in the Schedules were copied in columns provided for the purpose.
No allowance was paid to the Patwaris or Kanungos for this work, but
the Municipalities of the Cities and larger towns had to engage paid copyists.
Most of the Tahsils having finished their Slip Copying by the 20th March Sorting,
1912, the next stage of work, viz., Sorting, was taken up about the end of March.
I had four Sorting Ofiices at Karnal, Ludhiana, Lahore and Multan, with an
Extra Assistant Commissioner, called the Deputy Superintendent, in charge of
each. The ofiBces were opened a few days before the Final Enumeration and
while Slip Copying was in progi'ess in the districts and states, the Deputy Superin-
tendents went round and checked the work in the units of which the Slips were
eventually to be sorted at then' respective Centres. Meanwhile the Sorting
eetabhshment was being recruited, and by the time the Tahsildars had sent their
slips to the Sorting centres, the offices htid been organized. The work at each
Centre commenced towards the end of March and was finished by the end of
June, 19 11, i.e., in a httle over three months. Each of these offices had 200 to
300 Sorters controlled by Supervisors and Inspectors who had been selected
from among Kanungos and Naib Tahsildar candidates of the districts and settle-
ments. The Sorters prepared the Sorters' tickets for the various Tables for
each box of slips, and these tickets were, after check and scrutiny, sent in to
Lahore.
The entries in the Sorters' tickets had to be compiled into district totals, Compilation,
for the preparation of the Tables. This stage of the operations was called Com-
pilation, and the work was done in a section of my own office under the supervi-
sion of another Extra Assistant Commissioner, who as my Personal Assistant,
was given a number of Inspectors and Compilers. The Deputy Superin-
tendents sent in the Sorters' Tickets relating to each Table as soon as they were
ready. In the Compilation office they were posted in the Compilation Registers
and a gang of intelligent compilers was told off to tabulate the results into the
form of Imperial and Provincial Tables. The details of the arrangements have
been noted in the Administrative Volume. The Imperial and Provincial Tables
were printed off by the end of August 1912 and Part II (Tables) of the Report
was issued on the 4th of the next month. But tue preparation of the Ap-
pendix to Table XIII (Sub-castes) which entailed an enormous amount of
labour and in the printing of which the Press ran short of type, delayed the issue
of Part III (Appendices to the Imperial Tables) of the Report till the 11th
December 1912.
The Census of this Province has cost Government Rs. 1,23,907-1-9 ?.<.,, Cost of
Rs. 5-1-11 per 1,000 of the total population of the Province, or rather less than ^*"^"*'
1 pie per head, compared with Rs. 7-3-0 per 1,000 persons in 1901, notwith-
standing that — 1. a good deal more had to be done in Sorting and Compilation,
in connection with the preparation of Imperial Tables VI A, IX, XI A, XII A,
XV B, 0, D and E, XVI, XVI A, Appendices to Tables VIII, IX, XIII and XIV,
and Provincial Tables I and II, which had not been attempted in 1901, — 2. the
printing work had increased considerably i.e., to the extent of Part III (Appen-
dices) and IV (Administrative Volume) of the Report, besides which the matter in
Parts I and 11 was larger,— 3. the Report had to be printed at a private Press,
naturally at a much larger cost than at a Government Press, as was done last
time and— 4. the marked rise in prices and wages, compared with the previous
decade have likewise influenced the cost.
VI
Census Report, ] intboduction.
The figures noted above include about Rs. 5,000 on account of the cost of
Tabulation of Results for the Native States. The Municipalities were supplied
•with Enumeration forms free of cost, but had to pay Rs. 16,565-10 on account of
their Tabulation ; while on the otlier hand the Native States met the cost of
Enumeration and paid for the forms used, but were exempted from payment of the
cost of Tabulation. The Phulkian States, however, preferred to do the work of
Sorting and Compilation and supplied me with ready-made tables for their States.
In comparing the cost of the Census in this Province with that in other Provinces
it has to be borne in mind that the whole printing work including the Enumera-
tion forms, etc., had to be done at private Presses, which meant a considerably
larger expenditure on printing than the net cost which the Government Press
would have charged under rules.
Aclmowiedg- In my enquiries I did not adopt the plan of worrying the already over-
""*"'• worked District OflBcers with long lists of questions on all the subjects, but
collected most of my information personally. In many cases, however, I had to
seek the help of Deputy Commissioners or Settlement OfiBcers and the
Census Superintendents of the Native States and I am thankful to all of them
for the promptness with which they responded to my calls. My best thanks are
due to Mr. Gait for his detailed instructions and for his readiness to advise on
all matters concerning the Administration, the Statistics and the Report. I am
greatly indebted to Sir Edward Maclagan for assistance and advice in starting
the Census operations and for his valuable suggestions in connection with some
of the Chapters of the Report. In the initial stages of my work, I had to rely a
great deal on his help, as my predecessor, Mr. Kose, happened to be on leave
at the time. On his return, however, he was equally ready to assist me with his
advice and I am much obliged to him for many useful hints. I have cause to
be indebted to the Right Revd. Dr. Lefroy, Bishop of Lahore, for favouring me
with his criticism of that portion of my Chapter on Religion which deals with
Christianity and to Dr. Sheikh Muhammad Iqbal for looking through the section
on the Muhammadan Religion. To Sir George Grierson, I am indebted for maps
and other material connected with my Chapter on Language. I have to thank
Rai Bahadur Pandit Sheo xsarayan. Advocate, Chief Court, Punjab, for allowing
me to draw on his vast knowledge of history. Mr. Russell Stracey, Assistant
Accountant-General, Punjab, who, with his craving after uncommon subjects, has
made a study of ethnology and ancient religions, has evinced a most lively interest
in the different subjects dealt with in my Report. I am much obliged to him for
many a helpful discussion and several useful suggestions. I have also cause to be
indebted to Mes.srs W. S. Hamilton, Director of Agriculture and Industries, and
E. B. Howell, Director of Fisheries, for criticising the paragraphs relating to
their Departments, and to Rai B. K. Lahiri, Sir P. C. Chatterji, Mr. Coldstream,
Sub-Divisional Officer, Kulu, K. B. Mir Nasir Ali Khan of Delhi, Pandits Radha
Prashad, Ganda Ram and Paras Ram of Lahore and others, for assistance in
collecting information.
I found my Personal Assistant Mr. E. R. Anderson, who worked under me
for about a year, very industrious and painstaking, and although handicapped for
want of previous knowledge of the work, he was as careful in dealing with figures,
as he was tactful in managing the heterogenous collection in the Compilation
Office. I have to thank him for all his assistance.
The Deputy Superintendents, Sheikh Khurshaid Muhammad, Sheikh Faiz
Bakhsh, Lala Arjan Dass Vasudev and Mian Jamiat Singh all worked hard and
conscientiously, and desei-ve credit for finishing the Sorting work so promptly.
The services of Miau Jamiat Singh, who came at an earlier stage and has been
associated with the office till the end, have been invaluable. The accuracy of
the figures is in no small measure due to his unostentatious but persistent hard
work. He is very thorough and reliable and possesses the capacity of getting
work out of his subordinates. My Head Clerk, Lala Gurditta Mai, who is intelli-
gent, quick and hard-working has done uncommonly well. The Report Clerk, Babu
Ram Chandra, who has toiled with me day and night unremittingly for over a
year has done no end uf good work. I hope his untiring zeal and all round
usefulness coupled with the unasual training he has received will stand him in
good stead. Of the Inspectors I have found Lalas Mathra Dass and Bihari Lai
vu
INTKOD0CT1ON. [Punjab, 1911,
to be most reliable at figures and Sayad Muhammad Hassan and Pandit Tara
Chand have done much useful work.
The Mufid-i-Am Press printed the Enumeration forms and slips under a
special contract at exceedingly cheap rates and did the work most promptly and
in a business-like manner. The Schedules and Covers which were printed from
plates prepared at the Calcutta Branch of the Press were very neat. They
also prmted the Census Codes (Eughsh and Vernacular), other sets of instructions,
and all the Vernacular and Enghsh forms, connected with Sorting and Compilation.
Rai Bahadur Mohan Lai, the Senior Proprietor, was most attentive and obliging
and was able to meet all emergencies by placing his vast resources at my com-
mand. I am greatly obliged to him ; and for the prompt aud punctual execution
of a delicate work like this, I could not have wished for a better firm. Indeed it
is doubtful, if a press with a smaller installation and estabhshment and a less
enterprizing Director could accomplish the task.
The Civil and Military Gazette Press who have printed the Report
have been very obliging and have done their best. I am thankful to the
Manager and his Superintendents for the trouble they have had to take over it.
The style of the Tables and the Report was by no means easy to deal with, and
the turn out, I believe, on the whole does credit to the Press.
I have also to thank Rai Sahib Lala Sita Ram, Superintendent, Govern-
ment Press, for his courtesy and kindness in complying pi'omptly with my re-
quisitions for printing circulars, etc., and for having the Report bound up so
nicely.
HARI KISHAN KADL.
REPORT
ON THE
CENSUS OF THE PUNJAB, 1911.
CHAPTER I.
Distribution of the Population.
GENERAL.
1. The separation of the North- West Frontier Province from the Punjab Geographi-
had not been effected at the time of the Final Census of 1901, but as the ^bange ^*yJJ^^°^^
occurred in October 1901, i.e., before the Census Eeport for 1901 was 'written, ^^.^^ ^^ ^.j^"
effect was given to the division in the Census tables, so far as was possible. The province,
recent Census relates to the Province of Punjab as constituted aftyr the Procla-
mation of 25th October 1901. The effect of the Proclamation was described in
paragraph 1 of the Introduction to the Punjab Census Report of 1901. No
external changes of any consequence have taken place since, the only transfers
being: — of one* village from Dera Ghazi Khan to Dera Ismail Khan (North-West
Frontier Province) in 1902, of twof from Hissar to the Bikaner State in 1905, of
onej fromKarnal to Muzaffarnagar (United Provinces) in 1904 and of one§ from
the Saharanpur District (United Provinces) to Karnal in 1908. The Pnnjab may
be described now as the Province lying between the United Provinces of Agra and
Oudh on the east, the States of Bikaner and Jaisalmerand the Sindh tract of the
Bombay Presidency on the sonth, Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier
Province on the west and the Kashmir State on the north. It stretclies from
the river Jamna on the east to the Indus on the west, with the exception of the
Isakhel Tahsil of the Mianwali District and the Dera Ghazi Khan District, with
the territory of the protected Biloch tribes administered through their Tuman-
dars (tribal chiefs), which has been called the Biloch Trans-frontier, and is under the
charge of the Political Assistant to the Deputy Commissioner of Dera Ghazi Khan.
These excepted tracts are situated to the west of the Indus. The Province lies
between 27° 39' and 34° 2' N. and 69° 23' and 79° 2' E.
2. In the Census Report of 1901, the Punjab was said to have been left ^Internal
with only 27 districts. Close on the sep.aration of the Frontier portion followed Changes-
the creation of two new districts in the Province, viz., Attock and Lyallpur by
Punjab Government Notifications No. 343 and 1338, dated the 11th March
and 15th November 1904, respectively, the former out of the old districts of
Rawalpindi and Jhelnm and the latter outof Jhang, Montgomery and Gujranwala.
The former creation was due to administrative convenience and the latter to the
growth of the Chenab Colony. Later on, by Punjab Government Notification
No. 211 J dated the 9th February 1909, the tahsil of Leiah was transferred from
the Mianwali to the Muzaffargarh District, and the Sharakpur Tahsil went bodily
from the Lahore to the Gujranwala District, under Notification No. 677 S. (Home)
General, dated 18th June 1910. A new tahsil, named Sargodha, was created in
the Shahpur District (Notification No. 83, dated 6th January 1906), and that of
Sampla in Rohtak was abolished (Government Notification No. 224, dated Srd
June 1910). In the Feudatory States under the political control of the Lieute-
nant-Governor of the Punjab, there have been practically no changes. The sta-
tistics given in the Census Tables appended to this Report relate to the Districts
and States of the Province as they stood after the transfers above described.
3. The Province is divided into five Divisions, each in charge of a Com- -^j^ms-
missioner. A re-adjustment of Divisions was made by Punjab Government Notifi- ..
cation No. 212, dated 9th February 1909, the Montgomery District having been
• NaraDJi. f Babalw&a and Rattakhera. J Tomaabad. § Chbapra Sayad,
Census Report. J
2
GENEEAL.
Cbapteb
Bhifted from the Lahore to the Multan Division and the Mianwali District from the
Multan to the Rawalpindi Division. The Districts included iu each of the present
Divisions are : —
DelM.
Jullundur-
Lahore.
Hissar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Delhi,
Kamal, Ambala, Simla.
Rawalpindi.
Kangra, Hoshiarpur, Jullundur,
Ludhiana, Ferozepore.
Mnltan
Lahore, Amritsar, Gurdaspur,
Sialkot, Gujranwala.
Gujrat, Shahpur, Jhelum, Montgomery, Lyallpur, Jhang, Multan, MuzaiTargarh,
Rawalpindi, Attock, Mianwali. Dera Ghazi Khan, including the Biloch Trans- frontier.
The figures for British territory, in the Census tables in Part II of the Report
have been arranged in the above order. The Native States are entered in
geographical order with reference to their proximity to Administrative Divisions.
The difference in the order compared with tlie tables of 1901 is that Charaba has
been placed before the Phulkian States which, together with Bahawalpur, are now
dealt with through a Political Agent. The order of the Phulkian States has
also been changed on a representation from the Jind Durbar, the States being
now mentioned in the order of Political importance.
The scheme of Natural Divisions now adopted is given in the margin,
and is practically the same as that laid down
in the last Census Report. The Himalayan
Division, which contains Districts and States
lying inside the Himalayan Range, at the
extreme north-east of tlie Province, has an
average rainfall of over 61 inches per annum,
against the Provincial average of under 31.
The climate is bitterly cold in winter, when
the greater part of it gets covered over with
snow. The hill streams provide natural
means of irrigation for cultivation on the
hill-sides and in the valleys. The forests
afford excellent grazing for the cattle and
supply timber and fuel to the towns within
and outside the Division. The Sub- Himala-
yan Division comprises tracts which closely
bug the outskirts of the Himalayas, along
the east and north of the Province, in some
cases including — as in Rawalpindi — small por-
tions of the Himalayan hills themselves. Its
average rainfall per annum is over 33 inches,
which is supplemented by irrigation from perennial canals in the Ambala and
Gurdaspur Districts and from hill torrents in the others. The vaiiations of
climate are more mai-ked than in the plains, the winter being chilly owing to the cold
winds from the hills and the summer about as bad as in the Indo-Gangetic Plain
West, except that the nights are cooler. The North-West Dry Area is the group of
Districts and States lying far away from the Himalayan Range, in the western half
of the Province. The low hills found in some of the districtsincluded therein, are
waterless and bare. The rainfall of this tract is small (under 13 inches) and the
temperature high. Copious irrigation from perennial canals is, however, changing
the aspect of three of the Districts, — Lyallpur, Shahpur and Jhang — included in
this group, and at the next Census, these will perhaps have to be trans-
ferred to the Indo-Gangetic Plain West, together with Montgomery, if the
greater part of its waste is colonized on the projected Lower Bari Doab Canal.
But the conditions being still more or less in a transition stage, it has been
considered best, for the present, not to lose the advantage of comparison with
the figures of 1901. The Natural Division of the Indo-Gangetic Plain West
is less homogeneous. On the one hand, it contains sandy ti'acts like Hissar, the
east of Patiala and the districts of Gurgaon and Rohtak, depending mainly
on rainfall, and on the other, such highly cultivated and abundantly irrigated
tracts as Jullundur, Amritsar, Lahore and Gujranwala. The spread of canal
irrigation is, however, equalizing matters to a considerable extent, and on the whole,
bearing in mind the Natural Divisions in the adjoining Province, it is perhaps best
Natnral
4. The S(
jheme or Natural
Divisions.
I.
Indo-Gangetic
24.
Kangra.
Plai.n West—
25.
Mandi State.
26.
Suket State.
1.
Hissar.
27.
Chamba State.
2.
Loharu State.
3.
Rohtak.
III.
SCB-HlMALATAN—
4.
Dujana State.
5.
Gurgaon.
28.
Ambala.
6.
Pataudi State.
29.
Ealsia State.
7.
Delhi.
30,
Hoshiarpur.
8.
Karnal.
31.
Gurdaspur.
9.
Jullundur.
3a.
Sialkot.
10.
Kapurthala State.
33.
Gujrat.
11.
Ludhiana.
34.
Jhelum.
12.
ilaler Kotla State.
35.
Rawalpindi.
13.
Ferozepore.
36.
Attock.
14.
Faridkot State.
15.
Patiala State.
IV.
North -West
16.
Jind State.
Dry Area —
17.
Nahha State.
18.
Lahore.
37.
Montgomery.
19.
Amritsar.
38
Shdhpur.
20.
Gujranwala.
39.
Mianwali.
40.
Lyallpur.
II.
Himalayas—
41.
Jhang.
42.
Multan.
21.
Nahan State.
43.
Bahawalpur State.
22.
Simla.
44.
Muza£Eargarb.
23.
Simla Bill States.
45.
Dera Ghazi Khan.
X
AREA, POPOLATION AND DENSITY.
[ Punjab. 1911.
to adhere to the aiTangement. The average rainfall of the Natural Division is
about 27 inches a year, and the climate is hot and steamy during the rainy season.
AREA, POPULATION AND DENSITY
5. The total area and population for the whole Province and for each Reference
administrative unit are printed in Imperial Table I (Part II of this Report), to Statist!-
the variations of population from one Census to another are shown in Imperial cal Tables.
Table II, the mean density with reference to the total area has been worked out
in Subsidiary Table I to this Chapter and the area and population are given by
Tahsils in Provincial Tables 1 and II. The figures of density by Tabsils are
entered in Subsidiary Table II. The distribution of population between towns
and villages is shown in Subsidiary Table III. Subsidiary Table IV deals with the
number per mills of the total population and of each main religion who live in
towns ; Subsidiary Table V shows towns classified by population ; Subsidiary
Table VI contains statistics of cities and vselected towns, concerning density,
proportion of sexes and immigration, together with the percentage of variation of
population since 1881, and Subsidiary Table VII shows persons per house and
houses per square mile.
6. The total area of the Province, as now constituted is 136,330 square -^"3, and
miles, and the total population as- ^°P"^**^°°"
certained at this Census is 24,187,750.
The distribution over the Natural
Divisions is given in the margin. It
will be noticed that about 46 per cent,
of the total population of the Pro-
vince belongs to the Indo-Grangetic
Plain West, which is the largest and
the most important Natural Division, including, as it does, the most flourishing i
tracts. The other three Natural Divisions contribute 7, 24 and 23 per cent, to
the total population.
7. With regard to the total population (including Native States) the Compari-
Punjab stands sixth among the Provinces in India, coming after Bengal, United ^°^ ^^^
Provinces, Madras, Eastern Bengal and Bombay, but with reference to the popu- °Y^^^ ^^°'
lation of British territory alone, it occupies the fiftli place, being a little ahead of ^"''^^^
Bombay. The area and population of European countries approaching the Punjab
in size, are given in the margin.
These figures will show that while the
area of the Punjab exceeds that of the
British Isles and of Italy by about
|-th and -Jth respectively, its popula-
tion is only about three-fourths of
either. Norway, the most thinly popu-
lated country in Kurope, has, however,
while in area it is only 9 per cent.
Natural Division.
Area.
I'opulation.
Indo-Gangetio Plain West
Himalayan
Sub- Himalayan
N.-W. Dry Area
38,525
22,050
19,045
56,710
11,027,490
1,724,480
5,805,081
5,630,699
Coontries.
Country.
Area in
sq. miles.
Population.
Panjab
British Isles
Italy
Uorway
136,330
119,827
110,550
124,130
24,187,750
34,315,405
34,565,000
2,393,000
only i-ith the population of the Punjab,
smaller.
8. The density of population can be considered from more standpoints Cnltivable,
than one. Where tlie area not available for cultivation is small, the incidence gross culti-
of population on the total area is a correct index of the pressure of popu- vated and
lation. But in hilly and desert tracts where cultivation (and consequently net cultiva-
population) lias to bo oonfiued to limited patches, the incidence of population on ted area ex-
figures relating to cultivation ordinarily indicates the measure of congestion and Plained,
with a view to show this, percentages of the cultivable, gross cultivated and net
cultivated area have been worked out in Sub-Table I. In such tracts, however, the
population depends to no small extent on p isturage and other products, and it is
a question whether the total or the cultiviitod area forms the correct basis of com-
parison. The true measure would probably be somewhere between the two sets
of fio-ures. The sense in which the terms cultivable, gross cultivated and net
cultivated have been used is as follows : —
CuUivable area means the not cultivated area together with fallows
and waste available for cultivation, but excludes reserved forests andunculturablo
area (i.e., area incapable of cultivation).
Censas Report. ]
AEBA, POPOLATION AND DENSITY.
Chaptbk
Grosn cultivated urea means the area sown with crops in one year, includ-
ing double cropping, irrespective of failure of crops.
Net cultivated area means the area sown with crops, irrespective of
failure of crops, less double cropping.
The interpretation of the above terms has been fixed under the orders
of the Census Commissioner.
Cultivated ^- ^^ ^^^ "°* ^^'^ possible to obtain reliable Ggures of cultivation from some
area. of the Native States. The percentages for these Native States, in the Subsidiary
Tables, have had to be worked out with reference to figures of the adjoining
Districts or States, in order to complete the materials for striking averages for
the Natural Divisions. The results though good enough for all practical purposes
cannot be viewed as perfectly accurate.
Of the total area in the Province, about 57 per cent, is cultivable, but
only 33 per cent, is sown with crops once or more during a year. In the
Indo-Gangetic Plain, all but 9 per cent, can be brought under the plough, and
71 per cent, of the area is sown with crops, of which 14*8 per cent, grows
double crops. On about one-fourth of the gross cultivated area, the crops are
irrigated from canals or wells. The facilities for extension of cultivation are
much less in the Sub-Himalayan Division where only 64 per cent, of the area is
cultivable, 5U per cent, is sown with crops with 8*6 per cent, of double
cropping and only 1-3 per cent, of the gross cultivated area is irrigated.
The tracts in the North-West Dry Area which are in the transition stage in
consequence of irrigation frooa perennial canals approach, in circumstances, the
Ind(»-Gangetic Plain, with the exception only of rainfall, which in a canal
irrigated tract is not such an indispensable element. But the districts represent-
ing the type, like Mianwali with 9 per cent, of irrigation or the Bahawalpur
State with 13 per ct^nt. of cultivation are at a considerable disadvantage.
The possibilities of cultivation in the Himalayan tract are limited, only 21
per cent, of the total area being cultivable, and only 10 per cent, being sown
. with crops, once or more, in a year.
Natural Divisions.
Area in square
milei.
Cultivable.
Gross
cultivated.
Net culti-
vated.
Total Bbitish Teeei-
TOBY.
Indo-Gangetic Plain
Himalayan
Sub-Himalayan
K.-W Dry Area ...
70,970
25,r.Gn
1,382
12,048
31,980
46,323
22.778
1,286
11,039
11,222
39,990
19,685
839
9,397
10,069
Density.
for British Territory are noted in the margin.
10. The mean density on the total
About -^th of the crops sown, however,
possess facilities of irrigation from hill
streams. The reserved forests in
this tract which roughly cover about
18 per cent, of the total area afford
pasture for cattle and livelihood to a
fairly large number of men engaged
in the conversion of trees into, and the
export of, timber and other forest
produce. The figures of cultivation
Province
and Natural
Division.
Punjab
I n d o-Gangetic
Plain
Himalayan
8ub-Himalayan
North- West Dry
Area
Mean
density per
square mile,
[■ercentage of! ^J^'^^^^f-
cultivable °f °«'^""'-
area on
177
286
78
305
90
total area.
vated area
on total
area.
57
91
21
64
59
83
71
10
50
20
area, for the whole Province and
the Natural Divisions is given in the
margin, with the percentage of culti-
vable and net cultivated area in each
unit. Taking the Province as a whole,
there are 177 persons to the square
mile (of the total area). It may be
interesting to know for comparison
that Australia has only 2 persons to
every square mile, Norway 19, the
United States have 31, Hungary has
166, France 189, the British Isles have 287, and Belgium has -589. With reference
to the total area, the Sob- Himalayan tract has all along been the most thickly po-
pulated. The climate is somewhat favourable compared to that of either the
Biinalayas or the Plain.s, the normal annual raintall of over 33 inches is abun-
dant enough for the crops which are, in addition, materially assisted by the
hill torrents bringing large quantities of rain water from the hills, and depositing
ricli silt on the land. The means of communication are ti:enerally good. The
den.sity rose from 301 in 1881 to 329 in 1891. Ten years later, it was very much
the same, being 325 ; but during the past decade, the causes of general decrease
I.
5
DEHSITY.
[ Punjab, 1911.
have thinned the population oE this tract alao to 305 per square mile. The
cause of high density in this tract is not far to seek. In the early days when
artiBcial means of irrigation were not much in vogue, cultivation was confined
to the banks of rivers which received the advantage of the spill water, or to the
skirts of hills, where the perennial streams and the periodical down-rushes
of water from the hills provided natural facilities for cultivation. Moreover in
disturbed times, the advantage of being close to the hills was not a negligible
factor. Under these conditions cultivation and population appear to have grown in
the submontane tracts and the traditions will keep the population congested in the
Natural Division, until the other causes of growth of population in the progressive
Indo-Gangetic Plain enable that tract to compete with this in point of
density. The Indo-Gangetic Plain which comes next, is most favourably placed
with respect to the means of communication and the artifici^il irrigation by
means of canals. The soil is rich, although with the exception of riverain
land subject to annual inundation, it lacks the advantage of periodical replenish-
ment by silt. The tract grew rapidly in density, i.e., from 270 persons per square
mile in "1881 to 297 in 1891 and 314 in 1901, but for causes, which will be ex-
plained further on, the figure has fallen now to 286. The North- West Dry Area,
with its scanty rainfall of 13 inches a year and its large stretches of sandy waste
not yet within the reach of irrigation, is unfavourably circumstanced compared with
the two former Natural Divisions. Although 59 per cent, of the area is available
for cultivation, yet only 20 per cent, is actually under crops. In the Himalayan
Division, 79 per cent, of the area is not cultivable, and of that which is cultivable,
leas than half (only 10 per cent, of the total area) is under crops. The incidence
of population on the total area is, therefore, bound to be small and the lowest
position of the Division in point of density is only natural. Its normal rainfall of
over 61 inches a year, coupled with the steep gradients which are incapable of
being levelled or ploughed, and allow the silt to be speedily washed out of the rocky
soil, only retards the spread of cultivation, and the extreme cold of the winter,
with its snowfall which places cultivation out of the question for nearly half the
year, stems the growth of population.
Classification of Districts and States according to Density.
11. With regard to density on the total area, the districts and states
may be classified thus : —
Density on
total area.
Class.
Density, per
square mile.
DistricU.
States.
I
500-560
Delhi, Jullundur and Amritsar
II
400-500 ...
Hoshiarpur, Gurdaspur and Sialkot
Kapurihala and Malerkotla.
III
300—400 ...
Rohtak, Gurgaon, Ludhiana, Lahore, Simla,
Ambala and liujrat.
Pataudi and Kalsia,
IV
200—300 .
Kama!, Ferozepore, Gujranwala, Rawalpindi
and Lyallpur.
Dujana, Faridkot, Paliala, Jind and
Nabha.
V
100—200
Hissar, Jhelum, Attock, Montgomery, Shah -
pur, Jhang and Mullan.
Nahan, Mandi and Suket.
VI
Under 100
Kangra, Mianwali, Muzaffargarh and Dera
Giiazi Khan.
Loharu, Simla Hill States, Chaniba
and Bahawalpur.
The three district.s with the highest density lie in the ludo-Gangetic
Plain Wt'St. 'Phe districts falling in the second class all belong to the Sub-
Himalayan Divi-jion, while the most thickly populated Native States of Kapur-
thala and Malerkotla come within this class with a density of 400 to 500 persons
per squire mile. The four remaining classes contain districts and states from
different Natural Divisions.
The most thinly populated districts and states lie on the west, south-west
and north-east of the Province. Generally speaking, the density increases
from tlie ends towards the centre, with the exception of the Delhi District lying
at the extreme south-east. The density of the tracts skirting the Himalayas
is high on the whole, but compared with the central portion, declines towards
the eastern and western extremity.
CensQB Report. ]
6
DENSITY.
Chapteb
By Districts
and States.
The map in the margin illustrates the varying
MAP
SHOWfMCTMC
OENSTTY OF THE TOTAL POPOATDN
ON THE TOTAL AREA 1911
density of districts and
states by different
shading. At the
south-west end of the
Province, the sandy
desert of the Mian-
wali and Muzaffargarli
Districts forms the
eastern limit of the
zone of lowest density
which follows the
course of th*< Chenab,
down to its junction
with the Gliara (com-
bined Sutlej and
Beas) whence it cir-
cles round along the
northern boundary of
Bahawalpur. The
Montgomery, Multan
and Jhang Districts
form a wedge of some-
what liigher density
driven into the sparsely populated tract, between the Muzaffargarh District
and the Bahawalpur State; the Mandi and Suket States, on the other hand, form
an oasis within the Himalayan tract of lower density.
By Tahsils In the Indo-Gangetic Plnin "West, Jnllundur letains the first place which
in indo- j^ jjg](j jjj 1901, with a density of 560 persons to a square mile. Broadly speak-
Plai.^ * * ' ° ing, the south-east end of the Indo-Gangetic Plain is of an uniform density of
between 3 and 4 hundred persons
K ^ „^p " to a square mile, except the Delhi
I v--<rnTA „,..,.,J""TJ,"V^.r-. .=.. District, which scores on account
of the congested population of
the Delhi City. Exam in i n g
by tahsils, the Ballabf^arh and
Sonepat Tahsils of the Dellii Dis-
trict are also similaily circum-
stanced, and if the population and
area of the Delhi City were excluded
from calculation, the Delhi Tahsil
which, as a wliole, has a density
of 860, would Lave only 327 per-
sons per square mile — ?.^., it would
be similar to the neighbouring
tahsils. A map of the Natural
Division showing the density of
tahsils by varied shading is given
in tlie margin. The Kanml District
and the Pliulkian States form a
cordon of a somewhat sparsely po-
pulated country with much sandy
soil. Tlie Faridkot State ami the
Ferozepore District lie in continua-
tion of this tract. To the south and west of this cordon is situated the Hissar
District which is still more thinly populated and has sandy soil resembling that
of Rajputana on which it borders. But the least thickly populated tnhsil of the
Hissar District is Sirsa with only 116 persons to the square mile, while the other
tahsils fall in the same class with the adjoining Phulkian States. North of
these States comes the highly cultivated and densely populated tract, with
the density rising from Lahore, Ludhiana and Kapurthalato Amritsar and Jnllun-
dur. The Lahore and Amritsar Districts have the advantage of large cities. The
MAP
DENSITY ON THE TOTAL AREA
IN
IKr' ■-» NOETIC PLAIN WEST
r
7
DKNSITT.
[Pruyab, 1911.
Chunian Tahsil of the Lahore District has only a density of 240, Kasur has 356
persons per square mile and the Lahore Tahsil itself vvithout the city of Lahore
would have a density of 338, while with the city it has 638 persons to every square
mile. The density of the tahsil of Amritsar would, if the city of Amritsar were
excluded, be 509, compared with 780 including the city. The Ajnala and Tarn Taran
Tahsils have a density of 441 and
456, respectively. In the Jullundur
DENSITY ONTHt TOTAL ABCA
HIMALAYAN DIVISION
District alone is the population
evenly distributed, each of its tah-
sils showing a population of over
500 persons per square mile, the
large town of Jullundur raising the
density of that tabsil to 709.
In the Himalayan tract (see map By Tahaiis
given in the margin) the density rises civfi^n^*^*"
from the interior — i.e., from Kulu
(Kangra), Basbahr and Ciiamba, to
Nahan on the one side, Mandi and
Suket on the other, and thence to the
western tahsils of Kangra and to the
Simla District; ranging between 24
in Bashabr and 93 in Kulu to nearly
300 in Kangra and Palampur and
863 in the Simla-Bharauli Tahsil.
That the more inaccessible parts
of the Himalayas should be the
most sparsely populated, is not
strange.
In the Sub-Himalayan tract, the Attock District, with its vast stretches of By Tahsiii
sandstone and uneven rocky land ^ ^ib-Hima-
cut up by ravines, is the least lio^ "*"'
thickly populated. The adjoining
districts of J belum and Rawalpindi
are somewhat better off. The dens-
ity is highest in the three central
districts of Sialkot, Gurdaspur and
Hoshiarpur, and falls in Ambala at
one end and Gujrat at the other.
The examination of tahsil figures
shows variations within the dis-
tricts, which are not of o-reat
magnitude. The headquarter
tahsil of every district has a higher
density than theothers,exceptin the
Gurdaspur District, where Batala
with 56-5 persons to every square
mile is far more congested than the
Gurdaspur Tahsil with 453. The
most thickly populated tahsils in
the whole tract are those which
DENSITY OHTME TOTAL A«tA
sua HIMALAYAN OIVtSlON
a e o ° o
g ^ a :; s
are devoid of hilly tracts — viz., 1, Sialkot (655) ; 2, Batala (565) ; 3, Gujrat (536) •
4, Ambala (529); 5, Zafarwal (506); 6, Daska (-175); 7, Hobhiarpur (474);'
8, Garhshankar (463) ; 9, Dasuya (417) ; and 10, Rupar (374). The Pindigheb
Tahsil of Attock has the lowest density (84 per square mile) and the other out-
lying tahsils of the same district — viz., Tala^ang (96) ; Fatehjang (135; — do not
stand very much higher. None of the tahsils of the Rawalpindi and Jhelum
Districts rises above 316 persons per square mile, while the outlying tahsils
of Jhelum— m., Find Dadan Khan (179) and Chakwal (175)— have a fairly
scattered population and the headquarter tahsil itself has not more than 202
persons to a square mile. The Phaha Tahsil of Gujrat which adjoins Pind Dadan
Khan has also a lower density. At the opposite end, the Jagadhri and Narain-
Census Report.]
8
DENsny.
Chafteb
By Taheil^
in North-West
Dry Area.
garh Tahsils skirting the hills and the whole of the Kalsia State, stand fairly low,
while in the three central districts, Una in Hoshiarpur and Pathankot in Gur-
daspur have a low density because they include extensive hill areas.
In the North-West Dry Area, canal
OlflSITY ON TMt TOTALARtA
NORTH wtST ORV ARLA
I ? s
irrigation places the Shah pur,
Jhang, Multan and Montgomery Dis-
tricts on a level with Attock and
Jhelum in the Sub-Himalayan tract
and the Hissar District in the Indo-
Gfingetic Plain, while the Lyallpur
District fares still better, the Lyall-
pur Tahsil showing a density of 319
persons per square mile. There is
Bot much difference between the
Lyallpur District and the adjoining
ditjtrict of Gujranwala. The Mian-
wali, Muzaffargarh and Dera Ghazi
Khan Districts and the Bahawal-
pur State still remain sparsely
populated. The Biloch Trans-
frontier has 11 persons to a square
mile The Rajanpur and Leiah
Tahsils with 53 and the Bhakkar
Tahsil with 43 persons to a square
mile are types of this Natural Divi-
sion, while the Bahawalpur State
with a density of 52 is next only lo
the Chamba State in point of spars-
ity of population. Among the
British Districts, Mianwali has the lowest density of 64.
Classifica- 12. Subsidiary Table II shows, by Natural Divisions, tlie population of
tion of Tah- tahsils falling under the following classes, arranged according to density on the total
sUs accord- area :— (1) Under 150, (2) 150—300, (3) 300—450, (4) 450—600, (5) 600— 750, and
ing 0 ens- (6)750 — 900. The maps printed in the margin of the preceding paragraph indicate
Popu- the classes in each Natural Division, by different shading.
Taking the whole Punjab together, the bulk of the popula-
tion (81 per cent.) is met with in tahsils with a density of
460 or less persons to the square mile, which cover nearly
94 per cent, of the total area, as shown in the margin. The
next higher class contains 4 percent, of the area and 11 per
cent, of the population, and tahsils with a density of over 600 (the highest is 860
in Delhi) include only about 2 per cent, of the area and 8 per cent, of the population.
As has already been noticed, the thickest populated tracts lie in the Indo-
Gangetic Plain West. The Simla District (and particularly the Simla-Bhai auli
Tahsil), having a very small area confined mainly to populated bits, is rather an
abnormal feature of the Himalayan group. The great,er part of its population
lives in tahsils and states with a density of 300 oi' less per square mile. A small
proportion of the area falling in the Sab-Himalayan group has a density of
600 — 750 per square mile, and another unimportant part has less than 160 per.'^ons
to the square mile. But the bulk of the population is somewhat evenly dis-
tributed over the three classes with a density ranging from 150 to 600. For the
North-West Dry Area, even a density of 300 is an exception rather than the
rule, and only the tahsils in the transition stage have more than 150 persons to
the square mile. The real place of the tract is in the lowest class with a
density of under 150.
Density oil 13. for want of complete figures of cultivation for the Native States, it
cultivated Denaity oc total area 200 is uot possible to examine the density of the
:; grorc'hiv^rdarea .V: 43/ ^^olo Proviuce with regard to the cultivated
net cultivated area 499 area. But tho density of British Territory,
for which complete figures are available, is given in the margin. Thus while, on
ity
lation.
Per cent.
Under 150 ..
46 17
150—300 ..
35 40
800—450 ..
. 13 24
Total
94 81
I.
9
DENSITY.
[Punjab, 1911.
Density on net
cultivated area
per square
mile.
Total British Territory
499
Indo-Gangetic Plain West
435
Himalayan ...
965
Sab-Himalayan ...
612
N.-W. Dry Area
482
the whole, there are 177 persons to every square mile in the Province, in
British Territory there are 200. In other words, there is one person to every 3
acres of the total area, but taking the area actually under crops (net cultivated)
there is one person to every acre or so.
The density of each Natural Division on the net cultivated area is shown
in the margin. The mean density of
the Indo-Gangetic Plain West is some-
what below the Provincial average.
This is the tract in which the majority
of the population is connected with
agriculture, but the vast areas of the
Himalayan tract support a very large
amount of non-agrioultural population and the case of the Sub-Himalayan tract
and the North-West Dry Area is similar, though in a smaller degree. The result is
that in these tracts the incidence of total population on cultivated area is rela-
tively high. As regards the Himalayan tract, it is true that the cultivation is very
careful and employs a larger number of persons per acre than is usual in the plains,
but it is also true that the traders and labourers not connected with agriculture
and the breeders of farm stock form a very considerable proportion of the
population.
14. The facts put together in the marginal tabfe will throw light on cir- Causes con-
cumstances tend- diicing to
ing to produce l^igli liens-
congestion. In ^*y-
a mainly agricul-
tural country like
India, and par-
ticularly in this
Province, where
about 58 percent,
of the total popu-
lation lives on
agriculture or
means subservi-
ent thereto, culti-
vation must, for a
long time, remain
the principal fac-
tor in determining
the density, al-
though it would
be incorrect to
say that the rela-
tion between cul-
tivation and density of population is absolute. The climate, the customs of the peo-
ple, the trading centres, the establishment of industries, the means of communi-
cation and the existence of forest reserves all affect the growth of population,
bat none of these causes is half so important here as the extent and nature of '
cultivation. Only 9 per cent, of the total population of the Province lives by
trade* and about 20 per cent, is engaged in industries of various kinds. Industries
are no doubt developing by leaps and bounds as will be noticed hereafter, but
it is doubtful whether they will ever attain to the importance of agriculture.
It will be seen from the figures presented in the above table that density
does not vary with either rainfall or the percentage of any particular crop. But
it is clear that wherever the density is high, the percentage of cultivation /^isjarge,
and either the normal rainfall is abundant or it is largely supplemented by arti-
ficial irrigation from canals and wells. For example, Ludhiana, Gnjrat, Ambala,
Hoshiarpur, Gurdaspur and Delhi, receive between 30 and 40 inches of rain every
year, while Jullundur, Amritsar, Sialkot and Lahore, which only get 2(i to 30
inches, have between 87 and 61 per cent, of their crops irrigated from canals or wells.
* Inclading traDsport,
£
PgtoiRtage
^^
^
P^KCHtage of gross eaUiaUed |
3
3
of
3^
o
area under
g o-a
m
© ^^
S
■" o
©
t3
a
Name of
&"-
^i
g g
o (i
3
a
y
^
District.
- o
S3
■S3
If
0) "^
rigated ar
gross culti
area.
.s.a
o_2
>
o
2 a
a
o
i
O
to
o
J3
-a
s
o
a5
C3
1
en
■3
Q
a
i5
^
<
p-<
^;
cc
U
|-^
^
Oi
a
Rs. a.
Jullundur
560
77
43
18
2 3
28-38
3'6
-4
-3
10-7
32-1
22-3
8
Amritsar
550
74
48
21
1 11
26-99
2-9
4-8
•3
b-8
35-4
2V3
4
Delhi
510
65
14
2-9
1 12
31-85
3-3
•2
26-9
1-3
13-4
27-4
4
Sialkot
492
68
37
2-07
1 12
29-12
3-6
6-3
2-7
7-7
37-5
14-1
5
Gurdaspur ...
443
68
18
1-7
1 14
37-47
6-5
6-5
1-4
8-3
33-5
19-9
10
Hoshiarpur . . .
409
49
6
1-4
2 0
37-76
3-1
4-0
11
16-9
31-7
23-3
7
Ambala
373
60
3
2'3
1 9
31-04
1-7
8-4
2-4
10-9
23-9
240
7
Lahore
367
58
61
4-6
0 15
26-34
-8
2-8
2-3
4-4
35-3
22-3
6
Gujrat
364
62
10
2-7
1 0
32-57
11
1-3
18-3
2-3
39-7
17-9
4
Ludhiana
356
80
20
3-09
1 10
39-09
1-3
•3
3-5
6-9
26-7
38-9
4
Census Report. ]
10
DENSITY.
Chaptbb
The system of well cultivation in Jullundur, Gurdaspur and Hoshiarpur results
in the raising of a large percentage of high class crops and enables the people
to live on comparatively smaller holdings (average 1 -4 to 1 -8 acre) than else-
where, but even in the most densely populated canal irrigated district of
Amritsar, a somewhat larger holding (average 2'1 acres) is necessary, while Lahore
with 61 per cent, of irrigated crops has an average of 4*6 acres per holding.
The raising of particular crops is due mainly to climatic conditions. In
the eastern part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, i.e. in eastern Punjab, the abundant
summer rains enable the raising of a large proportion of autumn crops, while as
, , , we go west, they give
el J jowAR t=zD.'7 place to wheat and
other spring crops.
The diagram in the
margin will show in
respect of the ten most
thickly populated districts, that the density does not rise or fall with any cf the
important crops of the Province. Ludhiana, which has the lowest density of aU
the ten districts, has
|F,///\\vf',;;,v/
^.SlALKOT
J MIANWALt
PUKENTACt
KHARir CROPS
TO CROSS CULTIWTt.0 »RtA OURINC
-"^c^
^-^^-^^/'s
~^^;«>':?
'"-N^^,
tlie
' s •»
1
^^
largest propor-
tion of pulses, while
Guirat with only
slightly higher dens-
ity stands first in the
proportion of wheat.
Ambala has a large
percentage of rice
and Gurdaspur grows
most sugarcane, but
neither of the dis-
tricts is the most
thickly populated.
Similarly, the district
with the highest per-
centage of jowar and
bajra is Delhi and
that producing most
maize is Hoshiarpur.
No correspondence
can be established be-
tween crops and area
under cultivation on
the one hand and
density on the other.
The two diagrams
printed in the margin
illustrate that the
highest percentage of
Kharif crops to gross
cultivated area is
found in the Eohtak,
Gurgaon and Hissar
Districts, which stand
fairly low, but not
lowest in point of
density, while the districts of Attock, Jbelum, Jhang and Muzaffargarh showing
the highest percentage of wheat have a still sparser population. Of the most
thickly populated districts, Jullundur and Amritsar stand about the middle in re-
spect of both Kharif and Rabi crops, while Delhi stands fairly high in Kharif and
very low in respect of wheat. Nor can particular crops be permanently popular in
thickly populated tracts. The fall in the price of sugar, the heavy assessment of
PlRCeiMTACt
WHEAT
roOWOSS CUtTfVATEOARtA
't^^
0-*MRITSA«
«>. SIAUtoT
rf^'
I.
11
DENSITY.
[Punjab. 1911.
DiSTEIOTS.
a o>
Pbrcentaqe of re-
sidents in villages
oa TOWNS WITH
POPULATION.
distance
vUlage
Uage.
Under
500.
500 to
2,000.
Above
2,000.
Mean
from
to V
Jullundur ...
HoshLirpur ...
Ambala
560
409
373
22
36
44
50
50
32
28
14
24
1-17
111
111
lands growing sugarcane and the comparatively favourable rates obtained for cot-
ton have resulted in cotton replacing sugarcane in many places, and rice has had
to be given up where extension of cultivation is making the water supply
insuflficient for its growth. The area under wheat fluctuates more or lees with
successive years of high or low prices and with timely rainfall. The varia-
tions of soil and rainfall are so great from one part of the Province to another,
that it is not possible for the same crops to be raised everywhere with equal
facility, but in similarly circumstanced tracts, a large percentage of high crops
such as sugarcane and wheat, points to high density. For instance, comparing Jul-
lundur and Ludbiana, the former has 3-6 per cent, of sugarcane and 32*1 percent,
of wheat, while the latter has not more than 1-3 of the former and 267 of the
latter. Similarly the Amritsar District has 2-9 per cent, of sugarcane and 35-4 per
cent, of wheat against "8 and 35'3 per cent, of the two crops, respectively, in the
adjoining district of Lahore.
But this is not all. The Jullundur District with the highest density
has 8, and Gurdaspur 10 commercial
towns. The density is naturally higher
where the number of towns is large and
the stronger the village homestead and
smaller the mean distance from vil-
lage to village, the greater will be the
number of persons per square mile. By
way of example figures for three districts
are given in the margin. The distance
from village to village is larger in Jul-
lundur than in the other two districts,
but its villages are stronger. Ambala with a large number of small villages
shows a smaller density.
The number of factories (with not less than 20 workers)
in each of the districts* with a density of over 350 is noted in
the margin. It is obvious that the Industrial development
has so far had very little effect on the density. The factories
being confined mainly to cities or towns, their small numbers
cannot be expected to affect the strength of population in the
district as a whole, which varies with so many other causes.
The effect of irrigation from canals on density is shown in the marginal table.
The abnormal mortality
of the past decade which
will be discussed in the
next chapter, has, by caus-
ing an actual decrease in
the population of thePro-
vince, considerably mar-
red the effect of canal irri-
gation on density, daring
the past ten year 3. Never-
theless, the sudden rise
of the incidence of popula-
tion on total area, in what
now constitutes theLyall-
pur District, from 7 per-
sons per square mile in
1891 to 187 only a year
or two after the comple-
tion of the Chenab Canal,
at the Census of 1901,
and a further leap to 272
during the past decade, furnishes a striking illustration of the revolution of eco-
nomic conditions, which irrigation from a perennial canal can bring about. As is well
* The Simla District with a density of 389 per square mile has no factory.
Jullundur
... 10
Amritsar
... 23
Delhi
... 51
Sialkot
... 6
Gurdaspur
... 7
Hoshiarpur ..
... 1
Ambala
... 11
Lahore
.., 87
Qujrat
... 4
Ludhiana
... 14
Density per square mile in
Dates of
completion.
Districts and
States irrigated.
Names of Canals.
1881.
1891.
1901.
1911.
r
Delhi
499
495
534
510
1886 1
Kohtak
308
329
351
301
Western Jamna
Canal.
Sirsa J
Branch j
Karnal
Ambala
271
449
273
467
280
441
254
373
1896 1
Hissar
129
149
150
154
L
Jind State ...
198
226
224
216
f
Ludhiana
42G
447
464
366
1
Forozepore ...
174
207
223
224
Sirhind
1886-87-!
1
Patiala State...
Kalsia „ ...
271
403
293
409
295
400
2G0
333
1
Nabha „ ...
282
305
321
268
I.
Faridkot „ ...
151
179
195
203
r
Amritsar
558
620
039
550
0pper Bar! Doab
1878.70-!
Gurdaspur ...
43C
500
498
443
^
Lahore
285
334
370
307
Gujranwala ...
181
202
247
226
Chenab
1899. 1900 .J
Lyallpur
7
7
187
272
L
Jhang
116
120
127
153
Jhelum
In progress
Shahpur
83
103
104
135
12
Censns Report. J towns and villages." Chapter
known, the Sandal Bar, which contained a thick jungle inhabited only by graziers
and hoards of thieves and cattle-lifters has been converted, with astounding rapidity,
into an ideal agricultural tract, not like the creations ascribed to Allahdin's lamp, but
by thougbtful and foresighted organization, the outlay of capital and the gradual
import of labour from congested parts of the Province. The opening up of a
vast tract of jungle by means of a plentiful artificial source of irrigation attracts
multitudes of settlers to such a tract, and if the means of profitable enterprise are
permanent, the settlers get gradually tied down to the place.
The Jhelum Canal has similarly influenced the density of Shahpur though
in a smaller degree, in proportion to its smaller magnitude.
The effects of this process are also manifest from variations in 1891 and
1901, on the Western Jamna Canal, except in the Delhi and Karnal Districts,
where canal irrigation had already existed, and the completion of the "Western
Jamna Canal project only resulted in water-logging, circumstances favourable to
the growth of population not being restored till after the remodelling of the canals.
The districts and states ii-rigated from the Sirhiud Canal which was completed
in 1886-37, showed a marked improvement in 1891 and 1901. The Upper Bari
Doab which was finished in 1878-79 had produced its effects in 1881 and continued
to develop the population of the tract irrigated from it, in the next decade. In
examining the above figures it has to be borne in mind that the Chenab Colony has
drawn very largely during the last t^^o decades on the districts irrigated from
this last canal.
TOWNS AND VIkMVGES
Definition 15. For purposes of Enumeration, a town was defined as follows : —
of town. " A town includes J— 1, every Municipality; 2, all Civil Lines not included within
municipallimita; 3, every Cantonment ; and 4, every other continuous collection of houses
inhabited by not less than 5,000 persons, which the Provincial Superintendent may decide
to treat as a town for Census purposes. "
"Note, — In dealing with questions arising under head (4), the Provincial Superin-
tendent will have regard to the character of tho population, the relative density of the
dwellings, the importance of the place as a centre of trade and its historic associations, and
will bear in mind that it is undesirable to treat as towns, overgrown villages which have no
urban characteristics."
The definition was virtually the same as in 1901, but notified areas were
not treated as towns on the analogy of municipalities and no cluster of houses
with a population of over 5,000 was treated as a town, unless in each in-
dividual case, distinct urban characteristics were noticeable. The result has been
a large decrease in the total number of towns. At the time of deciding whether
a place was or was not to be treated as a town, only
the population of 1901 was available for reference.
In some cases, it appeared that the actual population, at
this Census was under 5,000. In such instances, the
places have been treated as towns nevertheless, with
regard to their urban characteristics and they foi'm
exceptions to the definition. A list of such towns is
given in the margin. One exception — viz. that of
treating Loharu with a population of |;||f in |ff| as
a town was deliberately made in deference to the
strongly expressed wishes of the Chief of that State.
It appears to be advisable, in future, to treat the capital
of a Native State, howsoever small it may be, as a town, as it must be conceded
that the seat of a Native State's Government is bound to have certain urban
characteristics like our Municipalities and Civil Stations. The subject will be dealt
with in the Administration Volume.
Number of 16. The number of towns has varied from one Census to another rnainly
towns. owing to slight alterations in the definition of the term. The figures are
eiven in the marofin. The number which fell in 1891 rose
lAll 174 111
1901 '.'.' '.'.'. .'.'. 228 in 1901, but the present Census has shown a decrease
1891 221 again. This does not signify any falling off in the urban
**" ' ■" population. The main cause of the variations is that
Town.
Population
Qarhshankar
*,923
Miani
4,870
Chawinda
*,695
Ealanaur
4,606
Kalka
4,532
Phul
4,515
Nawashahr ...
4,475
Chhachhrauli
4,246
Basi
4,236
Ahmadpur Lamma
4,223
Anandpur
4,041
Sirhind
3,843
Dasuya
3,597
Famikhnagar
3,158
Lobara
2,343
13
I. THE URBAN POPULATION. [Punjab, 1911.
certain residential groups have been treated as to-wns at one Census but
Town. District or State. excluded from the list at another. The places which
. have been classed as towns at the present Census
jStu^^'^' ... iM>ha. but were not treated as such in 1901, are named in
Jalalabad ... Ferozepore. the margin. Of these, Sanawar has been treated as
Samharial ... Sialkot. 3 town ou account of the Civil Lines, and Mianwali
chawinda ... Do. On account o£ its Municipality and Ciyil Lines.
Talagang .'.'. Attock"^ The Other towns have all a population of over 5,000
MiaawaU, M. ... Mianwali. souls, except Chawinda which was expected to have
Eojhan ... Dwa'ohazi Khan, more inhabitants than 5,000, but the Census showed
Taunsa ... Do. that the ravages of plague had left the strength at
4,695 only. Two of the towns — viz., Sargodha and Gojra — are quite new and have
sprang into existence practically within the last decade. Sargodlia is the bead-
quarter of the Jhelum Canal Colony, and Gojra, a Railway station in the Chenab
Colony, has developed into an important Mandi (mart) for the export of agricul-
tural produce. Abohar in the Ferozepore District and Jaitu in the Nabha State
have also recently grown up in consequence of canal irrigation and the opening
of new Railways (the Bhatinda-Samasatta and Ferozepore-Bhatinda sections of
the Southern Punjab, N.-W. Railway).
As many as 64* of the towns of 1901 have now been treated as villages.
Twenty of them have a population of over 5,000, but they are merely overgrown
village homesteads with no urban characteristics. The names and population
(1901) of these villages are given below : —
1, Rania 4,384; 2, Rohri 3,314; 3, Fattehabad 2,786; 4, AUenabad 1,624 ; (Hissar) ; 5, Mahm 7,824;
6, Kalanaur 7,640 ; 7, Butuna 7,509 ; 8, Barauda 5,836 ; 9, Kahnaur 5,024 ; 10, Kharkhauda 3,7G5 (Rohtak) ;
11, Hatin 4,301 (Gurgaon) ; 12, Puiidri 5,834 ; 13 Ladwa 3,518 (Karnal) ; 14, Solon 61 (Simla) ; 15, Kangra 4,740; 16,
Nurpur 4,462 (Kangra); 17, Una 4,746 ; 18, Garhdiwala, 3,6.52 ; 19, Mukerian 3,589 ; 20, Khanpur 3,183 (Hoshiarpur) ;
21, Jandiala 6,620; 22, Alawalpur 4,423 (Jullundur) ; 23, Machhiwara 5,588 (Ludhiana) ; 24, Moga 6,725; 25,
Mudki 2,977; 26, Makhu 1,355 (Ferozepor) ; 27, Vairowal 5,439 (Amritsar) ; 28, Sri Gobindpur 4,380 (Gurdaspur) ;
29, Zafarwal 4,658 ; 30, Narowal 4,422 ; 31, Jamke 4,216 ; 32, Killa Sobha Singh 3,338 (Sialkot) ; 33, Sohdra 5,050 ;
84, Hafizabad 4,597 ; 35. Killa Didar Singh 2,705 (Gujranwala) ; 36, Bhaun 5,340 (Jhelam) ; 37, Talamba 2,526 ; 38,
Kahror 5,552 ; 39, Jalalpur 5,149 ; 40, Duniapur 2,150 (Multan) ; 41, Khairpur 2,257 (Muzaffargarh); 42, Dujana 5,545
(Dujana) ; 43, Pataudi 4,171 (Pataudi) ; 44, Rampur 1,157 (Bashahr) ; 45, Bilaspur 3,192 (Bilaspur); 46, Nalagarh
4,027 (Nalagarh) ; 47, Nagar 1,224; 48, Bhojpur 955 (Suket) ; 49. Hadiabad 3,039 ; 50, Shekhupur 1,508 ; 51. Dalha
1,342 (Kapurthala) ; 52, Uch 7,583 ; 53, Khairpur 5,013 ; 54, Garh IkhUyar Khan 4,939 ; 55, Naushehra 4,475 ; 56'
Allahabad 2,868 ; 57. Minchinabad 2,558 (Bahawalpur) ; 58 Banur 5,610 ; 59. Sahibgarh 5,515 ; 60, Hadaya 5,414 ;
61, Safidon 4,832 ; 62, Bund 3,735 ; 63, Kaliana 2,714 ; 04, Balanwali 2,298 (Patiala).
The Urban Population.
17. To enable a correct comparison of urban population, the figures in General-
Subsidiary Table V, appended to this Chapter, have been based upon the population
of towns included in the lists of each two Censuses. Columns 5 to 7 of the Sub-
sidiary Table show that the towns common to 1881 and 1891 exhibited an in-
crease of 7"4 per cent, in population. The similar increase in the next decade was
4-7 per cent. But the towns included in the lists of 1901 and 1911 have shown a
decrease of 1*5 per cent. Of the 1 74 towns now registered, 162 also appear in the
table of 1901. Fifty-one, falling mainly in the highest classes, have a larger
number of inhabitants now, but the population of the remaining 111 has
decreased.
18. The population of towns varies from 232,837 in the largest (Delhi) Size of
to 630 in the smallest (Attock Cantonment). The average population per town is Towns,
about 14,800 souls. The largest area covered by any one town or city including
Cantonments is 29 square miles (Lahore) of which 22 square miles are taken up
by the city. The average town, however, covers an area of 1 to 3 square miles.
19. The proportion of females to every 1,000 males residing in towns gex pro-
is 740 for the whole Province, 737 for British Territory and 757 for the Native portion in
States. The corresponding figures for the total population (including urban and Towns,
rural) are 817, 817 and 814, respectively. That the proportion of females should
be comparatively smaller in towns than in villages, is obvious. A considerable
number of outsiders (all males) frequent the towns for purposes of trade, or
education, and the labourers attracted by building and other industries and the
majority of menial servants, do not bring their families into the towns. Moreover,
women living in towns have less opportunity of work in the open air, and conse-
quently possess less vitality than the men.
* The figures are exclnsive of Jutogh and Kasumpti treated as separate units in 1901. These have now been
treated as parts of Simla (town) and included therein.
14
Censos Beport. J
THE DBBAN POPDLATION.
Chaptek
The
figures of
1
Proportion
Cities and Towns.
of females
to 1,000
males.
Delhi City
739
Lahore
596
Amritsar „
■••
719
Mullin Town
■■•
763
Rawalpindi „
...
505
Ambala >,
...
629
Jullundur „
...
741
Siilkot
701
Ferozepore „
...
616
763 females per thousand males
20. Taking the
cities and selected towns given in column 4 of Sub-
sidiary Table VI and reproduced in the margin
for facility of reference, show that the proportion
of females varies little from town to town except
where there are Cantonments. The male population
of the army tends to reduce the relative strength of females
according to the size of the Cantonment, Rawalpindi,
the largest military station, has only half as many
females as there are males. In Lahore, besides a large
Cantonment, the Colleges and numerous Government
OfiBces help in no small degree to magnify the propor-
tion of males. Amritsar, Delhi and Multan, with a
comparatively small mihtary population, possess 719 to
«^^*"t!- 20. Taking
■Uon of ur- " . _ ° -,
ban popula- 1,000 live m towns and
tion by re- Subsidiary "''■■^'" ^^'
ligion-
Table
All Religions
Hindu
Sikh
Jain
Muhammadan
Christian
Zoroastrian
is confined
The res«t of
106
118
54
529
106
250
949
Province as a whole, 106 persons out of every
cities. The figures of each religion excerpted from
IV are given in the margin. The Sikhs are mainly agri-
cultural by pursuit and consequently their proportion in
towns is the smallest (54 per mille). The Muhammadans
come next with a proportion equal to the average for the
Province. The Hindus who take up a very large share in
commerce and have consequently more need for Hvingin
towns, show a higher rate of 1 18 per mille. The Jain religion
mainly to towns and more than half their population is urban,
them reside in the larger villages which have not been classified as
to-\vns. Till recently, the Christians lived mostly in towns, but Mission work has
now developed very largely in villages and the urban population now represents only
^th of the total. The Zoroastrians (or Parsis) are a purely commercial class and all
but 51 per mille of them reside in towns. The small proportion living in rural
tracts represents service of some kind on the Railway. Looking at the figures of
Natural Divisions, the proportion of urban population of all religions is as high as
145 in the Indo-Gangetic Plain (which contains the cities and the largest towns)
ao'ainst the provincial average of 106. The Himalayan tract has very few towns
and shows the smallest figure of 29 per mille. Were it not for the Simla District
where about half the population resides in towns, the proportion would be still
smaller. The percentage of urban population in the Sub-Himalayan tract and the
North-West Dry Area falls below the provincial average in proportion to the num-
berand strength of towns. The strength of the urban population of the Hindus varies
with the number and size of towns, being high in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and low
in the Himalayan tract. The North-West Dry Area is, however, an exception, as
here the interest of the Hindus in land is small and they are confined to towns where
they carry on trade. In the old days of insecurity, they all took shelter in the
well protected towns, and those who were left out in the rural tracts were either
converted to Islam or disappeared in the struggle for existence. This Natural
Division, therefore shows the largest proportion of urban population among the
Hindus. The urban Sikh population would appear to be strongest in the
Himalayan tract, but the figure (141 per mille) in the Subsidiary Table is mislead-
ing, as the presence of 654 Sikhs in the town of Simla, out of a total population
of 693 in the Simla District contributes largely to the result. The Jains in the
Indo-Gangetic Plain are well scattered over the stronger villages, and conse-
quently, the proportion (484 per mille) registered m towns is not high. In the
Sub-Himalayan tract and the North-West Dry Area, however, they have as many
as 784 persons out of every 1 ,000, residing in towns. In the Himalayan tract,
the Simla Hill States and Suket which contribute 27 per cent, to the total popu-
lation of the Natural Division have not a single town. The result is that all
the Jains living at the headquarters of these States appear as raral population,
leaving the urban population at only 282 per mille. The Muhammadans are well
represented in the towns of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Himalayan tract,
but in the Sub-Himalayan tract and the North-West Dry Area, where their total
population is very large, the proportion residing in towns is comparatively
smaller. The Parsi population calls for no comment by Natural Divisions.
15
I.
THE URBAN POPULATION.
[Punjab, 1911.
In dealing with the distribution of urban population by religion, it is in- Jts compoal-
teresting to compare the composition
of the population of towns by religion.
The figures given in the margin have
been abstracted from Subsidiary Table
VI to Chapter IV. The average town
of the Province contains 40 Hindus,
6 Sikhs and 1 Jain to 51 Muham-
madans and 2 Christians, in every 100
of population. In other words, on
the whole, the Muhammadans contri-
bute rather more than one-half of the
urban population. The Hindus pre-
dominate in the small Himalayan
tract and of the three other Divisions
their proportion is strongest (42 per cent.) in the Indo-Gangetic Plain West. In
the towns of this Natural Division, the Muhammadans contribute 49 per cent..
Christians ], Sikhs 6 and Jains 1, to the population. Delhi is the only city and
Ambala the only town, where the number of Hindus exceeds that of Muhammad-
ans, the proportion being, Delhi — Hindu 52, Sikh and Jain 3, Muhammadan
44, and Christian 1, per cent. ; Ambala — Hindu 48, Jain and Sikh 6,
Muhammadan 39 and Christian 7. In the Lahore city, the Muhammadans
preponderate, representing 57 per cent, of the total population against 39
per cent, of the Hindus, Jains and Sikhs, and 4 per cent, of the Christians. In
Amritsar, the Sikh element is comparatively strong, the HinduH and Jains repre-
senting 39, the Sikhs 13, the Muhammadans 47, and the Christians 1 per cent.
tion
No. PBE 10,000 OP OBBAN POPULATION
WHO ABE
—
g
Natural Division.
-a
a
a
03
.a
a
a
a
3
•a
GQ
.g
OS
1-5
V3
00
6
Punjab
Indo-Gangetic Plain
West.
4,041
4,212
609
648
96
119
5,056
4,887
194
130
Himalayan
Sub-Himalavan
7,212
3,481
219
694
20
100
1,797
5,317
743
406
N.-W. Dry Area ...
3,69U
388
12
5,808
99
of the total population
21. To obtain
an idea of the
Density of
Density pbk sq. mile.
Cities and Selected Towns.
Including
Excluding
Cantt.
Cantt.
Delhi City
15,248
18,796
Lahore City
7,816
9,429
Amritsar City
15,276
15,699
Multan Town
9,461
14,126
Rawalpindi Town
10,091
15,144
Ambala Town
4,775
11,776
Jullundur Town
4,078
5,082
SialkotTown
5,424
16,198
Ferozepore Town
4,617
7,547
congestion of population in towns,
the density per sqnare mile has been population
worked out for Cities and Selected in Tovras.
Towns in Subsidiary Table VI. The
figures are given in the margin to-
gether with those of density excluding
the area and population of the Canton-
ments. The density ranges from 4,000
to over 15,000 per square mile includ-
ing Cantonments, and from 5,000 to
about 19,000 excluding them. The
population of Cantonments is, of
course, spread on a larger area in
view of sanitary and military require-
ments. The comparatively lower dens-
ity of the Lahore City, even excluding the Cantonments is due to the very large
Civil Station it possesses ; but the old City of Lahore— i. e., the part within the City
walls — does not fare much better than the other thickly populated towns. Every
one of the cities and towns has novr got a certain proportion of houses built outside
the interned part, detached from one another ; so the marginal figures afford
no idea of the real congestion of population in the thickly populated parts of
the cities and towns.*
22. The great trade centres of the Province are Delhi, Amritsar, Lahore, Q^jjg,. ^^yg,.
Rawalpindi, Sialkot and Multan, and racteristics
all these have shown a steady develop- of Towns,
ment througliout the past four decades as
indicated in the margin, except, Amrit-
sar and Rawalpindi, whose population
though smaller now than in 1901 is yet
larger than at the two preceding
Censuses. Hoshiarpur which is the
channel of the comparatively small
Central Asian trade in charas and piece-
goods, showed a slight improvement in 1891 (21,363 to 21,552), but the figure
• For density within the City walls see paragraph 33.
Pojmlation in
Town.
1911.
1901.
1891.
1881.
Delhi
Lahore
Amritsar
Sialiot
Rawalpindi
Maltan
232,837
228,687
152,756
64,869
86,483
99,243
208,575
202,964
162,429
57,956
87,688
87,39*
192,579
176,854
136,766
55,087
73,795
74,562
173,393
157,287
151,896
45,762
52,975
68,674
26
Census Report. ]
THE CEBAN POPULATION.
Chapter
Towns.
Population.
Differ-
1911.
1901.
per cent.
Rojhan
9,624
8,177
+18
Abohar
9,492
5.590
+70
Sargodha
8,849
...
Jaitu
7,694
5,533
+39
Miauwali
7,064
4,lli0
+70
Gojra
5,417
2,278
+138
of 1901 was smaller owing to the separation of the village, Khan pur, which had
formerly been treated as part of the town. The population had also suffered to
some extent from the effects of plague. During the past decade, it has not
lost much ground in spite of severe losses from plague and still stands at
17,449. The town of Panipat is known for its brass work and cutlery, Jagadhri
for its brass work and its trade with the Sirmoor (Nahan) Hills, JuUundur and
Ludhiana have a good deal of indigenous weaving, Fazilka is a centre of
trade in raw wool, Sujanpur is famous for the manufacture of sugar,
Gujranwala and Wazirabad manufacture cutlery, etc., Gujrat produces wood
work particularly in the line of furniture, Bhera has madp a mark in weaving
and cutlery, Kalabagh and Leiah are centres of wf^aving and Pakpattan is noted
for its lacquer work and wood carving. Of these 13 towns, C have improved
in the past decade, but Panipat, Jagadhri, L\idhiana, Sujanpur, Wazirabad,
Gujrat and Bhera have registered decreases owing to plague coupled, in the case
of Wazirabad, Gujrat and Bhera, with movement to the Colonies and to the new
Mandis (grain markets) established therein.
Eecent 23. The places declared as towns for the first time at the pesent
growth of Census, are noted in paragraph 16. The
Towns. Population. Differ- population of some of these towns in 1911 and
1901 is compared in the margin. Rojhan is a
thriving town at the extreme south of the Dera
Ghazi Khan District, being the headquarters of
the Mazari Biloch Chief, and possesses the advan-
tage of being within easy reach of the tribes in
the Trans-frontier tract and in Bilucbistan. With
the development of population, it is assuming
urban characteristics in the way of a school,
a hospital, and the like. Abohar has grown into an important centre for the
export of agricultural produce and its population has risen 70 per cent,
within the past ten years. The case of Jaitu (in the Nabba State) is similar.
Sargodha is the creation of the last decade. Mianwali, an insignificant village,
has risen to importance as the headquarters of the new district of that name.
Talagang (Attock), Sambrial and Chawinda (Sialkot) and Jalalabad (Ferozepore)
are old villages which have been reported by the Deputy Commissioners to
possess distinct urban characteristics. Taunsa in the Sanghar Tahsil (Dera Ghazi
Khan), situated on the left bank of the Indus, is the seat of the Pir of Taunsa,
to whom it owes its sanctity, and has developed owing to the constant stream
of pilgrims which keeps pouring in from all parts of the Province, among them
being some persons of very exalted position.
Of the towns classed as such in 1901, those which have shown an increase
of 20 per cent, or more in population, are noted in the margin.
The increases in Simla, Kasauli and Dalhousie may be ascribed
largely to the growing tendency of Europeans to winter
at these hill stations, but the winter population of Simla
has also been affected by the permanent location of the Military
Offices of the Government of India there, and the popularity of the
Pasteur Institute has, no doubt, added materially to the population
of Kasauli. The difference in Jhelum, which has a Cantonment,
is due mainly to the movement of troops. The enormous rise in
the population of Lyallpur is the result of the development of the Colony.
Fazilka which was the terminus of a branch of the metre gauge, has now been
connected with the broad gauge Railway system. Being situated in the centre of
a now prosperous tract, it has shown much industrial activity (having established
4 wool presses) besides being the centre of trade in raw wool. Montgomery has
benefitted by the establishment of the Canal Division ofifices, colonization of a
part of the District, and the execution of canal works of great magnitude. A
large Mandi has been built at Muktsar and its prosperity accounts for the deve-
lopment of that town. Pakpattan which is the seat of the leading Chishti Fakir,
and has the shrine of Baba Farid Shakarganj, has now become an important sta-
tion ontheSutlej Valley Railway. Its industries are also in a flourishing condi-
tion. Campbellpur has gained by becominjg the headquarters of the Attock District.
Town.
Jhelum
Simla
Lyallpur
Fazilka
Montgomery
Muktsar
Fakpattan
Kasauli
Dalhousie
Campbellpur
Increase,
per cent,
... 32
... 34
... 113
... 29
... 23
... 38
... 28
... 46
... 20
... 32
17
I. THB T7RBAN POPULATION. [Punjab. 1911.
24. The number of towns falling in each class (see Imperial Table IV) Distribn-
is compared in the margin with the t i o n and
corresponding Bgures for the previ- f^'o^h of
ous Censuses. For the last 30 years P°P''^**°°
there have been only 3 to-wns (cities)*^ '''°^°!
with a population of over 100,000. ^^^^'5^^"®^
The number in the three lowest classes ^j^°^ *°^
has fallen, partly owing to the ex-
clusion from the hst of towns, of old
overgrown villages, which possess no
urban characteristics, and partly in
Serial.
No.
Class.
1911.
1901.
1891.
1881.
I
100,000 and over
3
3
3
3
II
50,000 to 100,000
6
6
7
5
III
20,000 to 50,000
13
13
13
14
IV
10,000 to 20,000
30
34
32
30
V
5,000 to 10,000
77
99
97
107
VI
2,000 to 5,000
39
60
58
100
VII
Under 2,000
Total
6
13
U
21
17*
228
221
280
consequence of the ravages of plague and malaria in the smaller towns. The
number of towns with a population of 50,000 to 100,000 rose from 5 to 7
in 1891, but fell again to 6 in 1901, and there has been no change during
the last decade. Class III has shown no variation of late. The small decrease'
in class IV is due to a general decrease of population. The variations in the
population of each of the classes [all towns with a population of under 5,000
each (classes VI and VII) being put together] are noted in Subsidiary Table V. In
comparing the 6gures of one Census with another, for each class, the population of
only those towns has been taken into account, which were included in a particular
class at the Brst Census and treated as towns at the next Census as well. The
figures in column 5 give the variation between the population of those towns
which were included in Table IV of 1901 and have also been treated as towns at
the present Census, omitting places declared as towns for the first time at the
present Census and those which were treated as towns in 1901, but have now been
treated as villages; the effects of difference in classification being thus eliminated.
The figures given in columns 5 to 7 of the Subsidiary Table represent true varia-
tions. On the whole, the urban population has shown a decrease of 1-5 per cent,
but it is remarkable that the two highest classes — 4. e., towns with a population of
over 60,000 — have shown a fair improvement in spite of the effects of epidemics,
the rise being 7 per cent, in class I and 3-2 per cent, in class II, as compared with
the figures of 1901. \.\l other classes show a falling off, the variation being
more remarkable in towns with a population of 5,000 to ^50,000, which suffered
most from epidemics.
The rate of increase of population during the past 80 years in the towns
Percent, of 1881 is given in the margin. The period is fairly
I -mono and over .V; +27^3 ^o°gf ^<3 representative of circumstances conducive to
II.— 50,000 to ICO, 000 ... +29 6 development and decay. For the whole Province, the
?|Z foZ l: lofoo :;; -■'2I '^^^ i« ^^out 12 per cent, for 30 jears, which gives a
vi— 5.000 to 10,000 ... 1 -6 rough average of about -4 per cent, per annum. The
VL- 2,000 to 5,000 ... +15-6 class with a population ot 50,000 to 100,000 lias
benefitted most, the rate of increase being 29*6 or, roughly speaking, about 1
per cent, per annum. But most of this increase took place in the first decade and
since then the variations have been insignificant. Class I alone has shown a steady
development, and the lowest class has made a substantial advance.
25. Only 10-61 per cent, of the total population in the whole Province j. -r,
resides in towns, the rest hving in villages. The percentage in the Native States tion%"
is still lower, being 8-43, while in British Territory, rather more than 11 perpulation
Province 1911.1901.1891.1881. cent, of the people live in town.^. Thebetween
Indo-Gangetic Plain West 14 15 14 10 percentage of urban population by Towns and
Sub-Sayrxract Z 9 9 9 10 ^.^tural Divisions is given in the mai- Country.
N.-W. Dry Area 7 8 9 lo gin. The Indo-Gangetic Plain Contain-
ing the cities and most of the strong towns has the largest proportion of urban
population. The Himalayan Tract which can only boast of 8 towns and those
too not very large ones, stands lowest. The corresponding figures of the previous
Censuses are also noted in the margin. The proportion of the total urban popu-
lation appears to be at a standstill, for the development of towns on account of
industries, particularly those assisted by machinery, and the growing requirements
of the centres of Government and Education is more or less counterbalanced
by the opening of new Railways which connect all important agricultural tracts
with the port of Karachi and such large centres of trade as Amritsar and Delhi,
18
Census Report ] the eubal population. Chapter
and divert the trade from less important centres to outlying places. Almost every
Railway station is now a centre of export. Grain, cotton and other produce are
drawn to these stations from the adjoining tracts and the agents of exporting
firms arrange to buy the produce as it reaches there, thus obviating the necessity
for the producer to go to trailing centres, in order to dispose of his surplus produce.
The Rural Population.
D«flaitio« 26. The definition of " village " prescribed for Census purposes was : —
of Tillage. •' A village {Deh) means any area —
(a) for which a separate record of rights has been made, or
(6) which has been separately assessed to laud revenue, or would have been so
assessed, if the land revenue had not been released, compounded for or re-
deemed, or which the local Government may, by general rule or special
order, declare to be an estate."
The definition of village is identical with that of estate (Mauza) given in
section 3 (1) of the Punjab Land Revenue Act, XVII of 1887, and is the most
suitable one for the Punjab, where every district is divided into a number of
revenue villages falling uuder the above definitiou. All demarcated areas of
uncultivated and forest land, owned by Government, are declared to be estates
•within the meaning of the said Act.
All the Native States of the plains have also been divided into co-ter-
minous villages on the lines of the British Districts, but in the States lying
within the Himalayas, the revenue system is not very highly developed and
there has been no regular revenue survey. The term village is, therefore, either
not known there or is of doubtful significance. The cultivation in these tracts
is scattered and people live in isolated hamlets on their fields. Life and property
has been comparatively secure and the necessity for large numbt^rs of people
grouping together in strong collective homesteads has not arisen as in the plains.
The centres of trade which are usually identical v^ith the capitals of the States
supply the needs for exchange of goods. Groups of such hamlets are known by
the various names described in paragraph 26 (Chapter T) of Mr. Rose's Census Re-
port of 1901. In the Hill States, groups of varying magnitude have, at different
times, been taken as equivalent to the term " village." On this occasion, attempts
were made to reduce the number of villages which appeared in many cases to have
been artificially raised. It was laid down that the unit of collection of revenue
should be treated as a village. But, in spite of strenuous efforts, it has not beeu
possible to secure uniformity. The Kothi or other similar group of hamlets for
which revenue is paid at one place has generally been taken as a " village," and this
is as it should be, following the example of the western Punjab, where a village is
merely an administrative collection of a number of well holdings with or without
common interest in the neighbouring waste. Bnt in part of Suket and some of
the Simla Hill States, the revenue is collected from individual hamlets and, these
being taken as villages, their number lias gone up.
'Ihe nature of what is known as a village, is not uniform in British
Territory either, for while in the eastern and southern Punjab, there is a large
residential village, somewhere near the centre of the village area, where all the
owners, cultivators, artisans and traders of the village converge, in the
western Punjab, the village area usually contains numerous homesteads. In the
sandy Thai stretching into the Muzaftargarh, Mianwali and Shahpur Districts,
for instance, every working well has a small population of its own and the hamlet
is known by the name of the well. 'I'he village area may contain ten, twenty,
fifty or as many as five hundred such isolated homesteads, and in several cases,
there is no large collection of houses corresponding to the name of the village.
In some places, the village is known by the name of the most important well,
but in others, it is named after a tribe, while the wells belonging to the
principal members of that tribe have specific name.^. Again, in the north-west,
where cultivation depends mainly on rain, an estate usually has a main village
site, but it has a number of outlying homesteads, often of considerable strength,
known a.^ Wdndhds (outlying), or in the Salt-range and the rough raviny country,
Dhoks (places of shelter).
In the Biloch trans-Frontier tract, the tribes are mainly nomadic and
fixed residence is practically unknown. The system of administration is also
tribal, and the whole tract occupied by a tribe has to be reckoned as an unit.
19
THB ROKAL POPULATION.
[Punjab, 191L
The term Tillage as used in the Census Returns, therefore, signifies : —
(a) in tlie Hill States, the unit of collection of land revenue, whether
it be a hamlet or a group of hamlets,
(6) in the Native States of the plains and in all British Districts, the
collection or collections of houses, built for residential purposes,
Tvithin the area known in the Revenue recoi'ds as an estate,
(c) in the Biloch trans-Frontier tract, the area occupied by each tribe.
The division of the Biloch trans-Frontier into villages must not be
understood to mean that each tribe is confined to a continuous and defined area
and that no other tribe lives within these limits. They only signify the crudely
defined hinits of the jurisdiction of each tribal chief, inhabited mainly by that
tribe but also by others.
27. The total number of villages in the whole Province is 44,400 against Variatioiu
43,660 in 1901, as detailed in the margin. i° ^^^ ^^"^■
There is an increase of 758 villages iii^erof Til-
British Territory, due to (a) the formation ^**^**-
of new villages in the canal colonies, (6)
the splitting up of large villages at Settle-
ment iu consequence of strong hamlets
springing up in the village area, with
■ \ ; exclusive interests, and (c)"the treatment
as villages, of certain places which were classed as towns in 1901. In the case of
the Native States there has been a decrease of 18 on the whole, but lookino- into
individual cases, the variations and their causes are as noted below : —
Increases due to : — Decreases due to :—
British
Territory.
Native
States.
Total.
1901
1911
32,663
33,421
10,997
10,979
43,660
44,400
niSerence
+758
-18
-f740
(»') Creation of new villages owiag to
extension of cultivation : — 7i
Loharu
Faridkot
Kapurtbala
Bahawalpur
10
6
16
40
(it) Treatment as villages of places
classed in 1901 as towns : — 23
(i) Inclusion of uninhabited villages in the returns
of 1901 by mistake : — 17
Kalsia 6
Nahan 7
Jind 4
(u) The erroneous excess of one village in a Natire
State in 190 1 (the population figures being
correct) i
Nahan l
Dujana
Pataudi
Kapurtbala
Bahawalpur
Simla Hill States
Suket
Patiala
Jind
1
1
3
6
3
2
3
4
(m) Amalgamation
Patiala :—
of villages at Settlement
m
70
(m) Hamlets taken as villages in con-
sequence of their being units of
collection of revenue : — 1,698
(iv) Villages which have been deserted since last
Census (in Nahan) 3
{v) Units of revenue collections being taken aa
villages instead of smaller groups of hou.ses or
hamlets (in Chamba) 1 619
(vi)
Simla Hill States
Suket
1,321
, 277
Village
Nabha
of 1901, now classified as town
in
1
Total increase
1,693
Total decrease
Net decrease
1,711
18
The figures hardly need any comment. The increase in the number of villages
is due mainly to the creation of new villages
in tracts which are developing rapidly with
canal irrigation and the establishment of in-
dustries. The number of villages in the Hill
States is not a matter of much consequence,
but a comparison of the figures of some
of the States, which are given in the margin
for the last four Censuses, is interesting. The
general cause of the variations has already
been stated. The drop in Chamba from 1 ,670
to 51 and the rise in Suket and Baghal from
28 and 85 to 307 and 417, respectively, are notable instances of the vagaries of
the revenue system in these States.
State.
1881.
1891.
1901.
1911.
Nahan
2,068
963
973
962
Total Jubal
500
437
84
28
„ Bashahr ...
836
615
83
87
Keonthal
838
1,417
163
260
Baghal
346
423
85
417
Bilaspur
1,073
1,100
431
942
Minor HUl States
1,786
1,878
363
761
Mandi
4,558
4,417
146
146
Buket
219
219
28
307
Chamba
355
1,670
1,670
61
20
Census Report. 1
THB RURAL POPDLATION.
Chaptee
Character 28. The significance of the term village varies so considerably from
of Tillage i^ne part of the Province to another, that it is impossible to give any
rites. general characteristics which would even roughly cover the ground in all
parts of the Province. It wiU, therefore, be best to examine them by
Natural Divisions.
inlndo-Gan- In the indo-Gangetic Plain West, villages may be divided into two types,
^ijc Plain. q2(J gjj^ modern. The old village ia generally a large collection of thickly
populated houses, usually built on an eminence with due regard to the
convenience of a good supply of drinking water. The structure as it now
stands indicates no system or design, but a close examination of several villages
of the type shows that they were originally built on a comparatively smaller scale,
on a definite plan, which though crude was yet quite suitable to the requirements
of the founders of the village. The principle borne in mind appears to be to
have a bazar or road somewhere in the middle into which opened the shops that
were required for the commercial needs of the inhabitants. The houses were
built with their backs to this bazar and opening into the fields or open
country where the sti-ength of the population was small, or with courtyards leading
into the bazar. Where the population to be housed was larger, the houses were
built in double rows with a narrow lane between each two lines. The houses
opened into these lanes which were duly connected with the main street. This
appears usually to be the nucleus of the village homestead, which was gradually
added to as the pressure of population necessitated the erection of new structures.
Family associations, the desire t# be near friends and the ownership of particular
plots, resulted in the new buildings
being erected in all soiis of odd
corners, as close to the old build-
ings as was possible. The original
design had, therefore, to be given
up and additions went on in
different directions as chance per-
mitted. Excavations for building
purposes created ponds for the
storage of rain water, for the
use of cattle and for other require-
ments. The village pond, perhaps,
stopped the symmetrical growth
of buildings on one side ; on
another probably some natural ob-
stacle proved a hindrance and room
for extension was left only in one
direction or two. The diagram
given in the margin illustrates a
typical village of this class. The
village chaupdl, bdrddari, deorhi,
or the Lambardar's derd, as the
village meeting hall is variously
termed, and the village temple,
dharnisdld or mosque, situated in
pckgonnr
m
M <
r
X
<
I
I-
OHARM SAL/I
h1
1/1
O
I
some convenient quarter of the village, form the almost universal characteristics
of villages of this class. The scavengers usually live in a hamlet, situated at a
little distance from the village itself or are located in some unimportant corner
thereof, and the other menials are allowed to live in the bye-lane or in some place
on the skirts of the village. In the stronger villages, the village money-lender
usually has a pakka house built of burnt bricks, often double storeyed, and the
number of such houses indicates the prosperity of the village. A Primary
school and a Post-office complete the types of buildings in the average
village. The modern villages have been formed recently in tracts being
developed by means of canal irrigation. These villages are symmetrically built,
usually in the form of a square or a rectangle, with roads or bazars,
crossings and houses having systematic enclosures and with sufficient space
to meet subsequent expansion without prejudicing the original design.
21
I.
THB EUEAL POPULATION.
[ Punjab, 1911.
A ground-plan of this class of village is also given in the margin. These
villages though built of sun-dried
bricks similarly to the other
villages, are planned on more
hygienic principles. Villages of
the colonies which have grown
under the fostering care of the
Colonization officers, are the most
superior of this class.
The case of the Sub-Himakyanin ffimalayan
tract is quite similar to that of the e'taafar am
Indo-Gangetic Plain. In the Hima- tracts,
layas, there are really no villages.
Scattered houses built on the fields
serve for the residential require-
ments of the community, strong
collections of houses being more in
the form of towns than of villages.
In the N orth- West Dry Area, many in N.-W. Dry
of the old type villages were built ^'^^^
in the shape of forts surrounded by
mud walls, which the villages have
very often outgrown, owing to the
increase of population. In the tracts
served by canals, the graziers' huts,
rahnai^ OTvalgans have been replaced
by numerous prettily laid out residential villages. But further west, particularly
POND
Mbsaut
a
<
o
c
1
F««T orr ci
POHO
.1111111.
— ' n
-1 4-
1 I
:
•
4-^^!
.111.
TTTTTTT"
■-i-Tt-
-flf
R O A O
O
R 0 A O
1 1
Ftrfl
<
o
U ■:
-1 ;
-t—
1-
h-
H r-
H :
H :
—\ [
.11]
4---.- i-
-i H
H 1-
-+ t-
-f 1-
-1 h
-t <-
^TTTTir
TTTTTTTJ-
]i»o**o
4
RMWI.
POND
in the sandy desert, we still have scattered houses with strong central homesteads,
if any, constructed within the walls of the small fort which at one time or
another formed the headquarters of some local chiof or administrator (^art^ir).
The houses in the Himalayan tract have always an open front, but in the Courtyards.
other three divisions, wherever houses are built close together, each of them usually
has a courtyard of its own in which cattle are tied during the day and the females
sit out in the sun. Very often a number of iionses have a common courtyard, the
frontage of each house being particularly at the disposal of its occupants. Fruit
trees, such as Ber {Zizyphm Jujuba), Mango, Irah (Tamarind) or the like, or sliady
trees such es Nim {Aza'dirachta Indica) or Shisham {Dalbergia Sissio) »re often
planted within the courtyard to keep off the excessive heat of the sun. The
village chaupal invariably has a large tree — usually a Pipal [Ficus Religwsa) or a
Banyan — in front of it, for the convenience of people who assemble tliere daily, to
discuss village politics or for occasional gatherings. The menials' houses alone are
sometimes built without courtyards, particularly where the menials have no cattle.
29. Imperial Table III gives the classification of total population (urban villages
and rural). 'I'he classification of classified
rural population ha? been worked according to
out in Subsidiary Table III to this population.
Chapter. A comparative table is
given in the margin, showing the imm-
ber per mille of the rural population
falling in each class now and in 1901.
More than half the rural [>eople of
the Province live in villages with a
population of 500 to 2,000 each and
considerably over ono-fourth in the
smallest class of villages, oiz., those
having a population of under 500 souls.
Only 151 per raille live in decent sized villages with 2,000 to 5,000 inhabitants.
People lesiding in such of the large villages, with a population of over 5,000, '
which have, for one reason or another, not been treated as towns, are naturally
not very numerous, as cases of this type are rare and the places are very often
converted into towns by the creation of Municipalities or otherwise.
o
'It
d
S
&•
!•
a>
"3
Clas3.
§
a J-
&•
.a
2
9.9
O C3
13
a
5,000 and C 1901 ...
■ over. ( 1911 ...
22
21
66
12
26
20
10
87
6
22
2,000 to 1 1901 ...
163
191
198
120
145
5,000. 1 1911 ...
151
151
222
108
169
500 to ( 19(11 .
528
546
376
495
579
2,000. ( 1911 ...
540
561
400
493
594
U n d e r ( KHU ...
500. U91 1
2S7
242
360
373
250
289
272
291
393
215
22
CensoB Report. ]
THE EDBAL POPULATION.
Chaptib
State.
Population.
Number
of
villages.
Average
population
per
village.
Bilaspur
Baghal
Suket
93,107
26.f08
54,928
942
417
307
99
62
179
Average 30. Of the Natural Divisions, the Himalayan tract alone ahows as large
populationa proportion of population in the highest class of villages as 87 per mille,
per village but it has alreiidy been explained that the term village bas, in this Natural
in different Division, been used in the sense of an unit for the collection of revenue,
Nataral Di- which usually corresponds to a kothi or lappa comprising numerous hamlets
Tisions. scattered over a considerable area. The villages here are thus artificial and the
figure above-mentioned does not represent the measure of grouping together of
residential quarters. A correct idea of the state of affairs in this Natural Division
can be formed from the figures of
such States as Bilaspur, Baghal and
Suket, which give an average popu-
lation of 99, 62 and 179 respectively
per village (see margin). But this
Natural Division having escaped the
injurious effects of epidemics, and its
total population having developed in
the natural course, the tendency of the village.? has been to progress from the
lower to the higher classes. The Indo-Gangetic Plain which suffered most
from plague and malaria has shown a steady decline from higher to lower
classes as also the Sub-Himalayan tract, whose circumstances have been similar
to those of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, though in a smaller degree. The
North-West Dry Area escaped the ravages of plague, malaria and other
epidemics more or less, Jind the colonization of the tracts commanded by
the Cheuab and Jhelum Canals has led to growth of population. The villages
here have therefore risen from the lower to the higher classes. The proportion of
population in the highest class has, however, fallen from 26 to 22 per mille, owing
to the splitting up, during the recent settlement operations in the Mianwali
District, of a number of large villages into several smaller ones. The average
population per village, for the whole Province, is 487 persons, the corresponding
figures for British Territory and the Native States being 531 and 351 respect-
ively. On the whole, the villages of North- West Dry Area are the strongest,
having an average population of 584 souls, the weakest Natural Division in this
respect being the Himalayan with an avei'age of 331 persons per village. The
high average in the North-West Dry Area is due to the vigorous growth of
population in the Chenab and Jhelum Colonies and in the Siudh Sagar Doab
which was least affected by epidemics.
31. The nature of villages in the Province has been described above. In the
Himalayan and North-West Dry Area Divisions,
there are a considerable number of cases where
the village has more homesteads than one, but
assuming for the purposes of comparison that
all the homesteads in such a village were
brought together to one place and that through-
out the Province, each village represented one
point, the mean distance between villages in
each Natural Division* worked out after the
manner described in para. 96 of the Punjab
Census Report, 1881, would be as noted in the
margin. This distance should be largest where there are large stretches of
Hean'dis-
tauce be-
tween vil-
la ges.
District and Natural Division
distance
een any
viUages.
Mean
betw
two
TOTAL PROVINCE
1-87
1. Indo-Gangetio Plain West...
1 58
2. Himalayan
2-24
3. SuB-UlMALAYAN
1-32
4. Noeth-West Dey Abba
2-69
* Similar figores
for each district an
i Btate are —
1.
Hissar
... 2-47
16.
Ji7id State
.. 1-82
31.
Gnrdaspur
0-99
2.
Loharu State ...
... 1'96
17.
Nahha State ...
... 1-48
32.
Sialkot
0-99
3.
Rohtak
... 2-03
18.
Lahore
... 1-66
33.
Gujrat
.. 1-33
4.
Dujana Slate ...
... 193
19.
Amritsar
.. 1-33
34.
Jhelum
1-90
5.
Gurgaon
... 139
20.
Gujranwala ...
... 1-64
35.
Rawalpindi
.. 1-40
6.
Pataudi State ...
... 1-49
21.
Nahan State ...
... 1-20
36.
Attock
2-69
7.
Delhi
... 144
22.
Simla
... 2 19
37.
Montgomery ...
1-90
8.
Karnal
... 1-62
23.
Simla Bill States
... 1-55
38.
Shahpur
.. 2-35
9.
JuUundur
... 117
24.
Kangra
... 406
39
Mianwali
.. 406
10.
Eapurthala State
... 110
25.
Uandi Slate ...
... 3-10
40.
Lyallpur
.. 1-77
11.
Ludhiana
... 1-40
2G.
Suket State ...
... 125
41.
Jhang
203
12.
ilalerkolla State
... 1-28
27.
Chamba State ..
.. 7 60
42.
Multan
2'29
13.
Ferozepore
... 182
28.
Ambala
... Ill
43.
Biihnialpur State
.. 406
14.
Faridkot State...
... 2-07
29.
Kahia State ...
... 105
44
Muzallargarh ...
2-87
15.
Patiala State ...
... 133
30.
Hoshiarpur
... Ill
45.
Dera Ghazi Khan
.. 3-58
23
CITIES AND 8BLECTKD TOWNS. [ Punjab, 1911.
land not available for cultivation and from thia point of view, the Himalayan
Division should have shown the largest figure, but the unit (village) in the
Himalayan tract is very much smaller, compared with that adopted in the other
Divisions, and consequently the North- VVest D17 Area with its extensive sandy
waste tops the list. The Sub-Himalayan tract is at present the most thickly
studded with villages, the mean distance in Gurdaspur and Sialkot being less
than a mile. But canal irrigation is fast reducing the distance from village to village
in the Indo-Gangetic Plain, as new villages are springing up, and the mean distance
in that Natural Division should, in the near future, be the smallest. The area of
the Province being a fixed quantity the increase of villages should lead to a general
fall iu the mean distance, but compared with the figures of 1881, it has increased
in some districts, owing to (1) a decrease in the number of villages, due to a
difiFerence in the interpretation of the term 'village' and (2) an increase in the
area of the districts by the adoption of Survey figures or by accretions.
32. The total area of the Province divided by the total number of villages Average
and to-\vns gives an average of slightly over 3 square miles. But this is the^i"eapervil-
average of the area constituting the Revenue village and not of the area under ^^S^'
village homesteads. Most of the village sites with a population of 500 souls or
less cover an area of five to ten acres. The strongest village Ahadis (homesteads)
seldom measure more than 100 acres, the village sites in the intermediate stages
varying in size, according to the strength of the population. The incidence of
population in villages is generally about 50 per acre.
Cities and Selected Towns.
33. The conditions of the three cities and the 6 large towns of the Province Citieg.
with a population of over 50,000 require mention in detail. Subsidiary Table VI
gives figures of population, density, sex proportion and immigration, for these units.
The city of Delhi, including the Cantonment attached thereto, covers Jy^^^■
an area of over 15 square miles, with a population of 232,837, which means
a gain of about 11^ per cent, over the figures of 1901. The Cantonment and the
part of the city outside the walls are sparsely populated as compared with the
interned portion ; tiie figures of density being 7,104 and 91,28(i per
square mile respectively. In the old city thereforn, 141 persons live on every
acre of land, which indicates congestion, and yet Delhi is a city with wide streets
and has plenty of open ground between the Port and the Jama Masjid. Delhi
being a large and old industrial and commercial centre, only 36 1 per mille
of its population are foreign born. Of the rest, 531 per mille were born in
the city itself, the remaining I08 being born m the district. The proportion
of foreign born residents in the city would have been still less, had not the
Delhi Darbar, for which preparations had already been started at the time of the
Final Enumeration, caused a large influx of people for various works,
notably tlie erection of camps and construction of roads, etc. In the part of
Delhi within the city wails, there has been a general increase of population,
except in wards 4 and 5, where plague accounted for a deficiency of 3,231 persons.
The increase in the other patts, which has resulted in an addition of 3,365 to the
population, is due to normal causes, principally the expansion of Railway and
Government offices, with the exception of wards 6 and 7 which benefitted by
immigration of labourers from Jaipur. The increase outside the city walls was
lai'ger and the effect of temporary immigration on account of the Delhi Darbar was
more marked hert^. [t is, impossible to ascertain accurately the increase due
purely to the arrangements connected with the Darbar. But rouj^hly speaking,
about half the increase of population outside the old city (21,286) was due to
abnormal causes. Deducing about 10,600 from the total increase, the correct
gain over the population of 1901, amounted to less than 7 per cent.
The chief occupations followed in this city are: — textile industries,
including lace and embroidery (workers and dependents 23,795), industries of dress
(16,294), industries of luxu'-y (15,101), transport by road, chiefly coolies (12,672),
trade in textiles and skins (8,919), trade in food stuffs ( 10,445), miHcellaneous shop-
keepings (10,017) and domestic service (14,288). The number of beggars is not
very large. As an indication of independence of means, it may be noted that
4,687 persons live on tlieir own income without pursuing any productive
occupation. The labouring classes come mainly from Bikaner, Jaipur and
24
Census Report. ] cities and selected towns. * Chapter
other Rajpntana States, and also from the adjoining districts of Gurgaon, Rohtak,
Meenit ("U. P.), etc. In connection with trade, people come from long distances.
Lahore. The city of Lahore with the Cantonment has an area of 29 square miles,
the largest for any city in the Province, and a population of 228,687, the latter
ahowino' an increase of 12'7 per cent, over the figure of 1901. The population
has developed steadily ever since 1S8I, the first decade registering a rise of 12-4
and the next one of 14*8 per cent. The present population stands 45'4 per cent,
above that of 1881. Excluding thw Cantonment, the area and population are 22
square miles and 210,271 persons respectively, giving a density of 9,4'29 persons
to a square mile. The part within the city walls has a population of 120,436
persons living on 558 acres, i.e., at the rate of 216 persons to every acre. In other
words, twenty-two square yards of ground space come to the share of every per-
son living within the four walls of the city. Not only has the congestion of this
part reached a stage where it will admit of no further addition to the
population, necessitating the movement of residents outside the city walls,
but the idea of living under better sanitary conditions and the inconvenience
of sudden evacuation in times of epidemics, has led to a large number of
well-to-do people taking up their abode in bungalows in the Civil Station
and strong settlements have grown up in the neighbourhood of the Railway
workshops and ofl&ces, the Chief Court and the other headquarter ofiBces
of Government. The proximity of colleges and courts has largely developed the
population of Anarkali. Inside the city walls, wards Nos. 2 and 5, i.e., the portions
inside Delhi gate and that from Shahalmi to Bhati gate continue to be the most
favoured and thickly populated residential quarters and the population has
increased from 16,239 to 20,106 in ward 2 and from 16,676 to 24,112 in ward 5
(including ^A). Throughout the city, there has been an increase large or small.
But wards Nos. 7 and 8, i.e., the western end of tlie city from tlie Bhati to the
Taksali gate, which is the most unpopular part, has lost about 8,(.>00 persons out
of a population of 35,408. The increase in population is shared about equally
by the portions within and outside the old city.
The immigration into this city is very large, as many as 436 per mille of the
inhabitants being born outside the district. The Railway affords means of living
for 30,814 persons. A large number of these come from different parts of the Pro-
vince and even from the United and N.-W. Frontier Provinces. Domestic service
supports 26,647 persons. Many workers of this class come from the Jullundur Divi-
sion. The labourers come from the districts of the Lahore Division, Gujrat,
Montgomery, Ferozepore and other places, including a considerable contingent from
the United Provinces and Rajpntana. The Army, Police and other Government
services draw immigrants from all parts of the Punjab as well as from the adjoin-
ing Provinces. The development of the population of the city is due mainly to
the strengthening of the headquarter offices of Governmnnt, the transfer to Lahore
of the Military Accounts Department and of the headquarters of certain Depart-
ments, the growth of the Railway workshops, the extensive building operations and
the establishment of new Educational and other institutions. The preponderance
of males over females is the consequence of the nature of this immigration and a
proportion of 596 females to every 1,000 males in the city is not surprising.
The population of Amritsar fell from 1881 to 1891 by 10 per cent, but
more than recovered itself in the next decade, adding 18'8 to the population of
1891. During the past decade, there has been a decrease of 6 per cent, in con-
sequence of the ravages of plague and malaria, the latter alone having carried off
about. 46,000 and the former nearly 6,0u0 persons. Nevertheless, the present
population is still about the same as in 1881. This does not speak very well of
the hygienic conditions of the town, and it would appear that the cocrgestion will
not allow further growth of population without an extension of the residential
area. The city, with the cantonment, covers 10 square miles and has a density of
15,700 persons per square mile excluding the cantonment. The area within the
city walls is 840 acres and the population of 140,697 gives an average of 167 per-
sons per acre, in spite of the thinning down caused by the heavy death roll The
city is not assisted by any abnormal causes in its growth. About three-fourths
of its population was born in the city or the district and the small proportion of
foreign bora people visit the city in connection with trade, domestic service and
Amritstir.
25
1. HOUSES AND FAMILIES. [ PuDJab, 1911.
of the immigrants is similar to that in the Lahore City, except that a large number
of pilgrims are found at all times, visiting the Golden Temple.
Silk spinning and weaving, wool carding, spinning and weaving,
dyeing, etc. of textiles are the main branches of industry in which labour is
employed here. The strongest occupation of this city is trade in different
branches, the total number of persons supported by all kinds of trade being
41,491 or over 27 per cent, of the inhabitants. The population has contracted
throughout the city, with the exception of ward 3, called the Clock Tower ward,
which, owing to the proximity of the Golden Temple, has had several new houses
and shops built in it, resulting in a substantial increase of population from 6,639 to
6,834, in spite of the loss suffered from plague and malaria.
34. The selected towns for which separate statistics have been given in Selected
some of the Imperial tables are Multan, Eawalpindi, Ambala, Jullundur, Sialkot Towns.
and Ferozepore.
The population of Multan has risen steadily throughout the last 3 decades, Muitan.
the increase at the present Census being lo'6 per cent., which Las followed
upon a larger increase of 17'2 per cent, in the decade ending 1901. This town
is the important trading centre of south-west Punjab and the dry, thouo-h hot,
climate has enabled it to grow in population. In 1909, this town was visited
with plague, but the excessive heat of June and July soon cleared the place
of the disease. In spite of the panic caused at the time, the losses were not
severe.
Rawalpindi developed very largely during the 20 years, 1881 to 1901, as an Rawalpindi,
important Military station and a secure trading centre near the frontier. It has
lost some of its importance by the separation of the North-West Frontier Pro-
vince, but it still forms the base of the trade route to Kashmir. At the present
Census, the population has shown a decrease of 1"4 per cent, which is, however,
attributed mainly to plague carrying off 2,072 lives. The movement of troops
and the removal of the Militai-y offices have also reduced the population of the
Cantonment. More than half of its inhabitants are foreign born.
Ambala has shown a small increase of about 2 per cent, in population Ambaia.
during the last decade. This again is a mihtary station and the variation is
mainly due to the movement of troops.
The town of Jullundur is growing steadily, its population having shown JnUundnr.
an increase of 2-3 per cent, during each of the past two decades.
The population of Sialkot has risen about 12 per cent, during the last Siaikot.
decade, due partly to the movement of troops and partly to the growth of the
Municipal town owing to the development of industries, chief amongst which is
the establisliment of several sports works.
Ferozepore has shown an increase of 3 per cent., the population, within Ferozepore,
the Municipal and Cantonment limits having risen 5 and 1 per cent., respectively.
The increase in the Municipal town would have been larger but for the ravages
of plague.
Houses and Families.
85. The type of structure used for residential purposes varies greatly from Description
rural to uiban tracts, from district to district, from villages occupied by one of houses.
caste or tribe to those inhabited by another, and Avithin each village, from houses
intended for menials to the building belonging to the headman.
The houses in the villages are generally built of mud, but whether of sun- nouses in
dried bricks, of sun-dried clods of earth, of ordinary mud (Phaska or Daudi), of '■"■'^' ^"cts.
mud beaten within regulating planks of wood, or of stone, as in the hills, depends
upon local tastes and facilities and the resources of the occupant. Tlie poorer
classes often reside in reed huts and numadic tribes live in temporary portable
shelters of cloth or reed screens. The houses are generally roofed with wood
of variovis qualities, with a thatch which is or is not plastered over, or in
the hills, with slate on gables. Kvery house has a little open space in front
of it. The one room, which has a single door, serves the purpose of sitting,
sleeping, cooking and godown for the inmates, i.e., it contains all the be-
longings of the family, and all household tasks such as grinding, spinning,
sewing, churning aud cooking have to be carried on, in this one room. The
necessity for space in front of the liouse is, therefore, very essential. A
26
Census Report. ] houses and families. Chapteb
shelter for cattle is usually appended to the house, and it is only in the
case of those who are very poor, usually raenials, that the live-stock of the
occupant have to be accommodated in the same room with him. The well-to-do
residents, as a rule, build an enclosure, large or small, in front of the house, and
very often several families have a common courtyard. The village headman
genernlly has a roofed porch to the enclosure, with a gate large enough
to admit a bullock cart or camel, and the slielter is utilized as a sitting room.
The village banker who is invariably tlie richest man in the place, has most
need for securing himself against burglars, and strengthens his house in various
degrees. The walling of hia enclosure is fairly high, he builds his inner room of
burnt bricks and eventually, if he can aiford it, he will have a second storey to his
inner apartments. Paklca houses of well-to-do landowners and other local magnates
are exceptions rather than the rule, although the number of such houses is increas-
ing rapidly. The above description applies to most places in the Province.
For a more detailed account of the various kinds of houses, the District Gazetteers
might be referred to.
Houses in Jq the towns and cities, the houses are seldom of one storey, not, of
ci^ *° course, counting those in Civil Stations and recent extensions, which are being
built on western style. The ordinary house is usually two or three storeyed, but
the houses of the wealthier classes often go up to as many as five or six. The lim-
ited space and the high value of Iwilding sites in congested towns, forces people to
build upwards, in order to provide the accommodation needed, for the growing
family, and the necessity of catching the breeze on sultry summer nights results in
raising the houses higher and higher, the process being accelerated by rivalry and
by the desire to secure privacy by building one's house higher than those of the
neighbours. Very few houses have courtyards on one side. The usual practice in
habitations of the old style is, to have a little open space in the middle of the house
round which rooms are built. Balconies are usually projected on to this court-
yard in the second and third storeys, but it is never covered on the top. This
is a device to admit light and air into these narrow structures, and among the
Hindus, it is also necessary to have such an opening, because most of their
religious ceremonies must be performed beneath the open sky. The
roofs are used for the purpose of sleeping in summer and the uppermost storey
usually consists of small open sheds, to afford shelter at night, during the summer
rains. The conservancy arrangements are also generally relegated to the upper-
most roof, except in the eastern Punjab, where the admission of the sweeper to
the top storey is considered objection;ible and the latrine is located in the lowest
flat, usually in the form of sandixs which can be cleaned from outside the house — a
most insanitary arrangement. The houses which are being added to the skirts
of the old towns and cities are mostly one storeyed and are built more or less on
the European plan, with grounds attached to them, which are laid out as gardens.
Material used. The materials generally used in towns arepakka bricks, or stone in districts
where stone quarries are at hund; i\m\ deodar, kail {Pinus excelsa) or chil {Pimts
longifolia) wood. In the houses of the wealthier classes, shisham, teak and walnut
are freely utilized. Red Agra stone, giey sandstone and marble, both Mekrana
and Italian, are largely used in such houses.
Recent im- 36. Within the last ten years, a wonderful improvement has been made in
provements the design of houses generally. The standard of hving having risen, more houses ^
in the type -within rural tract are now made oi pakka bricks and more durable material is
of houses, generally used in the way of wood. Considerations of sanitation are filtering
down to the masses and windows are now very often put up in rooms which formerly
had but one opening. Little grated apertures for admitting fresh air are also being
introduced, and where there is an educated boy in the house, he manages to stick
up a ventilator, whenever the rebuilding of the ancestral habitation is imder-
taken. In the Kangra District, where a wholesale reconstruction of houses became
necessary after the memorable earthquake of 1905, the new structures have in
most villages been provided with ventilators. In certain towns, zealous Health
Officers have succeeded in getting the plinth of some newly built houses made rat-
proof and the ravages of plague have no doubt, in many places, impressed on
people, the npcessity of living under better hygienic conditions. In towns, the old
system of building underground cellars (sard-khdnd) for the excessively hot days
27
I. HOUSES AND FAMILIES. [Poiljal), 1911.
of summer has been completely abandoned, as the adoption of panlchas, the use of
ice and other cooling beverages, added to the moderate temperature of the lower
storeys in houses which run up to a great height, renders the underground
cellar superfluous.
If the style of houses has improved, the style of the furniture used
therein, has also kept pace with the change. In towns and cities, the
adoption of western dress has revolutionized the whole system of furnish-
ing houses. In the houses of the better classes, the old carpet and great pillow
(gdo takid) have been replaced by tables, chairs, cushioned armed chairs
and sofas, and a corresponding change has occurred in the toilet, dinino-
room and other furniture. In the villages too, one finds remarkable changes.
In the houses of the poorest rustics, the chirdgh has given place to
the cheap kerosine oil burner (which, by the way, is far more injurious
to health), and in every other house, one comes across a hurricane lantern. The
village torch-bearer is gradually disappearing. Enamelled plates and tumblers
are found in abundance, particularly in Muhammadan houses, dishes and
cooking utensils of metal are replacing earthen articles, and most houses are
proud of possessing a wooden box, or a steel trunk of sorts, as the receptacle of
the family belongings, instead of the old cane basket. In the smaller toilet and
household requisites, there is an abundance of imported articles, such as
little looking glasses, knives, scissors, etc., and the clothing which in the old
days consisted of nothing but homespun cloth, now partakes largely of muslin,
longcloth, chintz and other fabrics bought in the market.
37. Considerable difficulty has been felt in defining a house. At previous Definition
censuses, the type of a city house, which usually has one entrance to the whole of ^oise.
of the structure, was taken as the standard, and in rural as well as urban tracts,
a house was defined as an ahata (enclosure), within which several commensal
families could reside. In order, however, to arrive at the correct number of
families, the hearths {chuhlds) inside each house had to be enumerated. But the
enclosure is not the unit in rural tracts, for in several cases, more than one
separate family resides in houses opening into a common courtyard, and yet
beyond the tie of fellowship consequent on proximity of residence, there
is nothing common between them. To avoid misapprehension, ' house ' was
translated ' ghar' (Persian Khdnd), and in view of the different standards of in-
terpretation in villages and towns, separate definitions were given for rural and
urban tracts. The following definition was prescribed in the Provincial Census
Code for the guidance of Enumerators : —
" • House ' ighar) is the smallest Census unit and may be defined as follows :
In rural tracts ' House' means a structure occupied by one commensal family with
its resident dependents, such as widows and servants. Such detached structures as have no
hearth but are likely to have one or more persons sleeping therein on the nighi of the final
enumeration should be treated as separate houses, so that no person may escape enumeration.
In toivns and cities, ' House ' means a structure intended for the exclusive residence
of one or more commensal families, apart from other residents of the street or lane, and
includes serais, hotels and the like, when they are not large enough to form blocks. Shops,
schools and other institutions having no hearth, but which may possibly have some one
sleeping therein on the night of the final enumeration, should be numbered as separate houses.
Note. — In Civil Stations, each line of servants' quarters will be treated as a
separate house."
The distinction between the house and hearth {clmhld) was thus done away
with in the rural tracts, where the family is considered one, as long as it eats
from one kitchen, no matter how many house-rooms may be occupied by the
members thereof. As soon as a separate hearth is established, the family splits
up into two and the residences are treated as separate houses, even though they
may open into a common courtyard. It must be noted that in order to provide
for the omimoration of persons found on the night of the final Census at odd
places, houses without hearths, shops, isolated sheds, etc., were treated as occupied
houses, if any person happened to be sleeping therein on the night of the Census.
Indeed a house number was assigned to encamping grounds and other open plots
of land used by travellers for rest at night, and a house number was assigned to
the whole area of the village outside the houses. Similarly, occupied tents were
treated as houses and so were Railway carriages and boats. In towns, the word
28
Census Report. ] hoosks and families. Chaptkb
•house' (ghar OT makdn) conveys a fixed significance. The structure is called
a house ii-respective of the number of families that may reside in it ; but where
two parts of a house were separated by a partition, howsoever temporary, each
being occupied by a separate family, the building was taken as equivalent to
two houses ; and similarly the two flats of a house occupied by two different
families worn treated as two different houses, if there was nothing in common
between them. The object of the alteration in the definition of ' house' was to
make it less artificial and to arrive at a correct criterion for judging the
strength of a family. But the obvious result of the alteration was to multiply
the number of houses, to a certain extent, and to reduce proportionately the
average number of persons per house.
Number of 38. The total number of occupied houses now ascertained is: — British
houses per Territory, 4,454,236; Native States, 950,779; Total Province, 5,405,015. The
squaremile. average number of houses per square mile arrived at for
1891 ... 27 the four Censuses is given in the margin. The increase
is'oi - 30 at the pi-esent Census is due, not only to the change in defini-
tion, but also to tlie fact that the number of houses has
increased considerably, in consequence of general development, particularly
in the colonies and in towns.
Figures for each district and state are given in Subsidiary Table VII.
The average is largest in the Sub- Himalayan tract which has 71 houses to
every square mile. The Indo-Gangetio Plain West comes next with 64, the
North-West Dry Area has only 21 (in spite of the average of 52 in Lyallpur), and
the HimMlajau tract shows an average of only 17 houses to the square mile.
The Julliindur District with an average of 132 is the most thickly studded with
housea and Amritsar (122), Delhi (111), Maler Kotla (109), Kapurthala (107)
and Sialkot (105) are not far behind in this respect. The high averages of
the Sub-Himalayan tract and Indo-Gangetic Plain West are due to high
density. The most thinly housed tracts are the Bahawalpur (11) and Chamba
(9) States.
Average 39. But, while the number of houses per square mile differs from district
number of to district, the standard of population per house is more or less uniform throughout
persons per the Province. Ihe average for the Piovince is 4*5 and the figures for the Natural
house. Divisions are: — Indo-Gangetic Plain West 44, Himalayan tract 4*6, Sub-Himala-
yan 4*3, and North-West Dry Area 4*7 Not a single district or state shows an
average of less than 4 or more than 5 persons per house. The Provincial average
which was 6'8 in 1881 and 6'6 in 1891 fell to 6*2 in 1901. The present decrease
to 4'6 is due not merely to the increase in the number of houses as explained
above, but also to a considerable falling off in the population, for reasons which will
be explained in the next Chapter. It will, however, be noticed from the first half
of Subsidiary Table VII, that the definition of house resulted in variations in the
average population per house of the diffpient tracts from 5 to 10 during the past
three Censuses, and the fact that the fluctuiition has, at the present Census, been
reduced to a minimum, would tend to prove that the standard now adopted is
equally suitable for all parts of the Province, The average of 4*5 persons per
house means a family consisting of a man and wife with two children. Allowing
for widowers, childless widows, old bachelors, etc., it may perhaps be correct to
say that a normal family consists of a husl)and, wife and three children or a
husband, wife, two children and an old parent.
The size of the family does vary to a certain extent with material conditions,
but it depends mostly upon circumstances which determine the prolificness of the
people, whether by castes or by geographical limits. Indeed, the high living
of the more well-to-do members of even a prolific community results in loss
of vitality and procreativo power, with the result that his family shrinks to a
much f-maller size than that of others in less affluent circumstances. In the Niazi
Pathans of Mianwali, for instance, there are cases in which the head or chief of
a family lias one eon and often none, while a younger brother has 8 or 10 sons
and each of them has half a dozen < lildien. I have known families in which
the chief had one son who died childless, while the younger brother had as
many a? forty grandchildren. Thelnttcr only received a maintenance allowance
from the ancestral land, and could not afford to indulge in luxury or licentiousness.
29
BOOSES AND FAMILIES.
[ Punjab, 1911.
AVBRAQE AEEA DKDBB EACH
City and
HOUSE.
selected towns-
Including
Excluding
Cantonment.
Cantonment.
Acre.
Acre.
Delhi
•22
■18
Lahore
■43
•36
Amritsar
•23
•22
Multan
■30
•21
■Rawalpindi ...
•29
•23
Ambala
■56
■22
Jullundur
■79
■65
Sialkot
■65
•24
Ferozepore ...
■60
•35
The difference in the size of the family in rural and urban tracts is by no means
considerable. The rural population, excluding the population of towns, also
gives an average of about 4 inmates per house, and the average for towns and
■cities is not more than 5. Even the largest and most thickly populated cities and
towns, namely the cities of Delhi, Lahore and Amritsar, and the towns of
Rawalpindi, Jullundur and Sialkot show an average of 5.
40. The average area under each house in cities and selected towna Proximity
is noted in the margin. Figures for the city of houses,
of Lahore, i.e., excluding the Cantonment, give
an average of "36 of an acre. The space avail-
able for the extension of houses appears to be
most limited in Delhi, where the average
area per house, excluding the Cantonment, is
•18 of an acre. But the figures in the margin
do not indicate the pressure on house-building
space in the heart of the cities. By way of
example, that part of the city of Lahore, which
lies within the city walls, covers an area of
558 acres with 20,691 houses. The average
area under a house in this part of the city,
therefore, is "027 of an acre, i.e., a little over four marlas. In other words,
there are 37 houses to every acre against 2f in the whole city, including the
Civil Station, but excluding the Cantonments.
Xn the cities and towns, houses are built cheek by jowl, i. e., wall
to wall and back to back, but in the modern extensions of towns, they are
.as far as possible erected at a small distance from one another. But
where the rush is great and the area available limited, houses are springing
up on the intervening spaces and consequently, the distance between these outly-
ing houses is also decreasing. Nevertheless, the difference between the area
under each house, inside and outside the old city limits, is considerable. Measure-
ments taken for a large number of houses in the Civil Station of Lahore give
an average of 2'25 acres per house against the average of ^027 for the city inside
the four walls.
41. The true "mitaJcshara" joint family system, which may be described The joint
as a sort of Joint Stock Company, in which the head of the family {Kartd) family Sys-
is the Managing Director, with almost unlimited powers, and all the membens tem.
of the family regard their earnings as belonging to the common treasury, the
expenditure being under the direct control of the head, hardly exists in the
Punjab. In its widest sense, it is confined to a very few Hindu families, parti-
cularly in the towns of the eastern Punjab. Such instances occur in cases *
where the joint ancestral property or business is very large and sufficient to
provide occupation for all the members of the family. But it prevails in the
urban tracts and in the higher strata of society throughout the Province, in a
more or less modified form. In the Delhi Division, the Hindu families are usually
joint in a less technical sense. All the members live in the same house and
whether they keep their incomes in a joint fund or under separate control, they
make common cause on all occasions of ceremonial. Some Muhammadan families,
specially those who have descended from Hindu ancestors, show a marked tendency
to retain many of their old customs, and among other things keep up the joint family
system to the same extent as is done by their Hindu collaterals. In all well-regulat-
ed families in the towns, and in those of rural notables, whether Hindu, Muham-
madan or Sikh, the concern is joint during the lifetime of the father, except
where, owing to family dissensions or fear of disagreement with the stop-mother,
one or more sons are separated off. The sons and their families live in the same
house with their father and surrender all their earnings to him, to bo disposed of
by him as he chooses. Young men of modern education, imbued with Western
ideas of individual right form an exception to the rule, and do not mind starting
a private purse even in the presence of their father. But the crucial test of the
joint family system is the attitude which is adopted after the death of the father.
The cases in which an uncle or the eldest brother is recognized as the absolute
•head of the joint family, aro becoming rarer every day, except where the enjoy-
80
Census Report. ] HO^JS^a and families. Chaptkk
ment, by the sojip, of some Jdgh or other hereditary distinction, necessitates the
obserTance of the rule of primogeniture. But even here, the true principles
of the joint family system are departed from, as the younger brother of the
deceased has to give way to his eldest son. When this tfikes place, the uncle
usually separates himself from the rest of the family and takes up a separate
abode. In commercial concerns, the family has to be kept joint out of sheer
necessity, even against the wishes of the co-parceners. But here again, the
brothers very often arrive at some sort of understanding, whereby they retain
control of their private purses, leaving the income from the joint property
to be administered by the head of the family, with or without limited contributions,
from the savings of the individual members. In nine cases out of ten, however,
the profits are divided periodically, the members being left absolute masters of
their individual shares, even though the property remains joint. In such cases the
tendency usually is to break up the family and to form separate homes. When
the property is partitioned joint living is out of the question.
Among the Muhammadans of foreign extraction or descent, the joint
family system is little known, except among Jagirdars, for the property must,
according to the Shar'a, be divided between the numerous relations of the
deceased proprietor. But the system obtaining among the Kazilbash Nawabs of
Lahore, whereby one member of the family is appointed manager and trustee
of the joint property, bears a striking resemblance to the Hindu joint family
system in the strictest sense.
The case of the rural population is quite different. The family usually
possesses but one residential room, and consequently as soon as the son gets
married, a separate room has to be provided for him. This need not, however,
be accompanied by a separate hearth. Indeed, for some time they aU dine to-
gether, but as soon as the son's wife is able to look after herself or the chances of
friction between her and the mother-in-law are apparent, the only possible
remedy of establishing a separate hearth is readily resorted to. In this case, the
son seldom takes his share of the property on separation from his father,
but it is not unusual for the father to allot a portion of land to the separated
son, more or less equal to the share he would be entitled to, after the
former's death, subject, however, to re-adjustment at or before his death. Such
cases are very common in the western Punjab, where the father often
separates off all his sons except the youngest, with whom he usually resides till
his death. In the eastern Punjab and particularly among the Hindus, instances
of married sons living under the roof of their father are common enough, but
amongst the Muhammadans the tendency for the married son to take up a separate
residence is more marked, especially if the father marries a second wife. On the
death of the father, the sons, as a rule, begin to live independently of each other,
dividing the property straight away or, if the property is left joint, dividing
the profits of their joint labour every harvest.
The joint family is thus disintegrating, owing to the exigencies of the times
and the growth of individualism. Partitions are formal or informal, separations
by declaration or by conduct. Properties are often enjoyed jointly, without
maintaining a joint coffer or even commensahty. In short, the joint family of the
present day is more a matter of convenience than an inviolable institution.
31
SDBSIDIABY TABLES.
[ Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIAEY TABLE I
•
Density, water-supply and crops-
a
Peeobntaoe of
PlECBNTAQE TO
2
Peeoehtaob op
3E033 OULTIVATED |
o
TOTAL
ABIA.
CULTlTABLBAaEAOJ'
>
AEEA UNOBB
District or State and Natural
B
10
a
1^-
as
Division.
'rs
m
^'
^
<I>
S
a.
°^
•a
.
a>
1
c3
p.
o
1?
e
■1
0.
0
<» .
s
'■*-»
o
2 ^
t-t
.>
'3
'3
3
3
is "
03
o
i
a
"a
o
o
p
Oh
a
(2
^
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
TOTAL PROVINCE.
177
57
33
58
10
32
30-70
36
273
22-9
462
1. Indo-Ganoetio Plmn West—
286
91
71
78
11
24
26-89
15
17-7
301
50-7
1. Hissar
154
95
74
78
7
7
20-73
•3
3-1
36-7
59-9
2. Loharii State ... ...
84
98
58
59
2
21-00
...
662
33-8
3. Rohtak
301
94
81
86
22
""lO
29-40
"53
292
65-5
4. Dujana State
255
96
92
95
9
5
29-40
...
1-4
972
1-4
a. Gurgaon
324
86
75
87
19
11
2;v96
...
5-5
27-6
66-9
6 Pataudi State
376
92
83
90
24
18
17-25
...
5-6
79-5
14-9
7. Delhi
510
84
65
78
21
t4
31-86
-2
13-4
27-4
59-0
8. Karnal
254
86
52
60
10
19
35-42
5-5
17-5
27-3
49-7
9. Jullundur
560
88
77
87
22
43
28-38
•4
22:1
22-3
45-2
10. Eapurthala State
42G
97
62
65
3
44
44-50
1-4
707
10-7
17-2
11. Ludhiana
356
92
80
87
5
20
39-09
•3
S6-7
38-9
34-1
12 ilaler Kotla State ...
426
94
64
90
22
29-45
ioi
157
74-2
13. Ferozepore
224
94
84
90
"ll
24
16-43
"i-6
250
36-5
36-9
14. Faridkot State
203
95
91
96
6
17
22-56
• ••
-5T"4
5-7
72-9
15. Patiala State
260
91
73
80
11
16
29-83
•8
7-0
37-8
54-4
16. Jind State
216
95
81
85
9
9
21-04
•4
3-5
20-8
75-3
17. Habha State
268
92
73
80
10
22
17-74
•1
69
28 6
64-4
18. Lahore
367
83
58
69
12
61
26-34
2-8
35:3
22-3
39-6
19. Amritsar
550
88
74
84
22
48
26-99
4-8
^■i
21-3
38-5
20. uujranwala
226
92
54
59
5
59
23-40
4-4
35-3
22-0
3S-3
2. Himalayan—
78
21
10
49
25
19
61-44
121
301
173
40-5
21. Kahan State
116
64
15
23
12
9
72-90
6-4
30 -6
7-4
55-6
22 Simla
389
46
14
30
16
9
bS-55
58-55
6-4
30 6
7-4
55-6
23. Simla Bill States ...
68
75
26
85
15
13
4-8
25-9
350
34-3
24. Kangra
77
13
8
62
33
22
90-88
151
31-7
11-1
421
25. ilandi State
151
13
8
62
33
22
49-73
151
31-7
Ul
42-1
26. Sulcet State
131
13
8
62
33
22
49-73
151
31 7
ll-l
42-1
27. Chamba State
42
13
8
62
33
22
49-73
151
317
11-1
42-1
3. SCB-HIMALAYAN—
305
64
50
78
14
13
33-42
36
37-2
18-6
40-6
28. Ambala
373
73
60
83
20
3
31-04
8-4
23-9
240
437
29. EaUia State ...
333
70
52
74
12
6
37-30
81
19-4
17-5
55-0
30. Hoshiarpur
409
65
49
76
25
6
37-7fi
4 0
31-7
2.'i-3
41-1)
31. Gurdaspur
443
81
68
84
17
18
37-47
65
33 5
19-9
40-1
32. Sialkot
492
87
68
77
18
37
29-12
6-3
87-5
14-1
42-1
33. Gujrat
364
81
62
76
9
16
3-J-57
1-3
397
17-9
41-1
34. Jhelum
182
49
38
78
7
4
34-99
■2
46-2
15-8
37-8
35. Rawalpindi
273
51
41
81
10
2
3G-33
-2
39-4
20-6
39-8
36. Attock
129
48
35
72
4
6
24-21
...
48-3
14-5
37-2
4. Noeth-West Dey Aeea—
99
69
20
34
3
73
12-55
38
40-6
123
433
37. Montgomery
115
82
23
28
2
71
14-38
e-5
42-8
21-3
33-4
38. Shalipur
135
76
32
42
4
71
12-92
-8
485
11-6
44-1
39. llianwali
63
82
15
19
1
9
9-13
...
32-4
30-2
37-4
40. Lyallpur
272
93
68
73
14
98
23-68
3
41-0
10-6
48 1
41. Jhang
153
90
29
33
4
81
13-44
•8
46-2
no
42-2
42. Multan
133
89
24
27
4
85
G-88
2-8
40-4
11-5
45-3
43. Bahaioalpur State
52
13
8
63
79
2417
142
42-3
3-3
40-2
44. MuzaSargarh
94
88
18
20
3
75
5S5
6-4
44-5
12-2
86 9
45. Dera Ohazi Khan ...
67
73
20
28
1
42
3 52
69
28-2
10-5
644
Note. — The percentages have been worked out by adopting for the Native States, where tlie requisite information was not available
the figures of the adjoining British Districts or Kative States.
Censns Report]
32
8UBSIDURT TABLES.
Chaptie
SUBSIDIARY TABLE II.
Distribution of the Population classified according to Density. |
Tahails with a Population per square mile of 1
Under 150.
150-300.
300—450.
450—600.
600—750.
750—900.
OQ
OQ
CO
CO
m
CO
Natural Division.
o
8
If
s
o
§
O t3
IB
la
"3 s
"a'a
I'a
'3 B
s
I'i
C o
©
0.0
o
O. o
a>
O. o
o
P. o
O. o
^
t-.
<
P-,
<
o,
<!
P^
<i
Ch
<S
P~
->1
13
1
2
3
4
5
9,753
6
1
8
9
10
11
12
1,006
C
(
59,CG5
4,105
45,519
1G,175
5,831
5,233
2,G60
1,559
1,027
822
Punjab
4620
16-97
35-24
40-32
12-52
2410
405
1096
1-21
4-25
•78
340
I
1,SG2
209
23,348
5,102
9,289
3,330
1,G54
849
1,122
744
973
793
Indo-Gangetic Plain West
4-87
1-90
6104
46-27
24-29
3019
4-33
7-70
293
675
2-54
719
{
10,851
005
5,023
1,087
9
4
...
33
29
Ulmalayan
6817
3507
3r56
63-05
06
•23
...
...
■21
165
3,570
358
5,871
1,264
5,G30
2,099
3,579
1,801
437
283
Sub-Himalayan
18-70
617
30-76
21-77
2950
3616
1875
3102
229
4-88
...
...
J
43,382
2,933
11,277
2,300
1.247
398
North- West Dry Area ...
(
7T60
5209
20-17
40-84
2-23
707
...
...
Note.— The
figures in antique show the percentage to the total area and population.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE III.
Distribution of the Population between towns and villages. |
Average
population per
dumber per
Uumher per mille of urhan
Numher per mille of rural
mille
population residing in to^vns
population residing in
Natural Division.
residing in
with a population of t
illages u-ith a population oj
S
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
0
§
o
o"
1
>
o
•a
o
o
g
o-
O
.
V)
CO
3
^
o
M
W3
g
bO
a
^
§
a>
o
o
3
<D
^
^
o
o
H
>
^
r3
>
5
6
558
o
7
to
a
10
20
o
o
in
a
1
2
3
487
4
8
9
11
151
12
13
Punjab
14,754
106
894
169
210
63
54(
) 289
Indo-Gangetic Plain West
1K,541
531
U5
855
ess
142
169
41
16
151
66]
I 272
Ilimalavan
6,356
331
2!)
971
381
525
94
87
222
40
L 291
Sub-Himalayan
11,709
419
91
909
490
172
209
129
C
108
49.
5 393
North-West Dry Area ...
11,287
584
70
930
1 317
243
377
63
22
169
59
I 215
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV. 1
Number per mille of the total Population and of each main religion who |
live in towns.
Natural Division.
Nixir.FE pi;k mille who live in towns.
Total
Population.
Hindu.
Sikh.
Jain.
Muham-
madan.
Christian.
Zoroastrian.
J
2
1
3
4
S
C
7
8
Punjab
06
118
51
529
106
250
949
iDdo-Gangetic Plain West ..
lib
140
52
484
188
356
978
Himalayan
29
22
141
282
123
859
1,000
Sub-Himalayan
91
IIG
C5
784
79
231
875
North-West Dry Area
70
191
48
78*
51
88
930
33
SUBSIDIARY TABLKS.
[Pnnjab. 1911-
SUBSIDIARY TABLE V.
Towns classified by population.
Class of Town,
Number
of Towns.
Proportion
to total
urban po-
pulation.
Number
of females
per 1,000
males.
Increase per cent, in the population o
towns 08 classed at previous Census,
f
n.
Increase per cent, in urban po-
pulation of each class from
1881 to 191].
1901 to 19] 1.
1891 to 1901
1881 to 18!
(a) In towns as
classed in 1881.
(b) In the total
of each class
in 1911 as com-
pared with the
corresponding
total in 1881.
J
2
3
i
5
6
7
8
9
Totel
174
1
740
-15
+ 47
+ Ti
[
+119
- 3-4
1.-100,000 and over
3
•24
678
-f7^0
+ 13-4
+ 4-9
4.27-3
427-2
n.— 50,000— 100,000...
6
■18
656
,+3-2
+ 5^9
+18^6
+29^6
452-9
in.— 20,000— 50,000 ...
13
•u
821
—30
+ •«
-f 9^3
4 90
— 5-3
[V.—10,000— 20,000 ...
30
•17
754
— 7^8
+ z-0
4 6-5
- 23
+ 7-3
v.— 5,000— 10,000 ...
77
•21
816
-7-3
+ 2-2
-f 3-9
— -6
—23-5
Vl.-Under 5,000
45
•06
779
-3-4
4- 1-9
+ 66
4-15^6
-57-7
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VI.
Cities and Selected Towns.
City oe Selboted Town.
Population in
1911.
Number of
persons per
square mile.
Number of
females to
1,000 males.
Proportion
of foreign
born per
mille.
Pbboentagb op variation.
1901
to
1911.
1891
to
1901.
1881
to
1891.
Total
1881
to
1911.
1 1 2
3
4 5
6
1 '
8
9
Delhi City
232,837
15,248
739
361
4-11-6
+ 8-3
-t-u-i
-f34-3
Lahore „
228,687
7,816
596
436
4-12-7
414-8
4-12-4
+45-4
Amritsar
152,756
15,276
719
202
- 6-0
+18'8
—100
+ -6
Multan Town
99,243
9,461
763
260
-fI36
417-2
+ 8 6
+44-5
Rawalpindi „ ...
86,483
10,091
505
543
- 14
4-18-8
439-3
-1-63-3
Ambala „
80,131
4,775
629
434
+ 1-9
- •s
417 5
418-8
Jullundur
69,318
4,078
741
180
+ 2^3
4 2-3
4270
4-33-0
Sialkot
64,869
5,424
701
205
4-11-9
4- 5^2
42()-4
441-8
Ferozepore ,
50,836
4,617
616
490
4 3^0
- 2-i
4-27-5
-f28 5
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VII.
Persons per house and houses per square mile-
Natural Division.
Average number of persons per house.
Average number of houses per
square mile.
1911.
1901.
1891.
1881.
1911.
1901.
1891.
1881.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8 1 9 1
Punjab ...
15
62
6-6
6-8
396
297
272
251
Indo-Oangetic Plain West ...
4-4
6-7
71
6-8
64-4
47-1
418
400
Himalayan
*-6
50
54
6^3
171
15-4
14-7
12-2
Sub-Himalayan
4-3
61
6-7
7^5
712
531
48-0
40-9
North- West Dry Area
47
59
67
5-9
21-0
15^3
120
11-6
CHAPTER II.
Movement of Population.
HISTORY.
Moyements 42. No regular history of the Punjab, in the modern sense of the term,
prior to 1901. exists anterior to the Muhammadan period, but materials dating from the rise of
Buddhism, 600 B. C, and the Greek invasions, 320 B. C, have enabled the con-
struction of a more or less continuous history from the Buddhist period onward.
'1 he times preceding Buddhism are usually termed pre-historic, for this part of the
country. The historic period may be divided into ancient and modem history.
The prehisto- 43. Blame has been laid at the door of the ancient Indians for leaving no
ric period. j-piJable historical work behind them. Indeed it is considered questionable whe-
ther they ever possessed the true historic sense. It is true, that so far as the
discoveries of ancient literature go, no regular chronicle of events, giving
dates of successive reigns, wars and other memorable incidents has been found.
Such ancient Sanskrit books as deal with history are all written in poetry,
for the purpose of holding up noble examples, with a view to inculcate
morality and religious instruction, with the exception of Kalhana's Raj Tarangini ;
and that too has, on comparison with collateral data, proved to be full
of poetic license, so far as the account of the earlier kings is concerned. The
critical scientist has, therefore, much hesitation in accepting the facts stated in
these books as unalloyed truths. But the necessity for writing chronicles of facts
and events does not seem to have arisen until a comparatively recent date, when
people, who built kingdoms on the ruins of other nations, found it useful for their
own edification and for the study of causes of the downfall of the preceding empires.
The Bactrians, the Assyrians and the Chaldeans have, for instance, left no historical
works in writing. These peoples, wiio are amongst the earliest known to us, lived
not for posterity but for tlie fulfilment of their high ideals and the discharge of
their own sacred duties. Consequently they prepared no chronicles for the use of
their successors. But they left landmarks in their own way — i. e., in the form of
hteiaiure, coins, inscriptions, etc., from which a fairly correct idea of the social
conditions can be formed. The Aryans considered, and the Hindus of the old
school SI ill consider, their institutions to be inevitable and immutable. It was only
when the institutions came to be regarded otherwise, that the need for history arose.
But even then, the word History (Greek Historia) was first used by the lonians,
in the 6th century B. C, as representing the search of knowledge, in the widest
sense. It meant inquiry, not narrative. In this sense, Sanskrit literature is full
of history, for the books, including the Upanishads, which contain records of enquiry
after truth and quest after knowledge are innumerable. It was not until two
centuries later, that the reciter of stories (Historikos) superseded the seeker after
knowledge {Hisioreon). The development of the science of History in the present
sense is, therefore, comparatively modern, and it is little wonder that its scope
^ cannot extend easily into the distant realms of antiquity.
For traces of the remotest age, we must therefore look to such scattered
data as are avnilaMe. On page J 34* of his Theogony of the Hindus, Count
Bioui nstjerna says : — " The Bactrian document called Dabistauf (found in Kashmir
and broujiht to Europe by Sir W. Jones) gives an entire register of kings, namely
of the Mahabadernes, whose first link reigned in Bactria 5,600 years before
Alexander's expedition to India, and ccnsequently several hundred years before the
time given by the Alexandrine text for the appearance of the first man upon earth."
That these BactrianJ kings were Hindus, appears to be generally admitted. §
The t'abistan would thus prove that India was linked with Bactria and enjoyed
a splendid civilization 6,000 B. C. or nearly 8,000 years ago-
In everytl ay worship and all important ceremonies, the orthodox Hindu
recites the following reference to the era, which keeps alive the memory of the
chronology of the Cycles into which Hindu astronomy has divided time : —
Brahninnii du-itiye prahrdrdh'', vaivaswale manwantare, ashtdvinshatitame kali-
yugi, kitliprathama charane, Bhdratkhande, amuknagare, amuksamvatsare, amukmdsasya
amuicpakhshasya amuktithau, amukvdiare, imam kdryamaham karishyS ; which means
• Quotation on page 7 of Hii.du Superiority by Har Bilas Sirda.
t Thi8 book appears tu be diSerent to 'Dab. slau-iMazahib' (Encyclopedia of Beligions), written in the reign
of Akbar t.) a Kashmiri Muhanunadan.
• X The word Bnlhika which ocdurs in the Atharva Veda (V. 22-9) is identiGed with the later Bahlika, the
name of coontry called BHiakh in Arabic ai.d Baotria in PerHJan.
§ See Mill's History of India, VoL II p»g«^ 237 and 2S8
35
II. HISTORY. [ Punjab, 1911-
"In the second half Pa^ar of *Brahmd, in the Manwantnr of Vaivaswat Manu,
in the 28th Kaliyuga, in the first quarter of Kaliyuga, iu the Bharat Khanda, in such
and such a couotry, year, month (bright or dark) half, date and day, [ desire to perform
such and such an act."
The above formula would signify a date about 2,000,000,000
6 Manwantaras = 71x4,320,000x6 =1,840.324.000 years, yeavs before Christ, reckoned from
27 chituryugas =27x4,320,000 = 116,640,000 .. the Commencement or the current
iSaiyugaTretaandDwapur = 3,888,000 „ day of Brahma— 1.6. of the present
Years of Kaliyuga up to birth oiCnnBt= 3.102 „ J , , - .i
creation, as worked out m the
1,960,851,102 „ margin. The stupeiidousness of the
figures arouses a suspicion that the calculation is based on a mytli. But correct
or incorrect, this chronology forms the basis of reckoning time for religious pur-
poses. Archaeology is, however, unfolding immense hidden treasures in this Pro-
vince as elsewhere, on which it will be possible hereafter to build a history of the
pre-historic period.
Tlie Punjab, luckily, is associated with the compilation of one of the
most ancient books in existence — namely the Vedas, and is acknowledged
to be the seat of the Indo-Aryati race, from the earliest period referred to in that
book. The date of the Rig Veda has formed the subject of much learned contro-
versy. They were for some time held to have been composed Ijetween 2,000 and
1,400 B.C., but the more recent conclusion of the scientific worldis, that the period
covered by the work is 1,500 to 1,000 B. C. According to Bentheny and Arch-
deacon Pratt, the position of the solsticial points recorded as marking the date of
the compilation, jioints to 1,181 B. C. One of tliese dates is probably correct in
respect of the commital of the Vedas, to writing, by Veda Vyasa, as bequeathed
to posterity. But the theory is not accepted in India. Vyasa, the com-
piler of the Vedic hymns in their present form, is said to have lived at the time
of the Mahabharata, of which he has wi-itten a chronicle. It is, however, clear
from the manner of learning the Vedas and committing them to memory, still in
vogue in this country, that tbey could have existed unwritten for ages and
been transmitted by oral teaching from generation to generation, before they
were reduced to writing. t Profess^of Sayce discovered a list in the course of his
Babylonian researches, which was held to prove the presence of San^skrit-
speaking Aryans on the Indus 3,000 years B. C. The list mentioned a
cloth called ' Siiidhu,' and its composition was expressed by two ideographs,
' cloth and vegetable fibre,' which Professor Snyce intnrpreted as mean-
ing cotton. J Now according to Max-MiJller, cotton is not mentioned in
the Vedas or Brahmanas. If it is to be inferred that cotton was not
known in the Vedic times, the Vedas and Brahmanas musb date earlier
than 3,000 B. C.
Thus at least 1,-500 B. C, or at a much earlier date, wlienever the Vedic
hymns weie com[iiled, if not when they were Seen (they are supposed to have
been seen§ by the Rishis)^ the physical condition of the laud of the five
rivers was as alluded to in the Rig Veda. We find mention of deserts,
habitable and culturable lands, agriculturnl settlements, gay dwelling-houses,
pleasant homesteads, fertile hills, fertilization of the plains by water from the
hills, ripe barley, foivsts abounding in tree-^ and inhabited by lions, the cro;ising
of rivers by boats, herds of kine, smiling fields of corn, wonlth, uiui so on. These
and nnmei'ous similar references point to a well-established agricultural and
pastoral life. The allusion to chariots, swords and other materials of warfare
in the Rig Veda, and the absence of Paleolithic and Neolithic remains in this
Province, hhow that the people whose conditions aie reflected therein belonged
• Brahma's day is equal to 14 manvanlaras, each manvantara having 71 chiluryugas Fach chSturyuga consist
of a cycle of Salyug=l,728,l)00 years, Tretii=^l,2ys.u0o years, Dwapur=si)4,000 years and Kaliyuga=432,000 years;
total 4.320.000 years.
'\ S'ilcs>idlkriiadhamdnd RishayoVibhuvusle Avarfbhyn AsdishdtkHia'lh'irmehhy updeshona mantran sampr&diAX
(The Rishis lived face to face with Dharmas (duties) and they transmitted the Mantras by means of instructions to
others who were not face to facn with Dhurraa) — Nirukta I. 0-5.
J Max-Miiller's Physical Relieion, 1890, page 87.
§ Tad Tadenanstap'imjamdn brahtnsiraiKi'ibhvabhudnarshat tndrinhindmr{f'hatvam .
" Tht)s that they saw the luminous and self existent urahm (i.e. Rik, Sama and Yuju) that is what makes them
Rishis." Nirukta II. 3-2. ' Kishi ' is derived from Kisli to see, and seeing is explained to mean that the Rishis
acquired ihe eternal knowledge by their spiritual power, without reading the Mantrn.
se
Census Report. ] history. Chapthb
to the Iron* &.ge, which, according to the description given on page 98, Vol. II,
of the Imperial Gazetteer of India (Edition 1908), goes back to 2,000 B. C.
This, by virtue of the established archaeological conclusions, -would mean that the
people had long passed the Stone and Bronzef Ages and consequently imply that
the country and its people had existed in a state of civilization for a very lon^ time.
The events immortalized in the great epics of the Ramayana and.
Mahabharata are supposed to have been enacted between the Vedic period 1,500
to 1,000 B. C, and the Historic period beginning with 600 B.C. The seat of the
kingdom of Dashratha, the father of Rama, was Ayodhya, in the United Pro-
vinces, but the towns of Lahore and Kasur, founded by Lava and Kusha, sons of
Rama, closely associate the Punjab with the period of the epic. The great war
described in the Mahabharata was fought on the plain of Kurnkhsetra (Thanesar)
in the Karnal District. Hindu tradition places the Ramayana ages before
the Mal'.abharatat contrary to the theoiy that the Ramayana followed the
Mrthabharata ; and it will be admitted that, in spite of the fiction and exaggerations
with which Sanskrit religious stories and chronicles may be coloured,
tradition in this country has served to maintain, for an immeasureable length
of time, a true impression of facts, and is in the hands of antiquarians leading to
startling discoveries.
The date of the Ramayana has been recently worked out by Mr. Walter R.
Old to be 1,761 B.C., as remarked in the issue of ' Knowledge' for September
1909:—
" In the Sanskrit epic poem, the Ramayana, it is stated that at the birth of Rama,
the Moon was in Cancer, the Sun in Aries, Mercury in Taurus, Venus in Pisces, Mars in
Capncornus, Jnpiter iu Cancer and Saturn in Libra. Mr. Walter R. Old has computed
that the corresponding date is February 10, 1,761 B. G."
Hindu scholars, however, hold that the solsticial combination occurs once
in a Yuga, and consequently, the date would have to be shifted several thousands
of years back. Ifi any case, this discovery would seem to explode the theory
that the Ramayana occurred after 1.000 B. C, that the Upanishads, which along
with the Vedas and Brahmanas are mentioned in the Ramayana as ancient scrip-
tures, also belong to a date later than 1.000 B. C, and that the earliest Vedic
hymns were compiled not earlier than 1,500 B. C.
The Mahabharta is supposed to have taken place at the beginning
of the Kaliyuga, which according to Hindu astronomy, commenced 3,102 years
B. C, and about this date there appears to be little doubt, as the following
quotation from Bjoarnstjerna's ' Theogony of the Hindus' will show : —
• The metal ' Ayas ' is very often referred to in the Rig Veda, but some authorities have held that it meant
metal (without any distinction) and probably signified bronze. On page 151 of his History of Sanskrit Literature
Macdonell says : " The fact that the Atharva Veda distinguishes between " dark " Ayas and " red " seems to indicate
that the distinction between iron and copper or bronze had only recently been drawn . . . Yet it would bo rash to assert
that iron was altogether unknown even to the earlier Vedic sage." But the following passages from the Kig Veda
may be cited as showing that iron was meant by ' Ayas.' " Biranya shringah ayah asya pdddh." Horns made o£
gold hath he, his feet are iron." — (Griffith) Rig Veda I, 163, 9. " Ayo no devah Janima dhamantah." Smelting like
ore their human generations. — (Griffith) Rig Veda IV, 2, 17 " Biranya nimak ayah a»ya sthuna." Adorned with gold
its columns are of iron — (Griffith) ; (refers to chariot). Rig Veda V, G7, 7. " Atho asyah ayah muhham" with iron
mouth. Rig Veda VI, 75, 15.'' " Ayaxah vajrah'' (the iron bolt). Rig Veda X, 96, 3 and 4. " rajrnm dyasam " bolt
of iron.— Rig Veda I, 52, 8. Ayan, if translated as bronze would not fit in very well as the hoofs of the horse, pillars
of the chariot, the smelting metal or the bolt. Ayas is also given in Naigh, 1-2, as one of the 15 names of gold,
because when red-hot. iron shines like gold.
t India is supposed to have had no Bronze Age ; but pre-historic specimens of bronze dating back perhaps
to 2,000 B. C have come to light (see Vincent Smith's paper on the Copper Age and Pre-historic Bronze Imple.
nents of India, published in the Indian Antiquary, Oct. 1905, page 229). In any case there can bo no doubt but that
there was a Copper Age in Opper India preceding the Iron Age. Pandit Hiranand Shastri, M. A., of the Archaeolo-
gical Department, discovered specimen of copper implements and weapons (.harpoons, axeheads, &c.) at Bithur near
Cawnpore which were being worshipped as remnants cf the battle between Rama and his sons. I myself found
them lying in a temple in 1908, and was told they had been dug out of the bed of the Ganges.
J The following are some of the reasons in support of the view. No reference to the Mahabharata is made in
the Ramayana. On the other hand the Mahabharata is full of references to the events narrated in the Ramayana.
For in.stance, Markandeya tells Yudhishtara that the scene reminds him of the exile of Ramchandra (Mahabharata
Vanaparva, Adhyaya XXV. 6 to II). A reference to the fight between Bali and Sugriva is made in Mahabharata,
Vanaparva Adli.vaya XI. *5 to 48. The attachment of Rama to .Sita is allu'ded to in Udyogaparva Adhyaya, CXVTI,
17. In Vanaparva Adhyaya CCXXXVII. e^ seq. Markandeya relates the whole story of the Ramayana to Vudhish-
tara. Then again some identical passages occur in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata showing that ideas and
passages had been borrowed in the latter from the former. Compare Balmiki Ramayana, Sundar Kanda, Sarga XV7,
£8 to 28 with Mahaliharata Vaniparva, Adhyaya XVI, 15 to 17 and verso 5 of the former with verse 20 of the latter.
Quotations from the Kamayana are thus rightly made in the Mahabharata and Valmiki himself is mentioned as a respected
Rishi in the latter Sarga C. of Ayodhyakanda (Ramayana) which is identical with Sabhaparva, Adhyaya V of the
Wah»bharata, is obviously an interpoltation isee the Riddle of the Ramayana by Vaidya, p. 23) and so are references
to Buddha, 4c At p. 65 of the same book Vaidya has shown how the original Ramayana of Valmiiti has been altered
in passing through the six stages of the Dimhratha Jalakn, Rdmopdkhydna of Mahabharata, the present version of
Valniiki's Ramayana, the account given by Kalidasa (Raghuvsnshai) and Bhavabhuti (uttar Bamacharita), Ramayana of
the Puranas (,i ii., Padmapurana, AdhydttnaTamdyana , etc.'* and Ramayana of Tulsi Das.
37
I^' msTOBT. [ Punjab, mu
" According to th? Bstronomical calculations of the Hindus, the present period of the
world, Kaliyuga, commenced 3,102 years before the birth of Christ, on the 20th February,
at 2 hours, 27 minutes and 30 seconds. They say that a conjunction of planets tben took
place, and their tables show this conjunction. Bailly states that Jupiter and Mercury were
then in the same degree of the Ecliptic ; Mar.s at a distance of only eight, and Saturn of
seven degrees ; whence it follows that at the point of time given by the Brahmans as the
commencement of Kaliyuga, the four planets above mentioned must have been successively
concealed by the rays of the Sun (first Saturn, then Mars, afterwards Jupiter and lastly
Mercury). They then showed themselves in conjunction and, although Venus could not then
be seen, it was natural to say that a conjunction of the planets then took place. The
calculation of the Brahmans is so exactly confirmed by our own astronomical tables that
nothing but an actual observation would have given so correspondent a result."*
" The Hindus claim that in the year 20,400 before Kaliyuga, the origin of their Zodiac
coincided with the Spring Equinox, there being at the time a conjunction of the Sun and Moon.
Bailly proved by a lengthy and careful computation of that date, that even if fictitious, the
epoch from which they had started to establish the beginning of their Kaliyuga was
very real. That " Epoch," he says, " is the year 3,102 before our era."t
The stage of intellectual development at which astronomical observations
of such precision can be taken, implies a very high degree of civilization and, if
Bailly is to be relied upon, this was the case with the Hindus 3,102 years
B. C. — i. e., over 5,000 years ago.
But irrespective of the chronological priority of one or the other of the
two epics, the states of society depicted in the two are so different from each other
and from that indicated in the Vedic hymns, that a period of four centuries would
appear to be much too short a span for so radical a transformation of social and
political conditions and for such a complete obliteration of the marks of the later
epic as to escape any notice at the beginning of the historic period. In consider-
ing this suggestion, we must not be unmindful of the conservatism of the Hindus
in the acceptance of innovation. Taking 600 B. C, as a permanent and undis-
puted starting point in history, the above would place the great epics at a period
much earlier than 1,000 B. C.
Kennedy has in his book on * Religions and Philosophy of the East,' page 4
(Edition T. Burner LawrieJ, said: '* We know, as every philologist knows, that the
Aryan language dates from at least 10,000 B. 0."; and considering that Indian
Philosophy begins where Western Philosophy ends, a very great lapse of time is
required for the development of the simple but forcible admiration and worship
of the Vedic hymns into the abstruse philosophy of the Upanishads, which long
preceded the Epics. In a very interesting article on the Ancient Hindus and the
Ancient Egyptians J Abinas Chandra Das has collected certain facts tending to show
the emigration of Indo-Aryans from India to Egypt before 4,000 B. C, the
existence of the worship of Shiva and Shakti in the oldest traceable days of Egypt
and the union of t-'iiryavansi and Chandravansi Aryans under Menes in 4,400 B. C.
This according to Hindu books, would be before the commencement of the Kaliyuga.
These conclusions remain to be tested, but it is believed that future discoveries
may lead to the shifting of the date of the Vedic period much further back and
remove the confusion into which the dates asci ibed to the various events of the
prehistoric period have been thrown by the collection of data, which are so far
quite disconnected with one another. The above considerations would point to the
civilization of this part of the country dating from much earlier than 1,500 B. C.§
44. From 600 B. C, the Buddhistic records and the histories written by The Histori*
the Greeks afford a more or less complete nanative. The following is a very brief p*""**-
sketch. Prince Siddhartha was born in 560 B. C, and with his assumption of the title Ancient Hi*-
of Buddha, in 5S2 B. 0. commenced the rise of Buddhism. In 512 B. C. Darius """•
invaded tho country north-west of the Indus and twelve years later, a part of the
Punjab was probably included in the Persian satrapy, although the Persian dominion
did not leave much impression on the Aryan life or civilization, and probably did not
last long. Alexander t lie Great began his invasion of the country west of the Indus
in 327 B. C. and overpowered the Gandarians and Ashaukwas. Tiie following year,
• Modem Beview, June 1910, p. S'lS
t Traite de astronomie iridic nne et orientalo, part III and page 454, Secret Doctrine, Vol. 11, Edn. 1893.
t Modern Review, June I81'), pp. 530— ."13.5.
§ Also see paper by the Honble Alex ndar Denmar, "Did the Hindus discover America, " in which he has
shown that an image discovered in the mounds of Idississippi, points to traces of the Hindu religion, as far back &»
1,300 B. C,
38
Cenens Report ] history. Chaptbe
lie crossed the Indus and subjugated the kings of Takahasla {8r. Takithayhila) and
Kashmir, King Porus and other Chiefs of the Punjab. After death of the Alexander
in 320, Cliandragupta, probably a native of the Punjab, organized a rebellion and
expelled the Greek satrap across the Indus. In 305 Seleucus attempted unsuccess-
fully to establish Greek supremacy in the Punjab. Chandragupta conquered
Magadha and maintained his sway over the Punjab. Asoka, the greatest Buddhist
monarch ascended the throno of Magadha in 269. He died in 231 B. C. and was
succeeded by his son Subhagsen. Meanwhile Euthydemus, the usurper of the
Graeco-Bactrian throne, began to extend his power into India. In 195 B. C.
Demetrius, his son, reduced the Punjab but lost Bactria. The only king of this
dynasty, who left his mark on the country, -was Menander. The Bhaka kingdom
was founded in the north-west Punjab by Moga in 100 B. C. witli its capital at
Taxila {Takshashila). It was overrun by the Kushan Chief, Kozula Kadphises,
and after a struggle between the Parthians and Kushans, the latter established the
supremacy of the so-called Scythian power under Kanishka, by A. D. 78. Meanwhile,
in 57 B.C. the famous king Vikramaditya had founded an era which is, to this day,
in vogue among the Hindus. The Kushan dominion gradually shrank to the Indus
valley and the country on the west, and was eventually supplanted by the white
Huns about the middle of the 5th century. Toramana ami Mihirkula, kings of this
dynasty, had their capital at Sagala,* and their kingdom was overthrown in 544 A. D.
The power of Buddhism which had developed as the State religion, since Asoka's time,
was now on the decline. The great kingdom of Thanesar was then established
towards the end of the 6th century A. D., but it included only the eastern Punjab,
while the central Punjab formed the kingdom of Tsehkia with its capital at
Sakala (Sagala) and the Salt Range was under Kashmir, In the 8tb century, the
kingdom of Thanesar disappeared and was replaced in the S'luth-east Punjab by
the Tomar dynasty of Kanauj, which f(>unded Delhi. The Tomars were in turn
Modem Eis. O'^'^rthrown by the Chauhans of Ajmer in 1151.
iory. ' * From the time of Mahmud of Ghazni, the history of the Province is fairly
continuous and is to be found in all books on Indian History. A hrief historical
sketch of the 18th and the 19th century down to 1881 was given in paragraphs
115 to 130 of Sir Denzil Ibbetson's Census Report of the Punjab (1881). There
is not much to add since. The period has been one of continuous and
marked progress in agriculture, industries, facilities of communication, and the
development of other economic resources under the aegis of good government.
But while the Punjab can claim a very early civilization, it has been^subject
to great vicissitudes of fortune having been repeatedly overrun, in the earlier
days, by bands of ruthless invaders, and the fact that it has, in sp teof the destruc-
tion invariably caused by these visitations always been considered a prosperous
tract, speaks volumes of the vitality of its people and the fertility of its soil.
^ndjnngutin It is impossiblc to ascertain, with any degree of accuracy, the extent to
enriydays. which Cultivation replaced the wild growth of forests in the early periods, but the
Sanskrit dramas and poetry are full of descriptions of forests and the huuting
of wild animals therein. During the Moghal peiiod again, we find frequent
mention of the hunting of lions and tigers. Whatever the conditions may have
been before annexation, so much is certain that in the first half of the 19th
century, the forests iiad become very dense and that leopards and tigers
infested the thick jungles which fringed the outskirts of inhabited areas or covered
the adjoining hills; while in the plains, where the conditions were not so con-
genial for the feline tribe, dacoits and cattle-lifters made systematic strongholds of
the forests. We still hear of tigei'S in the Kalesar forest to the north of the Ambala
District and a stray tiger is sometimes shot in the Nahan or other Himalayan hills.
But these cases are rare. In the sub-montane tract, the last tiger is known to
have been shot in the low hills of Hoshiarpur, in 1875. The Salt Range in the
Shahpur District, still has leopards and is said to have been infested with tigers
at no very distant date. Five tigers were shot in the )iverain jungle of Dera
Ghazi Khan in 1872, and one was killed in similar jungle of Muzaffargarh,
so late as 1879. Accounts of leopards, hyenas and wolves, abounding in
comparatively recent times are contained in most District Gazetteers. The
conversion of the Sandal Bar, between the Ravi and Chenab, and of the
* Sigala has been ideotilied by Dr. Fleet with Sialkot,
39
II. HISTORY. [ Punjab, 1911.
Kirana Bar, between the Chenab anri Jhelum, from thick impenetrable forests into
continuous stretches of the richest cultivation is so recent, that all the middle-aged
people of the present generation are conversant with the previous proStless
nature of these tracts, the shelter they afforded to thieves and the hopeless dis-
appearance of stolen cattle, once they managed to cross the limits of these jungles.
45. The first Census of the Province was taken on the night between 31st Results of
December 1854 and 1st January 1855, for British Territory only, on adminis- P^st Cen-
trative grounds. The population of the Province (British Territory) was again ^^®®*"
enumerated on 10th January 1868, under the orders of the Financial Com-
missioner. No Census was taken in 1871. The next Census was that held
on 17th February 1881, for the Punjab including the Native States, when for
the first time, the operations were carried out on a scientific basis, with due at-
tention to detail, and a mass of information was collected by the Superintendent,
the late Sir Denzil Ibbetson, on various subjects connected with the growth of
population, its intellectual and functional development and Its religious and racial
distribution. Ever since 1881, Census Operations have been undertaken regu-
larly every ten years. The Hon'ble Mr. Maclagan superintended the Census of
1»91 and Mr. Rose looked after that of 1901. Prior to the Census of 1901, the
figures for the Punjab included those for the tract which now constitutes the
North-West Frontier Province. The figures for 1881 and 1891 have been ad-
justed, in Table II, so as to represent the old population of the present Pro-
vince of Punjab. For want of sufficient details, it has not been possible to obtain
correct figures for the two previous Censuses, which were taken cursorily, but a
rough estimate has been maiie of the population of the tract then corresponding
to the present Province and it is compared in the margin with the figures of the
four regular enumerations, for British Territory only.
The annual rate of increase* worked out from those
figures is also given in the margin. The large increase
in 1868 was in no small measure due to the inclusion
of new areas and to improvements in the method of
enumeration. It is very difl&cult to eliminate the pro-
Year.
1855
1868
1881
1891
1901
1911
11,508,085
16,255,456
17,27i,597
19,009,368
2y,330,8H7
19,974,956
CO ©
+ 41
+ 6
+ K-
+ 6a
— 1-7
+ 2'69 portion of the increase due to these causes, in order to
+ -47 ascertain the correct natural increase in the era of peace
i -67 and prosperity which had succeeded the unsettled condi-
— ■!« tions marking the disruption of Sikh rule ; but pro-
bably this natural rate of increase did not much exceed
1 per cent, per annum. From 1868 to 1901 the rate of annual increase per cent,
varied between '47 and *96 the improvement being most marked in the decade
preceding 1891. The past decade alone showed a distinct decline.
46. The recent Censi.s was taken on the night following the 10th March The Census
1911, throughout the Province, except in the non-synchronous tracts of the of 1911.
Himalayas, where the population was enumerated before the closing of the
passes by snow.t
47. Fif^ures for the whole Province including tlie Native States are available Variations
1881-1891 97 only since 1 881 and are compared in Imperial Table II. The aniiual since 1881.
1891—1901 -62 rate of increase during each decade is mentioned in the margin.
1901-19U -23 Xhe variations are usually ascribable to three causes, m. :—(!) the
inclusion or exclu.sion of new areas; (2) more accurate enumeration ; and (3) a
real increase or decrease in population. The figures having been adjusted
according to the present limits of the Province, the first cause may be altogether
ignored. The separation of the North- West Frontier Province has taken away
the portions of the Punjab which were capable of extension and has left it with
practically unchangeable permanent boundaries. As regards accuracy, it is
natural that better results should be obtained at every succeeding Census,
when additional precautionary measures can be adopted in the light of the
* The annual rate of increase ha« been worked out thus :— Population 19ll = Vopnlation of 1901 (1+r) ><>;
(r being the rate of variation per head per snnnm). Hence 10 log. (1+r) + log. (Population 1901) = log. (Popu-
lou' Population (1911)— log. (Population 01).
]ationl9in, andlog.(l + r) = -t: i ^ ,q
t The non-synchronous tracts were enumerated bs follows :— Chini and Dodra Knar in Baehahr (Simla Hill
States) on 15th December and Bara Bnnghal, Spiti atd Lahul in Kulu (Kangra) and Pangi and Cbamba Lahul in
the Chamba State on 15th September 1910.
40
Census Report. ]
CONDITIONS OF IHE DECADE.
Cbaptjib
Pablic
Health.
accumulated experience of the past. It would, therefore, not be very wrong
to aay that each Census was more or less in advance of the previous ones in point
of accuracy of registration. But the difference on this account could only be very
small, as the arrangements made at the two preceding Censuses had, at all events,
reached a fair degree of thoroughness. The variations in 1901 and 1911 have,,
therefore, been due mainly to real increase or decrease in population. In other
words, there was a real growth of population at varying rates up till li^Ol, but the
last decade has shown a real decline, which though small, cannot, in view of the
possible increase that might have taken place, be considered insignificant.
The diagram in the margin shows the growth and decline of population in
each Natural Division and in the Province, during
each of the past three decades. The North- West
Dry Area, with its canal colonies, on the one
hand, and its dry healthy tracts in the Sindh-
Sagar Doab on the other, has had a long pull
over the other tracts, in respect (i the increase
of population. The growth has been slowest in.
the Himalayan tract, but the development has,
nevertheless, been continuous throughout the three
decades. Thelndo-Gangetic Plain grew in popu-
lation at about the average rate for the Province
in the two decades, 1881 — 1901, but has ex-
perienced a severe set-back during the past
10 years. The Sub-Himalayan tract improved
during the first twenty years to a smaller degree
than the Indo-Gangetic Plain, but has suffered
duiing the recent decade, in about the same pro-
portion as the Plains. The curve of provincial
variations, which closely followed that of the Indo-
Gangetic Plain, during the first two decades, has
shown a smaller deflection than any Natural
Division, in the third. Compared with 1881, the
Sub- Himalayan tract shows the smallest improve-
ment, and the results in the Indo-Gangetic Plain
West are not much more favourable.
CONDITIONS OF THE DECADE (1901—1911).
48. Reliable vital statistics not being available for all the Native States,
the following remarks on public health will be confined tc the figures for
British Territory. The last decade
BIRTHS AND DEATHS
DURING 1901-1910
— RcrtRtNCCS—
DtATHS _ _ —
has unfortunately not been a very
healthy one. The birth and death-
rates of tlie ten years are illustrated
in the marginal diagram, in a con-
venient form. The very first year,
viz. 1901, showed an increase in the
death-rate and deaths exceeded
births by '7 per mille of the total
population. The mortality from all
diseases, except plague, was less than
in 1900, but plague carried off
14,959 persons, and the evil effects
of the unhealthy years, which bad
preceded, influenced the birth and
death-rates. In 1902, the public
health was generally good, but
plague vigorously attacked the
Ambala, Hoshiarpur, JuUundur, Lu-
dhiana, Gurdaspur and Sialkot
Districts and caused as many
as 171,302 deaths, raising the death-rate from 3G to over 44 per mille. In the
next year, plague spread to the central part of the Province and became more
41
n.
CONDITIONS or TBS DECADB.
[ Ponjab. 1811>
or less general in the eastern and central Punjab. The deaths from plague
numbered 205,462. At the same time malaria caused a loss of 509,307 and
cholera accounted for 14,688 deaths, which was the highest figure during anj
one year of tlie decade. 'I'he death-rate rose with one leap from t4'l to 49 per
mille. The year 1904 was a comparatively healthy one. Only 716 persons died
from cholera, and the deaths from fever also fell by 26 per cent.; but plague
spread still further and caused still greater mortality, the total number of deaths
from this cause going up to 396,357. In spite, therefore, of the improvement in
general health, the death-rate rose from 49 to 49"1. On tlie other hand, the
effects of the three preceding unhealthy years manifested themselves by lowering
the birth-rate, which fell from 42-9 to 41'5 per mille. In 1905, plague maintained
its hold and caused a loss of 334,897 persons. Deaths from cholera again rose to
2,197 bat losses from malaria showed a slight improvement. The death-rate which
fell to 47*6 was, nevertheless, the hierhest record of mortality in any Province of
India, in that year. Owing to the favourable circumstances of the previous year
the birth-rate rose by 2-9 per mille, i.e. to 44-4. In 1906, there was a lull in the
ravages of plague and only 91,712 persons succumbed to it. Deaths from fever,
however rose slightly to 407,878 and cholera caused 4,232 deaths. The death-rate,
which in the four preceding years had been the highest in India, fell to 36*9 per
mille, placing this Province third. The birth-rate, for the first time since 1900,
exceeded the death-rate. The year 1907 saw a general recrudescence of plague
throughout the infected areas, the epidemic being of a more virulent type, and
resulting in 608,685 deaths, which is the largest figure on record for any year.
Very little damage was done by cholera, and deaths from fever were not above the
normal. The death-rate, however, rose in consequence of the high mortality from
plague, to the record figure of 62'1 per mille, and the birth-rate fell slightly. In
1908, there was very Httle plague, the total deaths amounting to 30,708, but
fever was at its worst, carrying off 697,058 persons ; and outbreaks of cholera
again accounted for as many as 12,297 death.i. The birth-rate showed a slight
improvement to 41-8 per mille, but the death-rate (50-7) was still high. The
year 1909 showed much improvement in public health, though the effects of the
two preceding bad years manifested themselves in the fall of the birth-rate to
35-1 per mille. The death-rate also fell to 30*9 — the lowest figure since 1900.
In the earlier part of 1910, the climatic conditions were normal. Deaths from
fever fell to 343,925 and cholera (although it affected 23 districts) caused only
2,131 deaths. But filague unfortunately revived, causing a mortality of 135,483
persons. On the whole, the decade was a very unfavourable one from the stand-point
of health. The total number of deaths from all causes was 8,8-13,708 of which as
many as 4)503,761 were due to fevers, 2,025,220 to plague, 38,762 to cholera
and 107,109 to small-pox.
The dry tract of the western Punjab escaped tlie scourge of plague for all
practical purposes and also suffered least from malarial fevers. The only districts
in the rest of the Punjab, which practically escaped plague, were Simla juid Kangra.
49. Plague appeared in the Punjab in 1896, The total deaths c-msed by Piaga*.
it throughout the Province in each year of the decade now
under review, are noted in the margin. The figui es for
British Territory have been obtained from the returns of
vital statistics. Records of similar statistics have not been
maintained regularly in all the Native States, but special
reports were obtained by the Chief Plague Medical (>fficer
from time to lime and these figures have been entered in
the margin. The total loss from plague amounted
to 2,025,220 in British Territory, 238,857 in the Native
States, or 2,264,077 deaths in all, during the whole decade.
It is possible that the actual losses may have been still
greater, and that a certain number of deaths from plague
may have escaped notice in the Native States oi' been
treated as deaths from fever in British T'erritory. Assum-
ing the above figures to be correct, the epidemic carried ofP close on 10 per cent.
of the population of 1901 in British Territory, over 5 per cent, in the Native
States and 9 per cent, in the whole Province. The worst year was 1907 and the
Deaths from plague.
Tear.
British
Terri-
tory.
Native
States.
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
19C6
1907
1908
1909
1910
14.959
171,31 2
205,402
396,;-iD7
334,8H7
91,712
608,liH5
311,708
35,655
135,483
18,629
38,210
54,8t)8
12.748
61,231
9,424
9,409
34,338
Total
2,u2o,220
238,857
42
CensTiB Report. ]
CONDITIONS OP THE DECADE.
Cbaptee
Fever,
Deaths for 8 years.
80,318
124,560
313,520
January ...
February...
Uarch
April
May
June
July
August •••
September
October
November
December
593,299
492,792
96,468
9,824,
1,612
2,>'6S
10,472
24,329
43,889
years 1904 and 1905 were not far behind in the work of destruction. Various
measures have, from time to time, been adopted to eradicate this epidemic,
and although inoculation acts as a preventive and evacuation and desiccation
help to save those not affected, yet complete isolation being a practical
impossibility, owing to the ignorance and the fatalistic tendencies of the people,
nothing has ao far succeeded in wiping it off. It is hoped that the disease has
now worked itself out. Statistics of mortality from plague are not available by
months for 1901 and 1902, but the detail of deaths for the remaining years
of the decade was reported by the Chief Plague Medical Officer (the total
of his figures does not agree with the total of the Sanitary Commissioner's
figures), for British Territory, and this is reproduced in the
margin. Judging from the figures for the eight years 1903
to 1910, it appears that the worst months for plague have
been April and May. It has invariably shown a marked
dechne in June, when the temperature is too high for the
plague bacillus to thrive. July has generally shown a further
improvement and August has been the best month. In
September, plague usually begins to show a reoudescence.
The coldest months, though not so helpful to the ravages of
the epidemic have, however, not proved too uncongenial
to the bacilli,
from plague were registered by age periods in British Terri-
tory, for the four years 1907—1910. The average percentage
of deaths in each age period has been worked out on the basis of the
figures of these four years and is noted in the margin. It is clear
that the child-bearing ages of 20 — 40 are riffected most by plague,
the highest mortality being in adults, 20 — 30 years of age. Again
the deaths in the age period 10 — 15 are higher than in the periods
1 — 5 and 5 — 10 on the one hand and 15 — 20 on the other. So
among persons under 20 years of age, the period most susceptible to
plague seems to be 10 — 15 years.
50. Fevers of all kinds have accounted for 4,503,761 deaths in British Terri-
tory during the decade. In other words, they were instrumental in causing the
destruction of 22 per cent, of the population of 1 901 . Subsidiary table VI shows the
deaths from fever in British Districts, for the whole decade. The extent of mortality
in each year of the decade and
the average number of deaths
in each month are illustrated by
the marginal diagrams. It will
appear at a glance, that fevers
become most destructive in the
months of October, November
andDecember. "With exceptions
in particular years due to special
causes, the general cour.se of the
prevalence of fever may be
described thus. It begins to
high in September, after
summer rains and floods,
Total
Under 1
1—5
5-10
10-15
15-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
60-60
...1,793,948
Deaths
4
8
9
11
8
15
14
12
9
80 & over 10
DEATHS FROM MALARIA
BY MONTHS
BY YEARS
juiv
AUGUST
iw< is)jau«]*««eMMTivf«ee.3.«
StPTIWKR
OCTOBt.T i
when the standing water in de-
pressions nearvillages, theexcess
of moisture in areas flooded by
rivers and the wet weather in
canal-irrigated tracts have pro-
duced mosquitoes in abundance.
The first attack or two of malarial
fever are easily withstood, but
the evil effects of the poison begin
to appear in October, and the
maximum of destruction is reached by November, when the old and infirm begin
to succumb to it. In December when the mosquitoes die of cold, fever begins to
rage
the
1.
Basant ...
16th .March to 15th May.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Grishma ...
Varsha ...
Sharad ...
Hemant ...
Shishir ...
16th May to 15th July.
16th July to 15lh September.
16th September to 15th November.
16th November to 15th January.
16th January to 15th March.
48
II. CONDITIONS OP THE DECADE. [ Punjab, 1911
abate. There are fewer deaths from this cause in December than in November,
but nevertheless, the number is generally higher than in any of the other nine
months of the year. By January a substantial decrease begins. It is seldom that
the losses in January are higher than in October, November or December, but the
patients keep dropping off till towards the end of tlie cold weather. With the
advance of spring, the breeding season of the mosquitoe comes round and it re-
appears in March and April, with the result that mortality from fever usually
shows a tendency to rise in May and June. The dry heat and the hot winds of
June again kill off a considerable number of the insects, leaving July and August
the best months from the stand-point of mortality.
Malarial fever is endemic but occasionally assumes an epidemic form
and causes deaths, more or \e?s, in almost every place. In the minds of
the rustics and the poorer urban population, the losses from fever are
closely associated with the seveinty of winter. The Vedic prayer of "Jwema
sharadah shatam " (may we live a hundred autumns) still reverberates in the popular
reply to the enquiry after the health of old and infirm people, " let us see if
he will survive this winter" and the popular Punjab saying, dyd paid moe gharib
(when the winter comes, the poor die). It is interesting to note that sharad vaguely
translated as winter, is one of the six viMs (seasons) into which the year is divided (see
margin) and covers the period — middle of
September to middle of November, the very
months in which malarial fever, the worst
enemy of health to the present day, starts
its ravages on a large scale and reaches
its climax. It would, therefore, appear
that the dread of the sharad season in
the Vedic age was based on conditions not very different to those which pre-
vail now and that the sickly nature of the two months following the rains
is not new to this part of the country.
No pains have been spared to combat this scourge, which has ifeasures
caused more destruction than any other disease. In addition to the ve'liei ^"^j^fj^lf
afforded at hospitals and dispensaries, special measures have been adopted from "•<"'<"''«•
year to year to place large quantities of quinine within easy reach of the poor
and of people residing in villages and out-of-the-way places. The District
Boards annually purchase thousands of rupees worth of quinine and distribute it
gratuitously to those who cannot afford to pay for it. Arrangements are also made
to sell pice packets of quinine through Branch Post offices and other agencies.
Societies have been formed in certain districts to promote the use of quinine as
a prophylactic. A special Malaria Medical Department was established in May
1910 to investigate and report on the conditions producing endemic and epidemic
malaria in all parts of the Province. This Department is engaged in the
systematic study of malaria generally and an exhaustive enquiry into its ordinary
prevalence in children and adults at all times of the year ; the malarial survey
of the whole Province ; the relation between malaria, rainfall and sub-soil water ;
the history and causes of epidemic ; the habits of anopheline mosquitoes and •
their relations to malaria ; the study of fever statistics generally, etc. Investiga-
tion will, however, have to be pursued for a considerable time, befoi'e any definite
conclusions can be arrived at.
51. 8mall-pox is, like fever, a disease which has been known for ages. Small-pox.
In spite of the great improvement made by the Vaccination Department in
vaccinating very large numbers of children every year, the disease does not fail
to attack a considerable proportion, mostly of unvaccinated children, and although
the disease is not fatal in every case, yet it carries off a large number of
children and also a few older people. Vaccination has also been introduced
largely in the Native States. The deaths duo to small-pox in British Territory are
given in the margin for each of the 10 years of
the past decade. Altogether 107,109 souls succumbed
to the disease. Up to 1908, the losses were heavy
except in 1901 and 1905. The deaths were
Yo7 109 abnormal in 1908. The last two years of the decade
however showed a considerable improvement. The
lom .
. 6,154
1006 ,
. 13,239
1902 .
. 11,629
1907 .
. 11,082
1903 .
. 15,635
1908 ,
. 28,652
190* .
9,624
1909
. 3,352
1905
. 4,723
1910 ,.
. 3,019
44
Cantos Report. ] conditions of thk dbcadi. Chaptkb
Tigorous spread of vaccination, is sure, in tiie long run, to minimise the evil
effects of the disease,
gtepii taken 52. Besides introducing measures to combat the epidemics of plague,
provament of malarirt and small-pox, a good deal has b?en done towards ensuring a supply of
public health, drinking water free of impurities, to the larger towns. The water supply schemes
of Lyallpur, Amritsar, Sargodha and Ludhiana were completed in the years 1903-04,
1904-05, 1905-06 and 1908-09, respectively. With Delhi, Simla, Ambala and
Lahore, there are now 8 cities and towns in the Province, which enjoy a copious
supply of pipe-water for drinking purposes. But an abundant water-supply is apt
to prove a nuisance, unless it is accompanied by a drainage scheme. Moreover the
unsystematic laying out of the older towns makes the drainage of dirty wat<r an
imperative necessity from the sanitary point of view. In the following cities and
towns, steps were taken (during the decade) to either improve or newly construct
the drainage channels : — Delhi, Jagraon, Gujrat, Lahore, Sargodha, Ambala,
Chiniot, Multan. Rawalpindi, Muktsar, Ferozepore, Amritsar, Simla, Lyallpur,
Fazilka, Campbellpur and Pind Dadan Khan.
Theearth- 53. The 4th of April 1905 will remain a memorable day in the history of
quake of the Province, owing to tlie sudden and widespread disaster caused by the earth-
1905. quake in Kangra and the surrounding districts. The area in whicli the shock
was felt most severely was the portion of tlie Kangra valley lying between the
Beas River on the south, the Dhanla Dhar Mountain Range on the north, the fort
of Kehlu on the west and the village of Baijnath on the east, falling -within the
tahsils of Kangra, Palampnr, Dehra and Hamirpur and covering 1,100 squai'e
miles. The disaster also extended to Kulu, Lahul and Spiti, comprising an area
of 6,344 square miles. Within this tract, loss of life was caused in as many as 409
villages. It was estimated that a hundred thousand houses were destroyed, while
the ascertained death-roll amounted to over 20,000 souls, out of a population
of about 375,000. In this zone of destruction were included the Civil Station of
Dharamsala (the headquarters of the Kangra District), the cantonments adjoining
it, the town, tahsil and fort of Kangra, the small station of Palampur,
which was the centre of the tea industry of the Valley and the headquarters of
the tahsil of that name, the town and shrine of Jwalamukhi, the large and
wealthy villages of Nagrota and Bhawarna and an immense number of hamlets.
The phenomenon was described in the Punjab Government Report, dated 27th
April 1905, as follows: —
" The sensation experienced shortly after 6 a.m. on the 4th of April appears, from the
description given by survivors to have been a prelirairiary tremor of brief duration, followed
imtnediately by, Srst a violent shock from north to south, then an equally violent counter-
shock in the opposite direction, and finally a third shock like a downward sinking. The in-
stant effect in IJharmsala, Kangra atid Palampur was to reduce every single habitation, with
the rarest exceptions, to a flattened heap of ruins. Most of the hamlets in the above area
suffered a similar experience, in a greater or less dejjree. The early hour found most of
the population still in their houses, tlie majority probably asleep. A certain number felt
the preliminary tremor and succeeded in effecting their escape from the falling houses
before the complete collapse ; a very large number were killed outright, and the remainder,
some whole a'ld some injured, were buried in the ruins until help came to extricate thein.
All supplies of food of all description were buried in the surae way and could only be got
at by excavation."
In the stations of Dharmsala and KKngra, the European casualties
wore very great. In Kangra, 7 died, none escaping, and in Dharmsala
25 Europeans were lost out of a total European population of 76. The
great death-rate among Europeans was undoubtedly due to the massiveness
of the buildings which they occupied and in cantonments too, the excessive death-
rate was duo to the fall of European barracks tenanted by the 7th Gurkhas, who
lost 1 12 lives. The losses in cattle were estimated at 13,330 plough-cattle and
39,801 other animals. TheSnket State and the southern half of the Mandi State
also suffered from the shock, though not half so severely; and damage to house
property attended by a certain amount of loss of life was also caused in the sub-
montane districts of Hoshiarpur and Gurdaspur, Houses were damajjed in
such distant i-ities as Lahore and Amritsar and theshock was experienced, though
with less severity, all over the Province. In the Kangra valley, the work of
destruction was not confined to men, cattle and houses, but considerable damage
45
II. CONDITIONS OF THE DECADE. [ Punjab, 1911.
was also caused to the water channels called hMs, laboriously constructed by
people, to bring water for the irrigation of their fields, and which are, in many
places, elaborate pieces of engineering work, constructed along steep hillsides
and precipices. The cessation of these sources of water-supply meant absence
of irrigation for the rice crop which is the staple of the Kangra valley and of
the tea gardens on which the planters are dependent. Altogether 51 large and
150 smaller hthls, irrigating half the cultivated area of the Palampur and Kangra
Tahsils, were destroyed. Relief had to be granted in many ways, i.e. by recon-
struction of and repairs to the water-channels, remission of the revenue of the har-
vest, remission of income-tax, advances of takavi for the purchase of bullocks and
relaxation of the Forest rules, to enable the people to obtain wood and other
materials for constructing shelters.
54. The decade commenced inauspiciously. The rains were late in Agricultur-
1901, dry western winds, in August, smothered the nnirrigated crops andalCondi-
a drier cold weather than that which followed was probably never known tions.
in the Punjab. The yield, on the whole, was 30 per cent, below the normal. The
following year (1902-3) was somewhat better, the produce being only a little
below the normal. The conditions were favourable at sowing time and though
prolonged breaks in the rains caused the unirrigated crops to wither, yet good
rains at the end of each harvest redeemed the situation and resulted in a good
outturn of grain, the two harvests being a little below the normal (95'7). The year
1903-4 commenced favourably. The rainfall was generally good and well dis-
tributed and the outturn of both the harvests was better than usual (109 per cent.),
although reaping and harvesting were greatly prolonged by the epidemic of plague,
which caused scarcity of labour. The following year was one of uncertainty and
constant vicissitudes. Plague continued to affect agricultural operations through-
out, and the earthquake of 4th April 1905 caused heavy losses to human beings
and cattle, and to agricultural homesteads, in Kangra. The winter rains were,
however, ideal and the year's results for the Province were equal to 105 per cent.
of the normal, in spite of frosts of exceptional severity. In 1905-6 there was a
break in the monsoon from the middle of July to the middle of September, which
resulted in the complete failure of unirrigated autumn crops, except in the sub-
montane districts. 'I'he autumn harvest, on the whole, was one of the worst on record.
A deluge of rain in September enabled very extensive sowings to be made for
spring. Drought in the early part of winter threatened the spring crops, but
opportune rain m the middle of February gave tho largest area on record, and a
bumper Rabi more than compensated the losses in Kharif , the year's results being
just above the normah The rainfall was insufficient in 1906-7, until September,
after which it was ample and gave promise of excellent spring crops. But
the excessive winter rains did considerable damage and the result was slightly
below the normal. The features of the year 1907-8 were the premature termin-
ation of the monsoons, the late arrival and inadequacy of the winter rains and the
drought of February and March. These resulted in the total failure of dry crops
and in a much smaller spring harvest than in the previous year. The soil was too
dry for sowings, and a serious shortage of water was recorded in all the canals.
The excessive monsoon rains of 1 908 wei'e the heaviest known for the last 30
years and caused some damage, but the area sown and the autunm crops reaped
were in excess of the normal. An unusually dry winter and spring followed,
but the moisture in the soil was sufficient to ensui'e an excellent spring harvest.
The year waa, on the whole, one of great prospei'ity, except for the fact that an
unprecedented outbreak of fever carried off 460,000 souls. With good harvests, due
to favoiu'able monsoons in 1909 and well distributed rain in the second half of De-
cember and the middle of January, the year 1909-10 was a prosperous one.
The monsoons in the next year were fitful till the end of August, when the rain
re-appeared in time to save the autumn crops. The winter rains were abundant
in January and the season progressed very favourably for spring crops till
Marcli declared itself as excessively wet and cloudy. The year on the whole
was a good one, but inferior to its predecessor. Plague 'seriously interfered with
harvesting in Gurgaon, Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Sialkot, Gujranwala and Lyallpur.
55. The earliest attempts to mduce agriculturists of limited means to benefit co-operative
from co-operation were made in 1 898, in the Multau District, by Mr. E. D. Maclagan ^r^j'-' ^°"^-
46
Censns Report }
CONDITIONS OF THE DECADE.
Chapter
Their Bcope.
Urban Socie
ties.
Particulars of
Societies.
•a
eg
7
6
1
14
■a
S
Is-
"as
PS
692
692
£
-i
o
Working
Capital.
Central Societies ...
Urban Societies ...
Rural Societies ...
570
644
37,390
2,89,795
30,990
15,42,211
ToUl
706
38,604
18,62,996
and the late Captain J. G. Crosthwaite, but for the encouragement of self-help
in the form of Co-operntive Societies active measures wure not undertaken until
the passing of Act X of 1904, when an officer was appointed as Registrar of
Co-operative Credit Societies, to assist the people in oJ'ganizing them. At
that time the societies were insignificant and existed only in two districts,
but the scheme devised by the Registrar was liberally responded to by the
agricultural classes, and his advice was freely utilized, witli the result that within
7 years the number has gone up to 706 embracing 38,004 members with a
working capital of Rs. 18,62,996.
The object of the Societies is to encourage thrift, self-help and co-operation
among the agriculturists, artisans and persons of limited means. They are divided into
Rural, Urban and Central. The figures foi- each kind of societies, with limited or
unhmited liabihty, are given in the margin. The only difference in the nature
of the Urban and Rural types is, that |thof
the members must be agriculturists in the
former and the samn proportion of non-
agriculturists is essential for the latter.
While the Rural Societies are doing incal-
culable good to the peasants, the Urban
Societies are rendering splendid service to the
other classes. By way of examples of the
latter kind may be mentioned tho Dhariwal
Co-operative Society, which hns been started
for the employes of the Dhariwal Mills and
the Police Co-operative Society establislied for the benefit of the members of
the Police Training Scliool at Phillaur. Both these work on the system of
Central Banks. Co-operative shops. The Central Societies or Central Banks are the central Co-
opprative institutions for each district, which form the means of financing the
village societies. They are only stronger Urban Societies, started with the
object of helping them in their growth and assisting in the organization
Rural Soete
ties.
of the Rural ones.
There were originally three types of Rural Societies, viz. : — (1) the
Panjaur type (so called from the place of that name in the Hoshiarpur District,
where it originated,) in which the village community manages the common land
of the village and applies the income to the improvement of lands, the redemption
of mortgages by members and the advance of loans to them ; (2) the Mianwali
type, in which the capital consists of volunt-iry subscriptions in grain, not re-
turnable for 10 years, part of the grain being kept for advances for seed and
part of it sold for cash, which is advanced on interest, and the profits and in-
terest charged are added to the permanent indivisible capital of the society; and
(3) the form which has no share capital, but ojierates with fixed money deposits,
bearing interest, which are used for advances to members at higher rates of
interest. Experience has, however, shown that The type best suited to the re-
quirements of most places, with due regard to tlie diverse interests of the petty
landlords and the lack of unlimited confidence and uprightness, is that in which
the members become shareholders by payment of 10 compulsory annual instal-
ments. No dividends are declared for ten yeai"S, after which period, three quarters
of the profits are divided among the shareholders, the remaining fourth being
transferred to the reserve fund, which is made available for the general purposes
of the Society. Under this system, which was devised by the pioneers of Gurdas-
pur, every member has a tangible interest in the Society's success, and the
prospect of obtaining, after 10 years, what is looked upon in the light of a
pension, is reported to appeal with great force to the Punjab peasant. More than
50 per cent, of the societies have already adopted this form.
As ttie normal rate of interest charged by tho Rural Societies is less than
10 per cent, while that demanded by the village money-lenders, in a year of
scarcity, is anything above 25 per cent, the movement is a boon to the peasantry
and the great benefits, which have accrued in the short period of its existence,
are obvions from the improved financial condition of this class. It is hoped that
in course of time, ihe cultivator may cease to be wholly dependent for financial
47
IL CONDITIONS OF THE DECADE. [ p^mjal, jg^.
Bullocks
20
Old Debts ..
30
Revenue
12
Seed
a
Household
expenses ..
12
Marriage
a
Fodder
2
Kine
3
Trade
1
Housebuild-
ing
2
Redemption
of land ...
3
Miscella-
neous
D
assistance, either on the money-lender or on Government. The village money-
lenders, who are naturally avereeto the movement, are beginning to understand
that finaucing a Co-operative Bank at a moderate rate of interest is a perfectly
safe investment and it is hoped that they may seek, through its agency, a suitable
means of employing their capital, which is being set free by the passing of the
Punjab Alienation of Land Act and the other means devised by Government for
rescuing the peasant from economic thraldom.
In a large number of older societies, the managing committee has be-
come a 'piinchayai for the settlement of disputes. Indeed in many places, the
Bank Committees act as standing punchayats.
Besides acting as Savings Banks for the purposes of tiding over the agri-
cultural needs for the time being, these Societies are utihzed in many other useful
ways. The percentage of the objects (indicated in the margin)
for which loans have been granted during tlie last year,
by 5 selected Banks will show that one-third of the ad-
vances went to clear off old debts and redeem mortgages,
and 39 per cent, to assist in the payment, of land revenue and
providing requisites of agriculture, while marriages, construction
of houses and household expenses did not fail to receive the need-
ful help. It will be interesting to know that one of the Banks
in the JuUnndur District provides a scholarship for a Middle
school student, and that in the Chenab Colony, agi-icultural
machinery has been purchased, shops have been opened and
trade in wool and cattle is carried on with the help of the
funds of such Societies.
56. The only part of the Province which suffered from actual famine, during Famines,
the decade, is the eastern Punjab (Delhi Division), although the prices of food grains
ruled high throughout the Province. lu the Hissar District, where 98 per cent, of
the cultivated area depends on rainfall, the cessation of the monsoon in .August 1901
led to the entire failure of Kharif crops on the unirrigated area and rendered the
sowing of the next Eabi imiwssible. So, early in the winter of 1901, scarcity condi-
tions prevailed throughout the district. Besides help by way of takavi advances and
the suspension and remission of revenue, large test works in the form of excavation
of tanks were started by Government. Gratuitous relief was distributed and poor-
houses were opened. Altogether, Rs. 35,265 were spent from December 1901 to
November 1902. With the summer rains of 1902, the famine disappeared. In
the rainy season of 1905, the rainfall in the Gurgaon District was less than one-
fourth of the 50 years' average. This considerably reduced the area of matured
crops in Kharif 1905 and Rabi 1906 and the prices consequently rose very high,
with the result that the district was visited by the same distress which prevailed
in the years 1896 and 1897, and famine relief operations had to be started in
288 villages, although the number of estates which actually suffered was 157.
Rs. l,14,2-}0 were spent on relief works, besides suspension and remission
of revenue and the advances for agricultural }iurposes. The calamity was,
however, ovei' by September 1 906. Kext year, it was again the turn of the Hissar
District to suffer from failure of crops. The damage done to the Kharif crops of
1907 and the failure of the Rabi of 1908, owing to the cessation of the rains
after sowing, led to a rise in prices, which later on, in June 1908, corresponded to
the famine rates of 1896-97. The distress was, however, not widespread, and
only Rs. 10,287 were spent on gratuitous relief. At the same time, the
Gurga on District suffered from failure of Kharif 1907 and Rabi 1908, for
want of rain. In January 1908, relief works were 3tarte>i, on which Rs. 43,505
were spent up to August 1908, and the cost of relief afforded through the opening
of poor-liou-if s was Rs. 3,434.
In the Hissar District, where famine conditions prevailed in 1901-02, the
vit^ility lost'lui iiig the famine did not revive till ribout 1 905 and although tlie birth-
rate increased in 1902 from 32 to 43, yet the effects of the famine of 1901 were
visible in the fall of the rate to 37 in 1903. But in 1905, it began to rise and
in spite of a heck in th'e nextyoar wentupto47 in 1908. The* famine of 1907-08,
which though not widespread, yet led to a temporary check in births, reduced
the rate to 41. The year 191W again showed an improvement. This district which
48
Cenius Report. 1
CONDITIONS OF THE DECADE.
Chapter
Price ot food
has on the whole, shown an increase in its population, affords a fairly good
illustration of the effects of famine on the development of population,
although the losses caused by plague and fever have greatly magnified the
unfavourable results. The Gurgaon District was also left weak at the
beginning of the past decade, from the eifects of famine, but recovered
steadily, till in 1904, its birth-rate rose to 47. Famine re-appeared in 1 905 and
plague carried away 29,172 persons. The birth-rate at once fell to 38. A slight
improvement was apparent in 1906 and 1907, but the return of famine conditions
in 1907-08 coupled with heavy mortality from malaria in 1908, reduced the
birth-rate again to 40, and it fell further to 30 in the following year.
With the disappearance of famine conditions in 1910, the vitality begau to
revive.
57. The trend of prices of the four staple food grains of the Province — viz.,
wheat, maize, gram and bajra is in-
dicated in the marginal diagram. It
will be noticed that the prices of
all the four cereals varied more or
less in the same manner. The
year 1901 was one of easy pi'ices.
Wheat sold at the average rate
of the last decade, while the price
of the other eirains was somewhat
below the similar normal rate. In
1902, the price of bajra rose owing
to damage done to the unirrigated
bajra crop, by drought. The prices
of the other three grains, however,
showed a slight falling off. The I'ates
remained stationery in the next year,
those obtained for bajra also reverting
to the normal. The year 1904 marked
a general fall in prices, consequent
on bumper harvests. From 1905, the price of wheat and gram rose gradu-
ally till it reached about double the normal, in 1908, while the rise in the price
of the autumn crops of maize and bajra sustained a slight check in 1907, owing to
the abundant crops of the two preceding harvests. In 1908, the prices of all the
four staples were abnormally high. This was the natural result of the nnfavour-
Mble agricultural conditions of 1907-08. The successful harvests of 1908-09
lowered the prices, but the cost of wheat did not come down much. Had it not
been for the severe drain by export to other less favoured Provinces, the fall in
prices would have been much fjreater. In 1910, there was a further fall in
prices generally, wheat going down from Rs. 4 to Rs. 3 per maund. The demand
for bajra in the eastern Punjab and towards the United Provinces was, however,
large and the price of this crop showed only a small decline.
Besides the prices of food grains, the rates obtained for cotton and oilseeds
have had a marked effect upon the development of agricnlture during the past
10 years. 'l"he price of clean cotton has varied between Rs. 14 and Rs. 24-6 per
maund. In 1910, the rate was Rs. 24-6 against Rs. 17-6 in 1900. Cotton is not a
very difficult crop to raise. It does not require particularly careful farming nor
does it demand too much water, like rice. The favourable prices have given it a
great lead over other crops, and the area under cotton has risen from 855,981
acres in 1901 to 1,277,025 acres in 1910.
The price of rape-seed has risen from less than Rs. 4 in 1901 to over
Rs. 4-8 in 1910, per maund, and although the area under all oil-seeds put together
has not risen during the past decade, it was sufficiently large, throughout, to
form a valuable asset of the agricultural classes.
What has led to such a rise in prices is not a question which can be
suitably discussed hero. The change is not local nor confined to India, but is felt
all over the world. The cause usually ascribed is the growing demand for food-
grains and other necessaries of life, which is in excess of even the enhanced pro-
duction. Economists, however, hold, that the sole cause of^the difficulty is an
PRICES PER MAUND
4
DURING 1901- 1910 / N^
3}
— RirtRtMCtS- /.•;■■•.'■.
\
3»
Mwzt — — — / _•;
">■■
\
•. ■.
e»jR* / ;; (
\ \ '•
\
2}
.1
../
V.
24
\
///
^
\ /
H
\
•••
^/
}:
:'/
\ '.
■•/
"i ^
/
.■:/
'
V ■
.■■ 1
/
V
^
n
N
— .
i
19C
1902 1903 1904 1906 1906 1907 1908 1909 ]|
)10
49
II.
CONDITIONS OF THE DECADE.
[ Punjab, 1911.
ABLE 60D/ED ACRICUI.TUFWL
LABOURtR'S MONTHLY
WAGES IN RUPtE-S
expansion of the world's currencj.* Morrison says : —
" When the number of rupees in circulation was comparatively small, the value of
money was high and prices were low. When the circulation expanded, the value of money
fell and prices rose."t
The question which looms so large in the fiscal problems of the country,
forms the subject of a special enquiry under the orders of the Government of India.
58. The high prices of food grains make the struggle for existence very Else in
hard, among the poorer classes, as the wages,
labourers now receive payment mostly
in cash ; but the situation has been saved
by a general rise in their wages.
The two diagrams in the margin AgncuUurat
show the average monthly wages of '"''"""" "
(1) agricnltural and (2) other skilled
labourers, , for the years 1901 — 1909, as
published in the •' Prices and Waj^es in
India." The cause of this economic change,
which is by no means an anmixed blessing,
is fourfold — viz., (1) a rise in prices, (2)
the heavy mortality from plague and fever
among the labouring classes, (3) an en-
hanced demand for labour of all kinds, and
(4) the emancipation of the menial classes
from their traditional occupations. A
Wages aurveyt was carried out in 1909
in 4,728 selected villages, which threw
considerable light on the question. The
following extracts from the Season and
Crops Report of the Punjab for 1910
briefly describe the results of this enquiry
so far as agricultural labourers are con-
cerned : —
" In months in which there is no abnormal
demand lor labour, agricultural labourers are
now paid from 2 to 3 annas per day in Gurgaon,
3 annas in Delhi and Kangra and 3^ annas in
Rohtak. These are the only districts under 4
annas. The Delhi Division has not suffered as
severely from plague as the rest of the Punjab,
and its labour market has not been seriously
affected by the opening up of the nev^ irrigated
tracts and the construction of canals. Accoi'd-
ingly, the labour rates have not been violently
disturbed and the daily wage still approximates to
1901 rSO? iBOb 1904 1905 1906 ie07 1908 i909
50 9, COMMON MASON, C/^RPEIfTER
OR BLACKSMITH'S
MONTHLY WACLS
^y■o\ IN RUPEES
21 0 ■
1301 1302 1903 r904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909
the 3-anna rate which is paid in the iseighhounng
districts of the United Provinces. A 4-annH rate
is reported in the Salt Range and in Multan,
Muzaffar^arh, Dera Ghazi Khan, Karnal and Ambala. Hissar and the sub-niontane di.stricts
of Horihiarpnr, Gurdaspur and Sialkot return 5 annas. The remaining districts represt nt the
central Punjab, and here the rates are 6 annas with, however, rates up to 8 annuf* in Feroze-
pore, Shahpur, Lyallpur and Jhang. It is natural that wages should be highest )n the
• "The rise of prices is not a difBculty limited to ludia. This has happened throughout the world. Mr. Fisher,
Professor of Political Economy at the Yale University, has made a special study of the subject. It is stated
that the increase in prices has been 50 per cent, in the United States of America, 30 per cent, in Germany and 20
per cent, in each of the two countries, England and India. He thinks that neither free trade nor protection, nor
the trust system in America is responsible for this rise. He is of opinion that the only hypothesis which satisfies nil
the conditions is, that an expansion of the world's currency has entailed the payment of more mouey for all commodi.
ties. During the last fifteen years the annual output of gold has increased from .£8 5,000, nni) to £100.(IOO,000.
Unless this increase in the output be checked the prices will go up. Mr. Fisher thinks that the only solution of
this problem is that various and difterent countries of the world should restrict the gold output by a general and
common understanding. An International conference, as proposed by President Taft, to inquire into the question
and to report on the best means of dealing with the difficulty may render great help in the matter." (The Tribune,
Lahore, dated 17th April 1912).
t Morrison's Indian Industrial Organization (1909), p. 312-
t A. memorandum by BIr. W. C. Benouf, 0. S., has been printed as No. 24 of Selections from the Records of
the Financial Commissioner's Office.
50
Census Report] conditions of the decadb. Chapter
central Punjab and in the new Colonies, where development has been most marked and
plague has also been most severe. Enquiries have shown that agricultural labourers in the
Punjab wore paid the equivalent of li annas per day at annexation and of 2 to 3 annas
per day 20 years ago. It is apparent, therefore, that wages have generally doubled in the
last two decades, the increase beinsf, however, greater in the central Districts. The
advance has been most rapid in the last 5 or 10 years. The wages of village artisans
and ploughmen have also practically doubled since 1889."
" The causes of the enormous rise in wages are easily ascertained. These are, a
marked rise in the prices of food grains, heavy mortality from plague among the labouring
classes and a much greater demand for labour, with large extensions of cultivation, the
expenditure of vast sums on irrigation works, public buildings and communications,
activity in the building trade in towns and villages and the starting of new factories and
industrial concerns. Soon after 1900, the labourer found himself the master of the situation.
From that time onwards, he has been in a position to almost dictate terms to his employers.
Villacre menials who hac been accustomed to work at customary rntes f ;om time immemorial
have emancipated themselves and demand competition wages. A striking feature of the
present time is the great mobility of labour, labourers moving freely to places where they
can obtain the roost remunerative employment. Sir Jamee Wilson, in a recent paper,
estimates that, notwithstanding the rise of prices, the average labourer, after providing
for tlie necessaries of life, has now twic3 as much to spend on comforts and luxuries as he
could reckon on 20 years ago."
The rise in the wages of agricultural labonrera has been continuous with
two breaks — one in 1903 and the other in 1905. The year 1903 was one of
favourable agricultural conditions. The prices of food grains did not vary much
in this year and mortality not having been high in the preceding years, the wages
had a tendency to fall and the process was accelerated by a host of labourers
being set fi'ee from the works connected with the Coronation Darbar at Delhi,
held in 1903. But the check was temporary, and the high death-rate of 1903
and 1904 coupled with the very extensive demand in the unusually good
agricultural year 1903-04 pushed up ^he average of wages suddenly from about
Rs. 7 per mensem to Ks. 7^. The year 1H05 brought it down a little,
owing to famine conditions in parts of the eastern Punjab and the decrease in the
demand for agricultural labourer, compared with 1904. But the check on the
upward tendency of wages was temporary, and from the year 1906 onwards, the
growth has been steady. In 1909 the average wage of an agricultural labourer
was about Rs. 10-10 a month or nearly 5| annas per diem.
The variations in the wages of agricultural labourers seem to date from
the time when cash payments began to largely replace remuneration in kind,
and when members of the menial classes began to emancif)ate themselves and
go to towns in search of employment, thus gradually assimilating the wage
conditions of the villages to those of tlie towns. It was ascertained at the
Wages survey of 1909, that about half the villages in which enquiries were
held paid agricultural labourers in cash, purely grain rates prevailed in 3 per cent,
of them, and partly grain and partly cash in the rest. Ren:embering that at
no distant date, most of the agricultural labourers were paid in kind, the
change would obviously result in the wages being forced up in harmony with the
rise in prices. Thirty years ago, grain enough for food with one rupee a month
in cash, a suit of khaddar (homespun) cloth per harvest, with the addition of a
blanket in winter, formed sufficient attraction for a farm servant in the central
Punjab, but nothing short of Rs. 9 or 10 per month or a mixed cash payment and
allowance in kind, equivalent tliereto, wiU now induce a labourer to take up a
fixed engagement ; and yet he will look forwaid to certain other perquisites.
The demand for skilled labour has increased from day today in conse-
bowero'^" quence of industrial activity, and the wages of that class of labourers have been
higher in towns than in rural tracts. The wages of skilled labourers went
up from Rs. 18 to Rs. 19-8 in 1902, being highest at Multan, as also at Delhi, where
the Coronation Darbar works had established a very large demand for such labour.
In the next year, as would be expected, the average rate fell to Rs. 18-8 on account
of the Delhi workers being set free. The fall in the prices of food grains in 1904
caused a further slight decrease, but wages began to pursue the upward
tendency again in 1905, and by 1908 they had gone up to about Rs. 31 per
mensem. In the City of Lahore, masons and carpenters of the ordinary type,
who will now accept nothing less than Re. 1-4 a day, could be readily employed at
8 annas per diem, 30 years ago.
51
II. CONDITIONS OP THE DECADB. [ Pnnjab, 1911.
As to the future course of wages, the followitig extract from the Season ^''e /«<»'•«
and Crops Keport above referred to is worth perusal : — ^7/°^
" The future course of wages can only be guessed at. But with nearly all the causes
in operation which liave led to the recent increase, there is every reason to anticipate a
further advance, and the latest reports state that wages are still going up. The completion
of the triple canal scheme in a few years will liberate a considerable army of labourers.
These will, however, be needed for the extension of cultivation."
The confinement of the ever-growing Shudra class to menial service was
a powerful artificial check enforced by the institution of caste. With the educa-
tion and impartial treatment of tbe depressed classes, that artificial barrier lias
been removed and the functional revolution of society which is in procuress and
will be noticed further on, is bound to thin down the ranks of the labouring classes.
59. The gross cultivated area of the British Districts has risen during the Extension
IZporo 102 262 P'lst decade from 28,113,894 to 29,648,060 acres, the largest °''="'""'"°°-
Lyalipur) ggg'^^g increases being contributed by the districts named in the
Lahofe ^ 40308 ^^/'g'^' ^^st of the development has taken place in lands
Shahpur .'.'. 499!887 irrigated by perennial canals. The exploitation of the light
sandy lands in the Sindh Sagar Doab has also led to the increase, in no small
degree. In the Native States, large areas of sandy desert are being brought
under the plough on the Sadikwah Inundation Canal (Bahawalpur) and cultivation
is extending in the Phulkian States with the aid of the Sirhind and Western
Jamna Canals. The percentage of area on which crops have been secured by
permanent means of irrigation has increased from 40'8 in 1901 to 42*9 in 1911.
The lapid extension of cultivation has its drawbacks, although they bear no
comparison to the advantages accruing to the population from an addition to the
field of production. In the greed for breaking up land, pieces heavy and light, are
brought under cultivation, without distinction. The light and poor lands cannot,
however, yield a high outturn and consequently reduce the average capacity of land
to support a high incidence of population. The difference is not realized until the
experiment has been tried, and when in some cases, the production does not even
repay the cost, or where the crops depend upon precarious rainfall, and fail suc-
cessively for more years than one, the result is disastrous. Such instances are
numerous in the sandy lands in the western and southern Punjab.
60. No altogether new crops have been introduced during the past decade, introduction
but sugarcane has lost ground, as the ai^ea sown with it has not kept pace witli the °^ "^"' '"'°'"*
extension of cultivation, and on the other band, cotton is gaining in popularity
(see paragraph 57). Toria {Eruea. Sativi or Brassica Eruca, as it is variouHly
called) has come into prominence during the past decade, particularly in the Canal
colonies. It now covers over 500,000 acres and sold, in 1910, at Rs. 4 per
maund. The fall in the price of indigo has reduced the area under that crop
from 90,778 to 46,446 acres, or to about one-half.
61. The total irrigated area of thePunjat) has risen from 7,487,483 in 1890 Extension of
and 9,875,983 in 1900 to 9,942,926 in 1910. The sources of irrigation in this""^''"""-
Province are: — canals, wells, tanks and others. The area irrigated from tanks is
insignificant and may be left out of account. The "other" sources of irrigation
are : — (a). Irrigation from r ivers, creeks, marshes, (ihands ami chhamhs (lakf^s) by
means of Persian-wheels, which is termed dbi, and (6). Irrigation from natural and
artificial streams {ndlas and kuhls) in the hilly and sub-montane tracts. The irrigation
from these miscellaneous sources has remained oonstiint and needs no comment.
62. Of the total irrigated area, which measured 9,942,926 acres in Canaig.
*1909-10, 6,241,716 were irrigated from Government, and 527,950 acres from
private canals. Altogether, 68 per cent, of the irrigated area received its supply from
canals, which thus piny a very important part in the development of agri-
cultm-e in the Province. The subject will, therefore, be dealt with in some detail.
Subsidiary Table V shows the date of completion of each Major Irrigation i>n!7aJton.
work, the capital outlay on, the area comraandod and irrigated by and the total """■^*-
length of each, in the years 1901 and 1911, respectively. It will be noticed that
Outlay up to— 2s. the whole system of canals in the Province has involved
1911 ■■ 1148 90^0 a capital outlay of about 111 cr ores of rupees, i.e., close
" — '—'—1— on 7§ million sterling. The outlay during the past decade,
Djgerence ... 2,48,91,403 ^g aliown in the margin, was about 2^ crores of rupees—
* The figures of 1910-11 were not available when the Chapter was written! ' ~
52
Census Report. ]
CONDITIONS OF THE DBCADE.
Chaptkb
1881
1891
1901
1911
1881
1891
1901
1911
1,613
7,767
11,614
12,703
16,265
16,785
Ihe Punjab
Triple Canal
Frtject,
i.e., over 1^ million sterling. This dues not include the capital expenditure
on the caual projects in hand, -which will be mentioned in the next paragraph.
The total length of main canals is 4,082 miles now, compared with 2,247 in
1881. The figures rose to 4,104 in 1891 and to 4,651 in 1901^
but remodelling on certain perennial canals and particularly on
the Muzaffargarh inundation canals, has resulted in the conversion
of a large number of main canals into distributaries, during the
past 10 years. The rise in the length of distributaries is indicated in the margin.
The total length of maia canals and distributaries is compared in the
margin. The gross area irrigated from canals has risen from
ii,'87i 5,473,359 in 1901 to 7,227,042 in 1911— i.e., by 32 per cent,
according to Canal 6gures, which for various reasons are some-
what in excess of those supplied by the Revenue Department.
The account of the extension of canal irrigation in this Province would be
incomplete without a reference to the great Triple Canal project which consists of — •
(1) The Upper Jhelum Canal, with headworks at Mangla on the .Jheliim liver,
for the irrigation of the northern part of the Chej Doab and supplement-
ing the Rabi supplies in the Chenab: estimated cost Rs. 4,39,96,559.
(2) The Upper Chenab Canal, witli headworks at Marala, for the irrigation of
the northern part of the Rechna Donb : estimated cost Rs. 3,73,57,024.
(3) The Lower Bari Doab Caual, with headworks at Balloki, on the
Ravi, for the irrigation of the Lower Bari Doab (also known as the
Montgomery Bar) : estimated cost Rs. 2,23,28,402.
The three projects are collectively known as the Punjab Triple Canal
Scheme. As all tliree of them depend, for their cold weather supply, on the waters
of the Jhelum, simultaneous execution was necessary. The Upper Jhelum will
convey the surplus waters of the Jhelum to the Chenab river, tailing in above
the headworks of the existing Lower Chenab Canal. The Upper Chenab will
draw off as much water from the Chenab as tailed in by the Upper Jhelum
Canal and also any surplus that may be available in the Chenab river and will,
after passing through the Gnjranwala District, tail into the Ravi above the
level crossing at Balloki. This supply will then be taken in by the Lower Bari
Doab Canal for the irrigation of the JVJoutgomery Bar (forest). The table in the
Canal Peojeot-
Total
for
Triple
Project,
Particulars.
Upper
Jhelum.
Upper
Chenab.
Lower
Bari
Doab,
Length of Main Line .. Miles.
Length of Branches
Length of Di.stributaries „
Discharge at head of Main
Line ... Cusecs
Gross area commanded .. Acres.
Proposed annual irrigation „
Annual 1,'ross revenue Rs,
Working expenses
Annual net revenue ... „
90
48
562
8,500
741,6(0
344,960
18,35,040
4,74,320
13,60,720
99
113
1,092
11,694
1,6(8,616
648.:^67
32 14 7W
6,48.367
25,66,422
43
113
1,060
6,481
1,637,001
877,908
45(9,540
6,58,431
38,51,109
3,987,2 !G
1 871,235
',15 59 3C.9
17,81,118
77,78,251
margin contains figures, which
will illustrate the magnitude
of the scheme in hand. The
three canals, which will be
completed from 1912-13 to
1914-15 will command four
million acres and are in-
tended to irrigate close on two
million. The estimated net
annual revenue of Rs. 77f
lakhs is calculated to yield 7^
per cent, per annum on the
capital outlay of 10^ crores
of rupees (about 7 million
sterling).
Eviu of Canal The benefits of canal irrigation are so great and colonization oa the
irrigation. perennial canals has become so popular, that the association of any evil effects with
this blessing is likely to cau,se sui prise to a large majority vi the unobserv-
ant public. But it is not possible to ignore the injury which excessive canal
irrigation causes by (1) dejiriving the riverain lands of the full benefit of river
flooding, (2) impairing the health of tracts which get soaked with excessive
moisture and (3) causing a deterioi ation of soil t herein. The following extracts from
a letter* written by Sir James Wilson, as Settlement Commissioner, will support
the first allegation.
t" All along the lower course of the Sutlej, Ravi and Chenab, one is met with
constant complaints on the part of the inhabitHnts of th« riverain viUnges, to the effect
* No. 924, dated 14th May 1900, to Senior Secrotury to the Fin^nciaI Commissioner, Punjab.
t Paragraph 2.
53
n.
CONDITIONS OP THE DECADE.
L Panjab, Wit-
that since weirs were thrown across these rivers and a large portion of their waters
was diverted to the large perennial canals, the area which used to be cultivated with the
aid of river floods has seriously iallen off, and the inundation canals, on which so many of
them depended lor their prosperity, no longer flow for so many days in the jear as tliey
used to do. These complaints may lie exaggerated, but there is no doubt that there is much
truth in them, and it is to be feared that the policy of frovernment in constructing these
great perennial canals, while it has added enormously to the general prosperity of the
Province, has seriously injured many of the residents of the river vidleys. Formerly, in the
comparatively rainless tracts of the South-Western Punjab, agriculture and population were
mainly confined to the neighbourhood of the rivers, and the Bar and Thai uplands were thinly
inhabited. Now that we are cutting off the water from the river valleys and spreading it
over the upland tracts, the centres of prosperity are shifting from the lowlands to tlie
uplands, and the old inhabited villages along the rivers are rapidly falling into decay."
* " This decrease is simply enormous, and when it is seen that the construction
of one perennial canal lias thrown nearly one-half of the sailab area out of cultivation,
it can very easily be concluded that the construction of any other canal will bring utter
desolation upon the riverain villages of the State."
t "This decrease is attributed to the construction of a canal by the Bahawalpur State
in 1888." .
X " The advantages of the sailah are too well-known to be described. It is the most
natural and the least expensive means of irrigation. It improves the Sdil with the silt it
throws up. It conduces 10 the plentifulness of fodder and helps the growth of trees. The
failing of the sailab disheartens the people, who leave their homes for more profitable
localities. The construction of wells on such areas is also risky.
That excessive moisture produced by copious canal irrigation, causes a good
deal of sickness, is a fact
GROSS CULTIVATED AREA B09HO
DEATHS TROM rEVERS(l90l-IQ)XP0 _
CANAL IRRIGATED AREA X 100
D
PCFULATION 190!
which does not require
much proof. The diagram
printed in the margin
will show how the propor-
tion of deaths frcin fever
to total population varies
with the extent of canal
irrigation. The curve of
losses from fever closely
follows the extent of canal
irrigation in the Gujran-
wala, Montgomery, and
Dera Gbazi Khan Dis-
tricts. In the others,
there aie special reasons
for variation. Karnal has
suffered from water-logging and, although the canal irrigation has been
brought well under control, the health of the district will take time to
improve. The deaths in Ferozepore are higher in comparison with the percentage
of canal irrigation, owing to the hygroscopic condition of the riverain tract.
Amritsar has suffered from a specially bad go of fever in epidemic form during
the decade. Lnhoro has fared somewhat better. Canal irrigation has just been
started in the Sbahpur District and has not had time enough to exhibit its
effect on health. The case of the Lyallpur and Jhang Districts is similar
and the special precautions being taken, as regards village sanitation, arc the
cause of the low mortality. The irrigation in Multan and Muzaffargarh is
from inundation canals, which work only during the summer, assisted by wells-
whicii relieve the subsoil moisture in winter. This accounts for the lowness of
the death curve in Multan. But in Muzaffargarh the moisture from river floods
pushes up the death-rate.
As regards the deterioration of soil, the sowing: of lands consecutively
with crops without any rest, results in the shrinkage of outturn, unless the soil
is manured from time to time, and the sand brought down by the water
spreads over the irrigated land, weakening its strength in course of time. In
the Punjab Crops and Season Report of 1909-10 it was said that "There are
complaints of the spread of alkali in the Chenab Colony." On other canals as
* Paragrapli 1 4.
t Paragraph 15.
J Paragraph 17.
54
Census Report. ]
CONDITIONS OP THE DECADE.
CaAPTEE
Irrigation
from welle.
Improved
commanica-
tiOD.
Railways.
well, experience shows that the tendency on the canal irrigrated landa is for the
outturn to diminish.
63. Irrigation from wells, which played a most important part in the
stability of cultivation in the plains, before the construction of perennial canals was
undertaken on a large scale, has now sunk into comparative insignificance. But it
still accounts for about 30 per cent, of the total irrigation and in individual
districts like JuUundur is still the mainstay of cultivation. The total area of
crops irrigated from wells was stated in the Punjab Census Report of 1901 to be
over four million acres (paragraph 22, p^ge 49), but Mr. Rosh haxi taken the figures
Years.
Acres.
1899-1900
... 4.154,598
1900.01
... 2,791,123
1901-02
... 3,746,785
1902.03
... 3,82(5,771
1903-04
... 3,45I,70S
1904-05
.. 3,522,102
190506
... 3,695,612
1906.07
... 3,132,151
1907-08
... 3,989,29a
1908-09
... 3,029,693
1909-10
... 2.985,574
1910-11
.. 3,071,309
mediate
years hav<
of 1899-1900, which was an exceptionally dry year and when
the wells had to be wofked to their ui-.most capacity. The
statistics of 1910-11 should be compared with those of
1900-01 which was the last year of the decade ending 1901
and was of a more favourable character. The aiva irrigrited
from wells in each of the past 12 years is given in the
margin. The extent of well irrigation, as gauged from
crops assisted by that source was about 10 per cent, more
in 1910-11 than in 1900-01. The variations in the inter-
been due to tlie degree in which the rainfall or floods of
each year necessitated a resort to well-irrigation.
The use of wells on a large scale is confined to tracts which are not
served by perennial canals or, to put it the other way, the perennial canals
have been constructed to comnaaud areas where the low spring level precluded
the utilization of well-irrigation. With the development of their resources, the
owners and occupiers of land are securing their cultivation by adding new wells,
where necessary. During the past decade, 46,817 new wells have been con-
structed, without a corresponding increase in well-irrigation. But several old
wells have fallen out of use ; and it is usually in highly cultivated tracts that new
wells are sunk, with the object of more copious irrigation. In tracts served by
inundation canals, wells serve the double purpose of maturing the spring crops,
which are generally sown with the aid of canal irrigation and of l^w^'ring
the spring level in the winter, by lifting all the superfluous subsoil moisture
produced by the flooding of lands during the summer.
64. The means of communication are afforded by Railways, metalled and
unmetalled roads, the rivers and the navigable portions of canals. The traffic
on the rivers and canals is not large. In the hills, the rivers are utilized
m>inly for floating down timber, but in the plains, a considerable amount
of trade is carried on by boat. In 1909-10, the River-borne trade weighed
222,000 inaimds in imports and over 2 million miunds in exports. The facilities
afforded by the Railways leave little room for growth of the River traffic pro-
portionately to the development of trade, but the rivers
have not ceased to take their share in the conveyance
of goo is, a^ will appear from the figures given in the
margin. The navigable canals are: — Western Jamna
Canal from Dadupur to Delhi and Sirhind Canal from
Doraha to Rupar and from Patiala to Ferozepore. Their
total navigable length is 387 miles.
65. The total length of railway in th« Provinca now i-^ 5,369 miles compared
with 1,056 in 18S1. The extensions made
during the last decade cover 1,105 miles. A
detfiil of the extensions is given in tlie margin.
With the exception of 56 miles on the G. I. P.,
42 on the R. M. R., 62 on Jodhpur-Bikaner and
30 on the E. I. R., the whole extension has
taken place on the N.-W. Railway, whicli is the
chief Railway system of tlie Province. The
Railways opened ia 1910, viz., Patti to Kasur
and Kasur to Lodhran, cover a total length of
287 miles and have tapped a very fertile and
thickly populated tract. The other notable ex-
tensions are the Malakwal-Shorkot line, serving the Jhelum Colony and the
River-borne trade: weight in,
thottsand maunds.
Import. Export.
299 2,312
146 1,3J9
135 1,761
222 2,0U2
1894-95
1S99.I'.100
1904-05
1909-10
}!a>ne cj line.
Feroz'^pore to Blmtinda, S.-W. Ry.
Jeoh Di>ab N. Section,
Do. S. do.
Shahdara-Sangia,
Lodhran-Khanewal,
Amritsar-KHaur,
Ludhinna Kxiension,
KHlkn-Simla,
Sutlej V^alley,
Shorkob-Chichoki,
Khnnpiir-Chiichran,
Thnnoaar to Knithal, E. I. Ry.
Delhi m Ho.lal, G. I. P. Ry.
Bixsar to Digana, K. M, Ry.
Bhatin^ia to Birangkhera, J. B. Ry.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Miles.
54
46
102
56
57
54
152
60
208
1.36
22
30
.">6
42
30
55
II.
CONDITIONS OP THE DECADE.
[ Punjab, 1911.
-—RErtRtNCtf,—
BROAD GAUCl S'NGLt LINE J-C
NARROW Da DO DO £ 6
PROJECTED LINE
LINtSCOMSTBUCTEDT
DURING THE DECAOtJ
MAP
SHOWING THE
RAILWAYS IN THE PROVINCE
Shahdara-Sangla and Chiclioki-Jaranwala lines, traversing parts of the Cbenab
Colony. The Kalka-Simla Railway, completed in 1903, is also a notable
feature, as it is the first Hill Railway coustructed within the Province. But
m spite of the heavy traflBc, inseparable from the move of the headquarters of
the Provincial and Imperial Governments to Simla during the summei-, it is
doubtful whether the Railway can be a profitable commercial concern. All the
other works completed during the decade were undertaken on commercial giouuds.
The above extensions do not include the doubling of the North-Western Railwav
line from Shahdara to Ambala Cantonment and from Lodhran (Wultau District)
to the sou^th- western boundary of the Bahawalpur State near Reti, through a total
length of 339 miles. A map showing the Railway lines now in existence" is o-iyeii
m the margin. 'Ihe network of Railways, which covers the whole Province, is the
creation of less
than 50 years.
In 1863 the
total length of
railway was 23
miles, in 1868,
it had grown
to 293 miles;
in 1873 to
468 and at
the Census of
1881, it mea-
sured 1,056
miles. By 1891
additions ag-
gr e g a t i ng
1,316 miles
had been made
and tbe length
which had at-
tained to 4,264
miles in 1901
now stands at
5,369 miles.
Almost every important agricultural tract and commercial centre is now
served by some Railway, Feeder lines are replacing feeder roads and the old convey-
ances, e.g., bullock carts, camels etc., now ply between villages (or towns) and the
nearest Railway Station, instead of undertaking long journeys, except in unimport-
ant out-of-the-way 2>laces. Not only are goods carried by Railway but tbe
passenger traffic is increasing enormously, and people are getting so enamoured
of the convenience and comfort of travelling by rail that they are known to
prefer walking 3 miles to catch a train for the next station which is another three
miles from their destination, to going a distance of 10 miles straight from one
place to tbe other. That is, tbey will go gladly out of their way and spend a
little money, in order to save themselves a distance of 4 miles out of 10.
66. The length of metalled roads in British Territory bus increased from Roads.
1,932 in 1901 to 2,558 in 1911. These figures are exclusive of metalled roads
maintained by Municipalities and tbe Military "Works Department. Tbe length
of unmetalled roads under the Pubhc Works Department has decreased from
20,332 to 19,794 miles, but feeder roads in cbarge of District Boards cover no less
than 18,938 miles.
67. The Postal and Telegraphic communications have been extended and Postand
are being used to a much larger degree. The Telegraph.
total number of Post and Telegraph Offices
Of)eu in March 1911 is stated in tbe margin.
This means that not only is every rown in
the Province provided with suitable Postal and
Telegraphic facilities but every 15 villages are,
on the average, served by a Post Office and that one in every 56 villages haa
Poit Offices.
Head offices ...
Sub-offices ...
Branch offices
29
504
2,375
Total
. 2,908
Telegraph Offices
open lo paid message'
Departmental
Canal
Kail way
30
248
o22
Total
800
Census Report. ]
56
VITAL STATISTICS.
Chaptek
the advantage of a Telegraph OflBce. The number of Post Offices opened
durino- the past decade is 661* and 12 Government Tolegraph and 117 combined
(Post'and Telegraph) offices have been added during the same period.
Industrial 68. The industries of the Province have also been influenced by tlie
develop- (reneral wave of advancement and have contributed to tha development of re-
ment sources durinp- the last decade. The number of factories (with more than 20
operatives) has risen from 132 in 1900 to 443 in 1911. Of these 233 use steam,
water or other power. The total number of operatives workinj,' at all the factories
has gone up from 20,584 to 46,240. Tho Industrial and Agricultural Exhibition
held at Lahore from December 1909 to February 1910 was an excellent illustration
of the activity of this Province in industrial enterprise. Tlie subject will be discussed
in detail further on. All attention lias, however, for the timt> been diverted to
machinery using some kind of power, and the indigenous handicrafts are either
bein» neglected or are being driven out of the market by machine-made goods.
Develop- 69. The trade wh'cli is also an illustration of the prosperity of a country
mentof has more than doubled during the past decade. Tlie Rail and River borne
trade. trade registered in 18i^9-1900 showed imports and exports weighing 20
and 22 million maunds, respectively, and vakied at over 12 crores of ru])ees
each way, excluding animals and treasure. But in 1909-10, 40 millions of
maunds of merchandise were imported and 46 millions exported, the
value of the goods being 25 crores of rupees on either side. 'I'he external
trade of the Province with Afghanistan, Kashmir and Tibet is trifling in com-
parison with the internal trade.
70. The people have also become alive to the advantages of Co-opera-
tive Credit. The number of Banks and other Co-operative Societies has risen
from 300 in 1901 to over 1,000 in 1911, and a large number of the factories
above alluded to are flnanced with the capital of such companies.
71. But for the shocking results of the earthquake of 1905 in the Kangra
District and the ravages of plague and malaria, the decennium was one of
general prosperity and steady development of resources. The iiarvests were, on
ithe whole, above the normal and the Province escaped the pinch of famine, even in
bad years, except in the districts of Hissar and Gurgaon. The Land Alienation Act
has strengthened the position of the agriculturists and the (^-op»'rative Credit
Societies have gone a long way to create thrift among the improvident peasants.
"With the extension of Railways, providing more convenient and cheaper means of
conveyance, the metalled and uumetalled roads feeding the Railways, the increase
in the cultivated area, assisted by extended canal irrigation, which has been
instrumental in greatly augmenting the outturn of agricultural produce, and the
facilities of communication by a rapid expansion of the net work of Post and Tele-
graph uffice.->, the trade of the ProTinco ha.s been in a flourishing condition. The
number of factories has more than trebled within the decade. The high prices
at which the abundant produce could be sold niateiially strengthened the finan-
cial position of the landholder. The result, which has been most maiked in the
Canal Colonie.-, cannot be described better than by quoting the following remarks
from the Punjab Government review of the Colonies' Report for 1911 : —
" Bosidea the 20 lakhs expended on land purcliase, the colonists of Lyallpur have
remitted 22 lakhs by money order alone to other districts. This is startling testimony, not
only to their prosperity but, as the Financial Commissioner points out, to the effect of the
colonies on the iigricultural and economic condition of the Province. In the.se tracts, as m the
times of Solomon, silver is of none account and ordinary headmen present nazars of several
sovereigns, and the ubsorption of gold is so large as to cause apprehension in some quarters.
Last year the amount of coin and bullion absorbed in the Punjab, most of it in gold, was
£3,300,000, and much, if not most of this went to the colonies."
The rise in the wages of skilled and unskilled labour has, at the same
time, saved the labouring and poor classe.s from privation on account of the
dearness of food-gi'aius.
VITAL STATISTICS
System of 72. The system of registering vital stutistics in the British Districts is as
Registra- follows. In tho rural circles, births and deaths are reported by village rhaukidars
tion. (watchmen) who are provided with two books, one for births and the other for
• Ttie figures include a number of Post Offices in the N.-\V. F. Province, DaluoListau and Kashmir. Srpa'
rate Bgures for the PunJHb Province were not availublo.
Banks.
Summary
of the con-
ditions of
decade.
\
57
n. VITAL STATISTICS. [ Punjab. 1911.
deaths, in which entries are made, on the chauknlar's report, by a resident of the
village who can read and write, and the lamhardars (village headmen) of each villHge
are responsible that these entries are duly made. The chaukidars take their books
with them to the Thana (Police Station) at their weekly visits, and from these
books and from oral enquiries made fi'om chmihidars, the Police Muharrirs compile
the fuller registers which they maintain. Weekly returns are submitted, through
the Superintendent of Police, to the Civil Surgeon. The Civil Surgeon forwards
weekly, monthly and annual returns, compiled from the Pohce returns, to the
Sanitary Commissioner. From the returns so received, weekly, monthly and
annual returns are prepared in the office of the Sanitary Commissioner. The
Police Muharrirs, four hundred and four in number, receive an allowance of one
rupee per mensem each in all cases in which the work is done aatisfactorilj. In
Municipal towns, when a birth or death occurs in any household, the head of the
household makes a report within t.hree days of the occurrence or causes a report
to be made orally or upon a form provided by the Committee. If for any
reason he is unable to do so, the report is made by an adult member of his
family, or failing any such, by an adult male servant, or in the case of births, by
the midwife employed in the accouchement. If a birth or death occurs
in a household in which there is no grown up male member, the report
is madn by the sweeper of the mohalla (street or lane). The mohalladar
(a responsible resident of the mohalla) and the sweeper are jointly and
severally responsible that there is no omission. In most Municipalities,
rules or bye-laws have been adopted under the Municipal Act, regarding
the proper registration of births and deaths. In towns where no special bye-
laws for the registration of vital statistics have been prescribed by the Municipal
Committee, bat where the watch and ward is done by the Municipal Police, the con-
stable of each beat reports all deaths occurring in it. The Police are assisted by
the sweepers of the mohallas, who supply the information regarding births. Birth,
and death registers are kept at Municipal Registry Offices, and weekly returns
compiled from the registers are forwarded to Civil Surgeons for incorporation
in their district weekly returns. A weekly return showing the births and deaths
registered in all Municipal towns with a population of ten thousand and upwards
each, and a monthly return showing the births and deaths registered in all
districts, are publishe.-l in the Punjab Government Gazette. The accuracy of the
registers maintained by the Police and Municipalities is tested by the Sanitary
Commissioner, Deputy Sanitary Commissioner, District Officers, Civil Surgeons,
Superintendents and Assistant Superintendents of Police, Tahsildars, Naib Tahsil-
dars, Kanungos, Divisional Inspectors, Superintendents of Vaccination and Vacci-
nators. All omissions of births and deaths are supplied in the registers after veri-
fication by the Civil Surgeons, and the District Officers are asked to punish the
def<!ultnrs.
73. The rules framed from time to time with a view to improving the ac- The accu-
curacy of vital statistics need not be noted in detail, but it will be clear from the racy of vital
above account that a good deal has been done towards psrfecting t!ie system, statistics.
The masses are getting accustomed, gradually, to reporting births and deaths, but
it is impossible to expect tliat the registration has yet attained to anything
approaching absolute accuiacy. The registration of births is more apt to be
neglected or overlooked than that of deaths. The appointment of a special staff
to check the accuracy of registratiou is not a very reliable test, because when
a birth or death is reported to a special agency, it is also bound to be reported, in
that locality, in the ordinary course ; and the agreement of the two sets of figures
in a specified area cannot be proof positive that in tracts whore no special
agency is employed, there are no omissions. So, admitting that the system of
registering vital statistics has now reached a very fair standard of accuracy, it
would be unsafe to rely too much on the figures.
74. Most of the Native States — viz., Patiala, Kapurthala, Faridkot, Simla Comparisou
Hill States, Nahan, Loharu, Dujana, Pataudi, Jind, Kalsia, Malerkotla and Bahawai- with Census
pur have introduced a system of registration of births and deaths similar to that figures.
in vogue in British Territory, but figures are not available for the other States,
and in some of those mentioned above, the system has been only recently
introduced, or the figures are not registered in sufficient detail. It is, therefore,
58
Census Report. ]
VAEIATION OF POPDLATION.
Chaptk&
Variation
by Districts
and States
best to leave the Native States out of account, in comparinff these data with the
Census returns. The vital statistics of the years 1901-10 show au excess of
deaths over births of -')57,4-i7 persons (males 119,652, females 437,795) for
British Territory, excluding Biloch trans-Frontier, but the result of the present
Census is a deficit of 359,881 persons (males showing an increase of 46,672 and
females a deficit of 406,553). The Census figures, therefore, show an excess of
197,566 persons in the population, compared with the calculation based upon vital
statistics. In comparing the result of registration of vital statistics with that of
the Census, it has to bn remembered that most of the bii ths are amoni? the local
population, while the deaths include a large number of immigrants. The natural
population of 190], for British Territory, worked out from the Imperial tables of
that Census, is 20,056,520 and the corresponding figure for 1911 is 19,874,192,
which would point to a decrease of 182,334 in the natural population. To this
extent deaths among Punjabis wherever they happened to be should have exceeded
births. Now, the proportion of Pauiabi emigrants to Panjabis enumerated in the
Province (British Territory) is (837,453 : 19,036,593) 1 : 23. The deaths out-
side the Province have apparently not been nearly so large as in the Province.
It would, therefore, not be very wide of the mark to say that out of the decrease
in the natural population, the Panjabi population enumerated in the Province ac-
counts for a deficit of 175,000. Deductmg these figures from the excess of deaths
over births, registered in the Province (British Territory), we arrive at the extent
of mortality among the immigrants — i.e., (557,447 — 175,000 = ) 382,447. So far
therefore, as the local population is concerned, there is a deficit of 175,000 in births
compared with deaths. But the actual population has decreased by 359,881 — i.e.,
by 185,000 more. This decrease in the actual population is due to migration.
The immigration has fallen from 1,062,259* in 1901 to 938,117 in 191] — ?.e., by
124,142. On the other hand, emigi-ation has increased from 788,446 to 837,453,
causing a further decrease of 49,007 in the actual population. The net result is a
loss of 173,149 out of a deficit of 185,000. This explanation would show that
for all practical purposes, the registration of vital statistics has reached a high
degree of accuracy.
VARIATION OF POPULATION AT THE PRESENT CENSUS
75. The present Census shows a decrease of 2 per cent, in the total popu-
lation of the
whole Pro-
vince. The
map given in
margin illus-
trates, by vari-
ed shading, the
increase or
decrease in the
population of
each district
and state. It
will be seen
at a glance
thflt the west-
ern Punjab
{i.e., the dis-
tricts west of
Gujranw a 1 a,
Gujrat and
Lahore) haa
gained in po-
pulation more
or less, and
that the sandy tracts in the central and eastern Punjab {viz., the Ferozepoie Dis-
trict, Faridkot State, His^ar District and Loharu State), which adjoin Rajputana
have shown similar results. The Himalayan tract, which escaped the unfavour-
• Omitting the population of Mianwali District and Leiah and Attock Tahsils (tee Chapter III;.
59
IL
TARIATION OF POPULATION.
L Punjab, 1911.
able conditions affecting the public health durinj^ the decade, lias gaineii moder-
ately. The lirgest iuci-eases are noticeable in the Lyallpur, Jliang and Shahpiir
Districts, due solely to the development of the Ohenab and Jhelum Colonies.
The colonization of the Lyallpur Bar (forest) commenced early in the decade
ending 1901, and the [)opiilation ascertained at the Census of that year was. 2,560
times the figure of 1891. This increase -was of course abnormal, but by 1901, the
colonization of the tract had been practically completed, although the process of
immigration went on, to a smaller extent. The affluent circumstances of the tract,
the plentiful produce, the superior hygienic conditions of life and the facilities of
coramnnic-ition have all helped the growth of population in the Lyallpur District,
more than anywhere else. The Jhang and Shahpur Districts which have come
only partially under colonization have shown a smaller improvement.
In the rest of the Province, the increase or decrease of population appears
to bw determined by the effects of, or freedom from, plague and fever. Subsidiary
Table VI shows the number of deaths from these two epidemics in each district in
British Territory (complete figures are not available for all the Native States).
The districts which have shown large increases after the colonies — viz., Mianwali,
Attock, I\Iultau and Montgomery, have suffered least from plague or fever. The
other districts shewing increases did not suffer very severely from the epidemics,
except Hissar, where' plague and malaria caused much destruction, and the results
would have been different, had it not been for the return, during the decade, of a
large number of people who had emigrated, owing to famine, at the Census of 1901.
The largest decreases have occurred in the districts of Ludhiana,
Ambala, Amritsar, Rohtak, Gurgaon and Jullundur and in the Kalsia, Nabha,
Kapurthala, Patiala and Pataudi States. These decreases are due entirely to the
=^==^==^===^^==. ravages of plague and malaria, as the figures
(for the districts) given in the margin will
show. In every one of the 6 districts, the
total number of deaths from plague and
fever has largely exceeded the decrease in
population. That is to say, the losses were
only partially counterbalanced by births. The
districts of Karnal, Sialkot and Gujranwala
fared somewhat better, showing decreases of 5
to 10 per cent.
76. The increases and decreases in the number of persons per square mile ya"»t'<">
are exhibited
in the mar-
Deaths from
Total
losses.
Decrease
District.
Plague.
Malaria.
in popu-
lation.
Ludhiana
Ambala
Amritsar
Jullundur
Rohtak
Gurgaon
160,830
93.331
131,741
146,049
86,241
72.462
122,163
162,641
254,064
162,428
157,119
191,961
28:!,993
261,972
3><5,805
308,477
243,360
264,423
155,905
123,954
143,100
115,667
89,183
103,031
density.
ginal map, by
districts and
states. It will
be observed
that the inci-
dence of popu-
lation has gen-
erally followed
the same hnes
as the growth
or decline no-
ticed above.
The only ex-
ceptions are
these. Mian-
wali, which has
shown an in-
crease of 1 3
per cent, in its
population has,
on account of
the scattered
60
CensuB Report ] vaeiation op popolation. Chapter
nature of its residential villHges, fared no better than the neighbouring districts of
Dera Ghazi Khan and Muzaffargarh, in density and has added only 7 persons per
square mile. On the other band, Delhi, Rohtak and Patiala stand a step lower in the
matter of incidence than in regard to the decr^'ase of populHtion ; and Sialkot with a
decrease of under in per cent, in population has gone down to the lower class (show-
ing a decrease of 50 to 100 persons per square mile) and fared similarly to the
neighbouring congested districts of Gurdaspur, Amritsar and Jullundur, -which
have lost 10 to 23 per cent, in population.
retailed Ex- 77. The effects of plague and malaria have so vitiated the natural process
aMination of development of population, that it has become very difficult to eliminate all
of results disturbing causes, in judging the growth or decline in individual tracts.
T»riRtion by Looking at age statistics, it appears that the largest decrease (6 per
uRe-penods. ^^^^^^ -j^ population has occurred in the age-period 10 — 15 veais and that in spite
of their share in the ravages of the epidemics, children under 10 years of age
stand at about the same number as in 1901. The age-period coming next in
point of loss is 60 years and over (5 per cent.). Ordinarily, in a period of bad
health and epidemics, the losses at the two extremes of life should be largest.
Several causes appear to have conduced to the reversal of this order, so far as
the age-periods 0 — 10 and 10 — 15 are concerned. Fevers have thinned down
the lowest and highest age-periods, while plague has mostly affected adults ;
and if the age statistics with all their inherent uncertainty may be
relied on, it would appear to have caused more destruction in children of
10 15 years, than among those of 1 — 5 or 5 — 10 years. The Giijranwala District,
which suffered most from plague, gained in every age-period exce{:»t 10 — 15
years, in which it lost 33 per cent. The gain in the other pei'iods wris also due to
immigration. On the other hand, Multan, Muzaffargarh and Dera Ghazi Khan
which suffered heavily from fever, but only nominally from plugue, showed stnaller
increases in the age-periods 0 — 10 than for the whole population (see Subsidiary
Table 6 to Chapter V). Amritsar, which suffered very heavily from fever, has
shown a larger contraction in the age-periods 0 — 10 and 60 and over, than at the
intermediate ages. In the North-West Dry Area, where population has shown a
marked increase, the enhanced bii'th-rate has led to very substantial increases in the
first 10 years of hfe. The death-rate of the past decade for the Province is given by
age-periods in the margin. The highest late is that in infants of
under one year of age and its effect should apppar in the total for the
age-period 0 — 10. The next highest rate of mortality is amongst
children, 1 — 5 years of age, which should affect partly the age-
period 0 — 10 and partly that of 10 — 15. From the above facts it
may be concluded that during the last decade (1) fevers have caused
a diminution in the age-periods 0 — 10 and 10—15, (2) that the
effects on the age-period 0 — 10 have been compensated by the ac-
celerated birth-iate in the prosperous and healthy tracts, and (3; that plague has
carried away a large number of children from 5 — 15 years of age, bringing out a
large decrea'ee in the age-period 10 — 15 at the Census.
Tariation 78. A noteworthy feature of the variation is that the decrease is confined
by Bex. to females who have lost (404,766 or) 4-2 per cent, while the males have in-
creased by (,49,385 or) '45 per cent. The subject will be discussed in
Chapter VI.
Distribution 79. fhc distribution by religion, of the population ascertained at the re-
•' reirlon '° ^^°*- Oonsus is noted in the margin. Compared
1011. 1901. -with the figures of 1901, which are also given in
Ikh" :.': 2,883,729 ^sfxtt'S juxtaposition, the present strength of each religion
Jain ... ' 46!775 ' 49!983 shows the following Variation percent.: — Hindu
Buddhist ... 7.690 6,940 _ ] 5 . Sikh -f 37 ; Jain - 6-4 ; Buddhist + 11;
Zoroaslnan 653 477 » ■ ' ' ' »
Muhammadan ... 12,275,477 12,183,345 Zoroastriau + ^7; Muhammadaii +''6; Ciins-
Christian ... 199,751 66,591^ tiau + 200 and Jew + 50. The increase among
the Sikhs and the decrease in Hindus have been
artificially exaggerated, as will be explained in dealing with the religions in
Chapter IV.
* loolades 6gares for CnBpeciiied also.
Under 1 year
22-9
1- 5 ...
lo-6
5-10 ...
65
10—15 ...
5-4
15-20 ...
43
20-30 ...
8-6
30-40 ...
8-3
40—50 ...
7-8
60-60 ...
6-9
60 and over
13-7
61
IL
VARIATION OF POPOLATION.
[Punjab, 1911-
PtRCENT/CtOFVARIATlON
_0N THt POPULATION OFI901
J^N INDO GANGLTICFWIN
WEST
d
Hts^R^f
(T
7-^^'. • ; ,(^
uj
V — — — X£!
£ s £ = r
O
O
y
m
+1
o 1 o
<c
\T
Z l!l I ' n
o
3 - 3 lO =
I
S-n
^
';i
Li
fNCF
^EA
St
0
CR
tAS
E
80. The decrease of 2 per cent in the total population of the Province is Variation
shared as follows : — British Territory 1'7, Native States 4-8. Dealing^ with the Pro- ''y Natural
vince by Natural Divisions, the Indo-Gangetic Plain West and the Sub-Himalayan Divisions,
tract show decreases of 9 and 6 per cent., respectively. The Himalayan Division has
^ined 2 per cent, and the North-West Dry Area shows an increase of 18 per cent.
81. The Indo-Gangetic Plain West has been most unlucky in public health, Indo-Cangetic
both malaria and plague having wrought '''° *** '
enormous destruction. The map printed in
the margin shows variations of population
in this Natural Division, by Tahsils. F'e-
rozepore has stood at about the same level
as in 1901, the Hissar District, the Faridkot
State and the small States of Loharu and
Dujana have shown increases, the largest
being that in the lioharu iState, where the
return of famine-stricken people, who had
emigrated in 1901, has restored to about
18,600 the population, which had been
reduced from over 20,100 in 1891, to
15,200 in 1901. Immigration has increased
and emigration decreased, but nevertheless
the natural population of the State has
risen 8 percent, in the Hisaar District,
the dry sandy tahsil of Sirsa has shown
an improvement of over 20 per cent., ovring
partly to development in the natural course
and partly to the return of the population which had left their homes in
1901, in consequence of the famine of the preceding years. The arrival, at the
time of enumeration, of some wedding parties also accounts for a small portion of
the increase. 'I'he Fattehabad Tahsil has also registered an increase owing to the
return of famine-stricken emigrants. The decreases in the other tahsils are due to
mortality from plague. But leaving the immigrants out of account, and adding the
emigrants, the natural population of the district has increased 5 per cent. The
increase in the Faridkot State is ascribed to a large gathering at the Kot Kapura
Mandi fair, but the increase in the natural population being 5 per cent, against
that of 4 per cent, in the actual population, the development appears to be real.
The cause of increase in the small Dnjana State is probably similar to that of Loharu,
but the natural population has shown a decrease of 3 per cent. In the Ludhiana
District, whicli has shown tlie largest decrease of '23 per cent, in actual population,
we find that all the three tahsils have fared similarly, the largest decrease
being in the Samrala Tahsil (27'6 per cent.). The depletion is said to be
due partly to the effects of plagne and other epidemics and partly to emigra-
tion. Tlie natural popidation has decreased only 19 per cent. In the .Jullundur
District, the Jullundur Tahsil, which has the advantage of a flourishing
town and cantonment, has shown a decrease of only 9 per cent., tlie
population of the other tahsils falling from 13 to 15 per cent., on account
of plague and emigration to the .Ihehim and Ohenab Colonies and to America.
The natural po{)ulation has, therefore, fallen by only 9 per cent. In Gurgaon,
the decrease has been rather uneqnal. The Gurgaon and Rewari Tahsils have
lost about 10 per cent, of the population, mostly from plague and malaria, while
the Palwal Tahsil which suffered much from plague has shown a decrease of
about 21 per cent. The other two tahsils of the district have shown interme-
diate results. A considerable number of people seem to have emigrated from the
district oAving to tho panic caused by plague. The immigration has decreased and
the emigration increased (see Subsidiary Table II). The loss in the natural popula-
tion is only 10 per cent. Similarly in the Rohtak District, which snffored a loss
of 14 per cent,, Gohana with a decrease of 21 per cent, fared worst, while the dry
tahsil of Jhajjar got off rather cheaply, with a loss of under 9 per cent. The
chief cause of tho decreases is plajjne, which also seems to have adversely
affected the immigration. In tho Gujranwala District, a good deal of damage
Tvas done by plague, but the decrease is also ascribable to emigration into the
62
Censas Report- ]
VARIATION OF POPULATION.
Chaptkk
Himalajac
tract.
more southern parts of the Cheuab Colony. The decrease in the district would
have been much greater, had not the Sharakpur Tabsil, recently transferred from
Lahore, shown an increase of 21 per cent, in consequence of large construction
works on the canals. Similarly, in the Delhi District, an increase of 2^ per cent,
in the Delhi Tahsil, on account of a rise in the Delhi City, to some extent
counterbalanced the decrease of 15 percent, in Sonepat and 8 per cent, in
Ballrtbgarh, due to plague, malaria and an outflow of batches of labourers. In
the Lahore District, the Chunian Tahsil lias gained about 9 per cent, on account
of the small colony established at Pattoki. The Kasur Tahsil has lost 7 per
cent, owing partly to plague and partly to emigration into the Pattoki Colony.
The losses m the Lahore Tabsil were largely made up by the growth of the
city of Lahore. The tabsils of the Amritsar District suffered somewhat
uniformly from plague and malaria, the decrease varying from 12'6 in Ajnala
to 16*5 in Tarn Taran, but on the whole, the losses of the district were duo
as much to a decrease in immigration and an increase in emigration as to the
epidemics. The fall in the natural population amounts to only 7 per cent. lu
the Patiala State, the Bhatinda, Bhikki and Narwana Tahsils have gained
(17', 4''i and 2'5 per cent, respectively) in population, owing to the opening of th©
Southern Punjab Railway and to immunity from epidemics. The Mahindergarh
and Narnaul Tahsils, lymg at the exti-eme south-east of the Province, west of
Rewari, registered increases of 14.^ and (3^ per cent., respectively, inconsequence
of return of the famine-stricken population which had migrated in 1901. A small
addition to the population of the Pinjaur Tahsil, at the foot of the Simla Hills,
is ascribed to tlie people from other parts of the State taking refuge there, for
fear of plague. In all the other tahsils of the State, there has been a general
decrease caused mainly by plague. The Dadri Tahsil of Jind and the Bawal
Tahsil of Nabha, situated south of Rewari, gained by the return of the famine-
atricken emigrants of 1901. The other tahsils of these States show decreases, the
largest being those of 21 per cent, in Sangrur (Jind State) and 30 per cent, in Amloh
(Nabha State). The loss in the other districts and states is due to mortality
from plague. The decrease in the Natural Division is real, as its natural population
shows a loss of 8 per cent, against one of 9 per cent, in the actual population.
82. The Himalayan tract, which has practically escaped from plague — the
worst feature of the decade — has shown a general increase except in the Simla Dis-
trict, where the completion of the Simla-Kalka Railway has accounted for a decrease
of 2'C per cent., in spite of the increase of population in the town of Simla. A map
of the Natural Division showing variations by tahsils is given in the margin. The
results in the Kangra District are not uniform,
although on the whole, the population has shown
practically no variation. '1 he Kangra Tahsil,.
which suffered heavily from earthquake in 1905
has not recovered from its effects and still shows a
decrease of over 5 per cent, in p(ipulati(m. Nurpur,
the most western tahsil had heavy mortality from
fever and Palampur was affected by the earth-
quake. These two tahsils have shown small de-
creases. The District Report shows that "The
new Forest Rules have in some parts prevented
the people from keeping cattle for milk and so
diminished their resisting power to disease, while
Forest underlings has stimulated emigration." All
the other tahsils have registered moderate increases, the Dera Tahsil gaining least,
in consequence of losses from epidemics. In the Nahan State, the two western
tahsils have shown a falhng off, due to plague and other diseases, but the eastern
tahsils appear to have developed in population. Residents of this tract, known as
Sirraauris, flock in large numbei s to Simla, where they work as coolies, and return in
winter to their homes, to spend their accumulated earnings of summer. With the
growing demand for labonr and the rising wages in Simla, it is only natural that
the native place of these indiistiious hillmen should exhibit signs of prosperity.
The Simla Hill States have all gained in population, with the exception of Xalagarh
and the small feudatory or minor States of Rawin, Dhadi, Delath, Ghund, Balsan,
the general " sahhti " of the
63
II,
VAEIATIOH OF POPULATIOK.
[ Punjab, 1911.
Dhami, Mailog, Kuthar, Bija and Baghat, whioh have registered decreases dne to
emigration of the inhabitants in search of employment. The whole Mandi State
has grown in population, and the increases are more marked in theGopalpur and
Chacheat Tahsils, at the north and east. The advent of some pilgrims is
said to have inflated the natural increase in these tahsils. The Suket State
suffered from an outbreak of cholera which, coupled with the effects of the earth-
quake of 1905, has caused a decrease of 5^ per cent, in the Sadar (Bhal") Tahsil.
But the exploitation of the Karseog forest has brought in a large number of
coolies into that tahsil and more than made up the deficiency. The increase of
6 per cent, in the population of the Chamba State is due to general prosperity.
83. A map of the Sub-Himalayan Natural Division is printed in the margin. '^'?* ^,"''-
Next to the Indo-Gangetic Plain, this tract.
tract hfis been a prey to the ravages of
plague ami malaria. With the excep-
tion of Jhelum and Attock, the whole
tract has lost heavily in population. In
Jhelum, the Chakwal Talisil, has shown
an increase of 9 per cent., and the Jhe-
lum Tahsil has gained 6 per cent, in
consequence of the establishment of the
Jhelum Canal OflBces and the increase of
troops in the Jhelum Cantonment. The
Find Dadan Khan Tahsil, however, suf-
fered heavily from plague and emigra-
tion to the Jhelum Oolonj; and showed
a contraction of 8 per cent, in population.
The net result for the whole district is a
PERCENTAGE or VARIATION
ON THE POPULATION OfSOl
IN
S'JBH/MAUYAN DIVISION
DC.CREASE.
gain of 2 per cent, which is, however, more apparent than real. The Attock District,
though classed in the Sub-Himalayan tract, owing to its proximity to the north-
western hills and to its formation oub of parent districts belonging to that Natural
Division, is yet really situated midway between the Sub-Himalayan and North-
West Dry Area Divisions. The two northern tahsils of Attock and Fatehjang are
similar to Rawalpindi, while the sub-division of Pindigheb, including the tahsils
of Pindigheb and Talagang, is not very different in circumstances to the northern
half of the Mianwali District, adjoining it on the south. It has had a practically
clean bill of health, so far as plague is concerned, and the agricultural and clima-
tic conditions being favourable to the growth of popvdatiou, it has shown a large
increase (Talagang 25 per cent., Pindigheb 19 per cent.). The most noticeable
decrease is that of 1 5 per cent, in the Ambala District. The loss is ascribed mainly
to mortality from plague, which raged furiously in the Rupar and Kharar Tahsils,
supplemented by some emigration to the Chenab Colony. The Kalsia State, lying
witliinthe Ambala District, has shown the largest decrease (17 per cent.), due entirely
to the main cause above adverted to. The decrease is shared by its three tahsils.
All the tahsils of the Hoshiarpur District but one (Una) have lost heavily owing
to mortality from plague and fever, the deaths caused by these epidemics being
110,938 and 195,080 respectively, for the whole district. The Una Tahsil has
been comparatively prosperous and has shown an increase of 3 per cent, to which
the gathering at the Mari meli (fair) in this tahsil, at the time of the Final
Enumeration, contributed materially. The panic caused by plague accelerated
emigration from the western tahsils of the district to the Canal Cflonies and
other districts. The Sialkot District has also been most unfortunate in the matter
of public health, the deaths from plague and fever amounting t<> 189,8o0 and
237,215 respectively. Plague was worst in Daska and the population of that
tahsil has fallen 1 7 per cent. The unly redeeming feature of tlie district is the
increase of 1 per cent, in the Raya Tahsil, which is accounted for by a temporary
migration from the Chenab Colony in connection with marriatres, etc., during the
respite between the disposal of the late autumn crop of toria (Brassica Eruca) and
sugarcane, and the sprmg harvesting operations. In the Phalia Tahsil of the
Gujrat District, plague accounted for a decrease of 11 per cent. ; on the other
hand, the Kharian Tahsil benefited by the establishment of head works of the
Jhelum Canal and the employment of a large number of coolies ou the canal.
Census Report.]
Tb« North-
West Dry
Area.
64
OKNEBAL CONCLUSIONS.
I
Chaptkb
Principal
causes of
Tariations.
INCREASt lotCBEASt
The tahsils of the Rawalpindi District have all suffered losses from plague, except
Murree, which has registered an increase of 8 per cent, mainly owing to the
growth of the Civil Station and Cantonments. The causes of decreases in all the
tahsils of Gurdaspur are plague and fever.
84. The luckiest of the Natural Divisions is the North-West Dry Area (for
variation of population see map in the
margin). Every part of it has shown
an increase of population, large or
small. The only exceptions are the
Gugera Tahsil in the Montgomery Dis-
trict, where the population has fallen
10 per cent, owing to migration into
the Chenab Colony and the headquar-
ter tahsil of the Shahpur District,
which has lost G per cent, owing to
plague and emigration to the Jhelum
Colony. The tahsil which has gained
most, is Sargodha, the headquarters of
the Jhelum Canal Colony. This tahsil
has been created within the past
decade, and its present population of
138,810, is over 6 times that of 1901.
The increase is quite abnormal. In
the Lyallpur District which is the most
flourishing tract in the Province, the in-
creases of 76 and 63 per cent, in the
Samundri and Toba Tek Singh Tahsils are contributed partly by fresh iminiurants
to colonize the surplus lauds. The most remarkable increase in the Baliawalpur
State is that in the Minchinabad Tahsil, due to the colonization of a large tract
of Cholistan (sandy desert) with the aid of the Sadikwah Inundation Canal. The
increases in the other tahsils of the Natural Division are due to freedom from
excessive mortality and the favourable agricultural and other conditions con-
ducive to the growth of population.
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.
85. The above review will show that in the Province as a whole (includ-
ing the Native Slates), the population has decreased, with the exception of sohtary
tahsils in the whole of the western and southern Punjab and the Himalayan
tract at the north-east end. The central and eastern portion has undergone
a decline. The increases are due to favourable agricultural conditions and the
general development of resources, assisted in the case of the Canal Colonies, by
immigration, mainly from other districts of the Province. The execution of large
Canal and Railway projects and the Coronation Durbar works at Delhi also attract-
ed a large number of immigrants from the United Provinces and Rajputana. The
extent of this immigration may be taken as ^ of the immigrants from the United Pro-
vinces (219,913) — t.e., 109,956 and fth of those from the Rajfjutana Agency
(246,609)— i.e., 184,957, or in all 294,91 3 (roughly speaking 300,000). The rest of
the immigration may he taken as normal. The most important cause of tlie decrease
was the destruction caused by plague and fevers, which amounted to 6,528,981
deahhs. The losses 33,762 and 107,109, respectively from cholera and small-
pox, were of smaller consequence. The two former epidemics also weakened the
fecundity of the population, plague carrying off the population at child-bearing
ages and fevers weakening the strength of the prospective child-bearing population
by destroying children at younger ages. The famine in Hissar and Gurgaon also
injuriously affected the vitality of the child-bearing population in those districts.
In respect, to the growth of population, the effects of the different causes
may bo illustrated by a comparison of the figures of the Sargodha Tahsil which has
develof)ed into a Canal Colony during the decade under review, the Khangah Dcg-
ran Tahsil (District Gujranwala) which had fully established itself as a prosper-
ous part of the Chenab Colony in 1901, the Araritsar Tahsil which has been under
canal irrigation ever since the completion of the Bari Itoab Canal (1878-79) and
the 8hahpur Tahsil which is not irrigated from any perennial canal. All the
65
II. GiNEEAL CONCLUSIONS- [ Pimiab 1911
four tahsils suffered from plague and fever more or less. The variation per cent.,
in the population of these tabsils compared with the figures of 1901, is given in
the margin. The Amritsar Tahsil, with its old
Tahsils.
Sargodha
Khangah Dogran ..
Amritsar
Shahpur
Ifcomp^red mu established canal irrigation and excessive moisture,
the population Suffered most from the epidemics. The Khangah
of 1901. Dogran Tahsil having reached the chmax of im-
migration, the effect of epidemics brought about
+536-6 a decline in population. The decrease in the Shah-
— 12-9 pur Tahsil may all be attributed to emigration to
- 6-4 the Jhelum Colony, but in spite of its normally
healthy climate, there can be no doubt but that
plague succeeded in checking the growth of its population. Sargodha,
with the most favourable circumstances, has on the other hand shown a phe-
nominal increase both by immigration and by a high birth-rate, in spite of the
losses inflicted upon it by the ravages of plague.
86. Subsidiary Table IV appended to this Chapter shows that the tendency Koom for
of the density of tahsils has been to rise from the lowest class with a population of extension of
under 150 per square mile to the next higher class, throughout the past 3 decades, population.
Four tahsils with 11 per cent, of the total population went up from this class to
the higher classes in 1891, two with 6 per cent, of the population wentupin 1901
and in the past decade, 7 tahsils with a population of 24 per cent, have gone up to
the class with a density of 150 to 300 persons per square mile, which has alto-
gether gained 13 tahsils with a population of 31 per cent. The next higher class
with a density of 300 to 450 per square mile has also acquired three tahsils with
12 per cent, of population. The density of the highest classes has shown a
tendency to decrease and most of the tahsils now have a density of 150 to 450 per-
sons per square mile. The lowest density is found in the Himalayan tract, where
there is not room for much further development of population and in the
unirrigated districts of the North- West Dry Area, where the poverty of the soil
and the absence of facilities for the extension of cultivation, place a limit on the
population that can be supported. Canal irrigation, which converts compara-
tively profitless areas into highly fertile agricultural lands, enables the location
of a large proportion of residents to eveiy square mile.
The Cunal colonies have grown almost miraculously in density of popula-
tion and the process of development is still at work ; and although, it is doubtful
whether they will ever support as high a population, per square mile, as the well
irrigated districts like Jullundur, yet a considerable time must lapse before
these colonies reach the stage of over-crowding. The districts named in
Jullundur ... 560 the margin, which are among those having the highest
H^Wa^ur *" 409 ^^^^^'^y ^^^^ getting over-crowded, when the colonization of
Gurdaspur '..' 443 the Chenab Canal commenced, and these districts were freely
siaikot ... 492 tapped for colonists, thus affording the much needed relief.
But, during the past decade, colonization has gone on rapidly, causing
further emigration from these districts. At the same time, the epidemics of
plague and fever have thinned down their population a great deal, and the
density has now fallen sufiGciently to allow the natural growth of population
therein for some time to CDme. Caution would therefore appear to be necessary
in pushing on further schemes of colonization too rapidly. Indeed as remarked
in paragraph 29 of the Crop and Season Report of the Punjab for the year 1909-10,
uneasiness is already apparent on toe older canals, where it is feared that there
will be a rush of tenants and labourers to the newly irrigated areas.
87. Besides epidemics, which from time to time mow down the population, Artificial
there are certain processes which to a certain extent tend to artificially keep methods of
it down. These are : — (1) the system of enforced widowhood amongst the Hindus, keeping
(2) abortions consequent on illicit relationship, (3) the neglect, of children of a de-^ownthe
ceased wife, (4) of infants in general, (5) of female children in particular, population.
(6) female infanticide, which is now practically dying out, (7) the celibate
religious orders, (8) the sterility of some of the richer classes owing to loose morals,
and (9) the inability of the poorer people to got married. Voluntary chocks in
married life are resorted to, but most rarely and then too on medical advice.
CensTis Report]
66
SUBSIDIAET TABLES.
Chapter
SUBSIDIARY TABLE I.
Variation in relation to density since 1881.
D18TBICT, Stats and Natubai Dmsion.
TOTAL PROVINCE
1. Indo-Ganqetic Plain West—
1.
Hiashr
2.
Loharu State
8.
Rohtak
4.
Dujana State
6.
Gurgaon
6.
Pataudi State
7.
Delhi
8.
Earnal
9.
JuUundur
10.
Kapurthala State
11.
Ludhiana
12.
ilaler Eotla State
13.
Ferozepore
14.
Faridkot State
15.
Patiala State
16.
Jind Stale
17.
Nabha State
18.
Lahore
19.
A mritsar
20.
Gujranwala
2. Himalayan—
21.
Nahan State
22.
Simla
23.
Simla Bill States
24.
Kangra
25.
Mandi State
26.
Sukel State
27.
Chamba State
8. SOB-IIlMALAYAN —
28. Ambala
29. Kalsia State
30. Hoshiarpur
31. Gnrdaspur
32. Sialkot
33. Gujrat
31. Jhelum
35. Rawalpindi
36. Attock
4. Nobtu-West Dbt Abba
37.
88.
39.
Montgomery
Shahpar
Mianwali
40.
41.
42.
Lyallpur
Jhang
Multan a"' ■
43.
44.
45.
Bahatoalpur State
MazaSargarh
Dera Gbazi Khan
Percentage of variation.
Increase (-|-) Decrease ( — ).
1901
to
1911.
1S91
to
1901.
-r
+
5-8
+
•7
24-4
+
6-S
8-6
+
11-6
+
15-4
+
7-9
+
2G
+
11
+
49
+
3-8
+
2-3
+
81
+
8-6
+
•8
■9
+
5-4
+
10-7
+
3 1
+
+
22 6
31
- 2'3 + 6-4
- 8-9
+ 30
+221
—14-1
+ 5-4
—13-8
— 10"9
— 46
_ 9-6
—12-6
—14-7
—23-2
— 8-2
+ -3
+ 4-3
-118
— 3-6
— 16-5
_ -8
—14-0
— 8-5
+ 2-0
+ 2-1
— 2-6
+ 39
+ -3
+ 41
+ -5
+ 6-3
-59
—15-4
—16-8
— 72
—110
— 9-6
— 7
+ 20
— 1-9
+ 118
+17-8
+ 11-6
+ 29-8
+ 131
+45-5
+ 21-1
+ 14-7
+ 8-3
+ 7-9
+ 6-6
+
31
+
9-3
+
91
+
5-2
+
•7
+
4-3
+
43
+
31
—
15
5-5
21
21
•4
3-2
1-4
2-5
+
4-7
+
3-6
1881
to
1891.
+
2r8
+
•5
+
11
+
52
+2.559-6 1
+
5-8
+
11-8
+
109
+
6-8
+
14-2
Percentage of
net vsriatioD,
1881 to 1911.
+101
+ 9-9
+ 15-4
+46-4
+ 6-7
+ 130
+ 4-2
+ 6 5
— -7
+ -8
+ 14-9
+ 186
+ 4-8
+ 66
+ 185
+ 186
+ 7-9
+13-9
+ 8 0
+ 17-3
+ U1
+ 11-6
+ 8-9
+ 10 5
+ 24,
+ 95
+ 4-4
+ 13-5
— 2
+ 71
+ 93
+ 40
+ 1-4
+ 12-3
+ 14-6
+ 10-6
+ 10-4
+ 4-0
+ 13-3
+ -9
+ 13'6
+ 18-6
+ 242
+ 94
— 3-6
+ 30
+ 14-2
+ 133
+11-9
+ 12-5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Mean density per square mile.
1911.
1901.
+ 14'4
+ 5-9
19-7
352
2'2
8-8
•2
95
2-2
64
1-6
61
16-4
•1
28 4
34-3
41
8-8
49
28-9
14
251
+ 12-5
233
8 9
196
5-4
23-2
4-7
17-4
+ 1-2
169
174
1-9
16
3 2
8-2
3-5
16-3
16 9
+ 62-9
+ 330
+ 630
+ 30-2
+3,630-6
320
46-4
361
291
36-8
+
+
+
+
•4-
177
286
154
84
301
255
324
376
510
254
560
426
356
426
224
203
260
216
268
367
550
226
78
116
389
68
77
151
131
42
305
373
333
409
443
492
364
183
273
129
99
115
135
63
272
153
133
52
84
67
182
314
150
69
351
242
376
422
534
280
641
499
464
464
223
195
295
224
321
370
639
1891.
171
297
149
91
329
265
337
365
495
273
634
476
447
454
207
179
293
226
305
334
620
202
1881.
77
74
113
104
400
366
66
62
77
76
145
139
130
125
40
89
324
329
441
467
400
409
440
450
498
500
544
562
366
371
178
1S3
278
266
115
111
81
69
103
103
104
103
56
53
187
7
127
120
116
104
48
43
87
82
63
55
155
270
129
62
308
234
324
343
499
271
552
401
426
425
174
151
271
198
282
285
558
181
70
94
358
57
73
123
125
36
301
449
403
401
436
608
836
176
234
110
61
86
83
49
7
116
91
38
73
49
n.
67
eUBSIDIAEY TABLES.
[Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE 11-
Variation in natural population.
DisTMCT, State akd Natobal
ClTISION.
Actnal
population.
TOTAL PEOVINCE ..,
1. Ikdo-Gangetic Plain Wist
1.
Eisear
2.
Loharu Btaie
3.
Bohtak
i.
Dvjana Biate
5.
Gargaon
6.
Pataudi State
7.
Delhi
8.
Karoal
9.
Jnllnndnr ...
30.
EapuTthala State
11.
Lndhiana
12.
Ualer Eotla State
13.
Ferozepore ...
14.
Faridlcot State
15.
Patiala State
16.
Jind State ...
17.
Nahha State
18.
Lahore
19.
Amritsar
20.
Gnjranwala
2 HiMllATAN
21.
Nahan State
22.
Simla
23.
Simla Bill States
24.
Kangra
25.
Mandi State
26.
Suket State ,..
27.
Chamba State
3. Sdb-
BiMALAYAN ...
28.
Ambala
29.
Kalsia State ...
30.
Hoshiarpnr ...
31.
Gnrdaspnr ...
32.
Sialkot
33
Gnjrat
34.
Jhelnm
35.
Rawalpindi
36.
Attock
i, NoETH West Dbt Aeea—
37. Montgomery
38. Shahpnr
39. Mianwali
40. Lrallpur
41. Jhang ..,
42. Mnltan
43. Bahawalptir State
44. Miizaffargarh
45. Dera Ghazi Khan
Population in 1911.
24.187.750
11,027,490
804,889
18,597
541,489
25,485
643,177
19,543
657,604
799,787
801,920
268,133
517,192
71,144
959,657
130,294
1,407,659
271,728
248,887
1,036,158
880,728
923,419
1,724,480
138,520
39,320
404,343
770,386
181,110
64,928
135,873
5,805,081
689,970
55,909
918,569
836,771
979,553
745,634
511,575
547,827
519,273
5,630,699
535,299
687,366
341,377
857,711
515,526
814,871
780,641
569,461
528,447
Immi-
grants.
Emi-
grants
Natural
population
660,219
810,967
136,396
5,585
80,445
6,656
105,653
6,693
161,167
106,847
86,683
48,698
84,313
19,181
19t;,974
37,748
246,081
72,195
63,502
218,379
101,831
146,021
66,285
15,257
18,680
19,616
41,465
3,134
2,925
4,271
361,945
115,354
16,980
61,742
75,325
78,169
31,957
37,908
70,296
19,446
730,555
58,203
145,325
13,662
566,320
23,773
86,089
73,161
27,698
16,897
516,612
772,699
116,814
6,000
102,904
5,618
120,067
3,209
107,154
88,306
175,808
45,050
124,563
18,497
131,196
25,630
240,021
63,926
68,982
123,770
226,605
98,660
62,314
4,675
13,588
14,913
47,118
8,410
1,444
11,229
816,387
129,688
10,932
166,941
155,119
247,977
112,445
62,955
47,446
28,116
99.125
106,119
35,458
24,704
19,310
82,376
39,204
30,531
23,130
18,856
Population in 1901.
Actual
population.
24,044,143
10,989.222
785,307
19,012
663,948
24,447
657,591
16,059
603,591
781,246
891,045
264,485
557,442
70,460
893,879
118,176
1,401,599
263,459
254,367
941,549
1,005,502
876,058
1,720,509
127,938
34,228
399.640
776,039
186,386
53,447
142,831
6,259,523
704,304
49,861
3,023,768
916,565
1,149,361
826,122
536,622
624,977
527,943
4,999.269
583,215
577,499
362,419
310,701
574,129
767.986
738,021
564,893
530,406
24.754,787
11,977,100
781,717
15,229
630,672
24,174
746,208
21,933
689,039
883,225
917,587
314,351
673,097
77,506
958,072
124,912
1,596,692
282,003
297,949
1,162,109
1,023 828
756,797
Immi-
grants.
1,690,066
135,687
40,351
389,349
768,124
174,045
54,676
127,834
6,172,187
815,880
67,181
989,782
940,334
1 ,083,909
750,548
594,018
930,535
4,915,384
463,586
524,259
424,588
791,861
378,695
710,626
720,877
405,656
495,236
Emi-
grants.
Natural
population
706,118
879,947
144,531
4,687
101,830
6,589
133,345
7,900
154,935
144,096
116,691
67,041
114,686
18,911
226,556
40,421
209,262
74,580
82,501
213,699
150,651
104,170
83,062
21,090
21,807
22,825
47,776
8,404
4,053
6,785
404,295
130,818
20,551
78,935
94,648
91,166
45,643
34,215
225,635
8
506,033
801,547
113,107
7,104
107,681
7,696
115,115
3,861
107,568
92,188
181,776
55,155
131,211
21,627
130,565
28,169
282,407
74,183
75,280
143,004
206,834
154,151
60,929
4,410
16,002
17,816
49,707
10,032
2,276
10,364
870.585
146,340
13,304
181,500
169,795
277,846
127,348
84,4U2
49,285
24,554,652
11,898,700
750,293
17,646
636,523
25,281
727,978
17,894
641,672
831,317
982,672
302,465
689,622
80,222
862,081
ll2,6eo
1,669,837
281,606
290,728
1,091,414
1,080,011
806,778
1,667,933
119,007
34,540
384,340
770,055
175,673
52,899
131,413
6,638,477
Variation
per cent.
(1901-11)
in natural
population.
Increase (-{-)
Decrease ( — ).
Not available.
831,402
59,934
,092,347
,015,481
,270,589
832.253
644,205
754,185
755,549
85,595
52,645
44,585
Not
791,583
17,730
94,618
79,735
38,552
53,113
4,245,430
134,248
63,280
aviiilable,
4901
218,295
36,108
33,494
17,002
16,805
545,189
542,954
768
579,260
652,116
674,636
384,106
459,018
10
21
- 7-6
+
+
-1-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
4-7
7-7
11-4
3-3
9-7
10-3
5-9
6-0
9-3
12-6
192
12-2
37
49
16 1
6-4
125
144
69
86
32
7-5
■9
40
•8
6-1
10
8-6
— 57
— 15-3
— 16-8
— 6-3
— 9-7
— 95
— -7
— 16-7
— 30-8
+ 178
+
+
7-0
6 '4
-f 40,355 -9
— -9
+
+
+
+
17-8
9-4
47-1
15-6
(1). In working the figures of natural population of 1901, for the Province and Natural Divisions, persons enumerated in the
Mianwali DiEtrict but shown as born in Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan, together with those appearing as born in Hazara and enumerated in
Attoct, have been taken as if they were born in the place of enumeration.
(2). Actual population (1901) of the Attock District is contained in the figures of Jhelnm and Rawalpindi.
(31. Tho adjustment of immigration figures being impossible, the population of 1901 has been given without adjustment. The
results shown against Gnjranwala, Lahore, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Muzaffargarb, oto., do not, therefore, represent the correct variation.
68
1
Census Beport]
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
Chaptke
SUBSIDIARY TABLE III-
Comparison with vital statistics.
(FOE BRITISH TERRITORY ONLY.)
Number per
cent, of population
of 1901 of
4°|
Increase (4-) or de-
In 1901.1910 total
ur S
crease (—) of popu-
DiSTBIOT AND
num
Wo/
Excess {+) 0
ficienoy (-
births over d
lation of 1911 compared
unlh 1901.
Rbuares.
Natural Division.
Birtha.
Deaths.
Births.
Deaths.
Natnral
population.
Actual
population.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
TOTAL PEOVINCE
8,286.261
8,843,70
8 40-8
435
-557,447
-182,334
-355,383
(1) Figures of births and deaths
of 1901-03 for Attock and of
Indo-Ganqetio Plain
8,798,729
4,540,19
5 412
49-2
-741.466
-543,213
-658,331
1901-04 for Lyallpur not being
West.
available the average of the re-
Hissar
333,253
323,35
3 427
41-4
-f 9,900
-f 35,014
4- 23,172
maining years has been assumed
Bohtak
241,179
30,5,17
2 38-2
48-4
— 63,993
— 72,575
— 89,183
to represent the figures of each
Gurgaon
302,741
37.2,13
I 40-6
49-9
— 69,39u
— 70,387
—103,031
of these years (»'. e., when the
Delhi
279,364
335,80
1 40-5
48-7
— 56,437
— 3h,081
— 31,435
two districts were parts of other
Ksrual
349,706
421,09
8 39-6
47-7
— 71,392
— 50,071
— 83,438
Districts). District figures in
Jullundur
353,165
431,49
0 38-5
47-0
— 78,325
— 91,627
—115,667
columns 2 and 3 do not, there-
Lndbiana
247,853
380,03
7 36-8
56-5
—132,184
—132,180
— 155,905
fore, work up to the divisional
Ferozepore
401,875
439,47
9 41-9
45-9
— 37,604
+ 3l,V98
4- 1,585
totals in the Sub-Himalayan and
Lahore
491,933
560,11
I 42-3
48-2
~ 68,178
— 149,865
— 125,951
the North-West Dry Area and to
Amritsar
431,767
530,97
4 42-2
51-9
— 99,207
— 74,509
—143,100
provincial totals.
Gajranwala
365.893
440,54
9 48-8
58-2
— 74,656
-f 69,280
4-166,622
(2) Figures of actual population
Hqialatan
278,096
268,95
i 34'4
333
-1- 9,142
+ 5,666
+ 1,231
of 1901 (columns 4, 5 and 8) are
Simla
6,804
8,09
5 16-9
201
- 1,291
— 318
— 1,031
those given in Imperial Table I
Kangra
271,292
260,85
9 35-3
340
-f- 10,433
4- 5,984
4- 2,262
of 1901. Figures of Jhelum,
SUB-HlUALATAN
2,440,827
2,706.41
3 400
44-3
-265591
-368,881
-355,834
Rawalpindi and Attock have,
Ambala
264,226
382,42
0 32-4
46 9
— 118,194j
— 127,098
—125,910
however, been taken as below :—
Hoshiarpor
384,587
421,17
3 38-9
42-6
— 36,586
— 68,579
— 71,213
Gurdaepur ... '
398,503
462,44
9 42 4
492
— 63,946
— 98,916
—103,563
District, Tahsils.
Sialkot
494,996
661,91
4 45-7
51-8
— 66,918
—121,228
—104,356
Gujrat
325,172
329,50
3 43-3
43-9
— 4,331
— 6,131
— 4,914
(1) Jhelcm... (1) Jhelum.
Jheluin
199,000
2C4,36
7 397
40-8
— 5,367
—107,583
4- 10,151
(2) P. D. Khan.
Rawalpindi
236,818
231,23
7 42-4
41-4
-f 5,581
—229,208
— 10,872
(3) Chakwal.
Attock
196,403
161,93
7 423
34-9
+ 34,526
Not avail-
able.
4- 54,843
(2) Ea w A L- (1) Rawalpindi.
PINDI. (2) Gojar Khan.
North-west Dby
1,76&609
1,328,14
1 42-2
31-7
4-440468
-f690,454
-F665.551
(3) Mnrree.
Abba.
(4) Kahuta.
Montgomery
201,712
146,93
S 43-5
317
-1- 54,776
4- 38,026
4- 71,713
(3) Attock .,. (1) Attock.
Shahpur
235,379
247,50
S 44-9
472
— 12.127
4- 34,545
4-163,107
(2) Hindieheb.
Mianwali
169,816
123,77
5 400
29-2
-f 40,041
Not avail-
able.
— 83,211
(3) Fatehjang.
(4) Tallagang.
Lyallpur
370,621
206,38
7 46-8
26-1
-hl64,234
4-309,933
4- 65,850
Jhang
296,757
218,37
1 78-4
57-7
-f- 78,383
— 6,131
4-136,831
Multan
314,659
215,16
3 4^-3
30-3
-f- 99,499
4-115,870
-fl04,245
Miizsffargarh ...
172,459
130,31
i 42-5
321
+ 42,146
4-180,787
4-163,805
Dera Ghazi Khan
155,454
122,24<
i 31-4
24-7
+ 33,208
4- 71,388
4- 33,211
Note. — For farther detail
8, Subsidiary Table V of Chapter VI may be referred to.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV.
Variat
ion by tahsils classified according to density-
(a). ACTUAL VARIATION (BRITISH TKKRITOKY ONLY).
Natural Dirisios.
De(
Variation in tahsils with a population per s(iUABB mils at cohmenceukntofdecadb of
:ade.
900
Under
150 to
300 to
450 to
600 to
750 to
Over
150.
800.
450.
600.
750.
900.
to
1,050.
1,050.
1
2
3
4
5
ti
7
8
9
10
(
1881-
-1891 ...
-144,58
2 - 497,244
-f-883,288
4- 575,609
-f- 285,842
-F663,544
...
-33,098
PUNJAB ... J
1891-
-1901 ...
-112,32
5 -f- 1,276,262
-fl01,621
- 255,786
4-246,485
4- 89,096
.^
i
1901-
-1911 .
-612,8£
0 -t-2,263,804
-f338,417
-1,100,405
-883,027
-361,320
...
Indo-Gaogetio Plain \
West. 1
1881-
-1891 ...
- 86,26
5 -f 47,634
-1-123,098
4- 237,927
4-196,810
4-327,617
1891-
-1901 ...
-392,64
2 -f- 247,660
-f635,628
- 232,629
4-143,963
4-395,353
1901-
-1911 ...
-282,96
7 4-1,384,712
—586,278
- 603,883
-341,813
-360,127
...
(
1881-
-1891 ...
- 44,3:
1 - 200,100
-f288,217
- 9,847
-f 33,061
-33,098
Himalayan
1891-
-1901 ...
+ 54,&£
5 + 237,456
-288,217
...
• ••
- 3,391
...
(
1901-
-1911 ...
-f- 6,21
8 _ 2,794
...
...
• >>
- 1,193
(
1881-
-1891 ...
-f 1,8C
2 — 750,70h
-f 47 1,973
4- 337,682
-f 98,879
4-302,866
*••
|Snb-Himalayan ... i
1891-
- 1901 ...
+ 6,52
3 -f 201,794
-246,790
- 23,157
4-102,522
-302,866
...
t
1901-
-1911 ...
+ 44,04
a + 111,409
-f 526,451
- 496,522
-541,214
,.
;North-We8t Dry Area ■
1881-
-1891 ...
- 15,7(
i8 + 405,931
...
...
...
...
1891-
-1901 ...
-f-2l8,8<
J9 -f 589,352
...
...
...
...
...
1901-
-1911 ...
-379,1<
13 -f 770,477
-1-398,244
...
...
...
...
NOTB.-
-Figures of 1901 and 1911 are baaed on those given in Provincial Table I, 1911. Adjustment of the figures of 1891 and 1881
(aa given in the Reports of those years) baing impossible, they have been taken without change.
n.
69
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
[ Pnnjab, 1911-
SUBSIDIARY TABLEIV.
Variation by tahsils classified according to density.
(.6). PBBCENTAGB OF VABIATION (BRITISH TERKITOBY ONLY).
Natpral Division.
PDNJAB
Indo-Gangetic Plain West
Himalayan
Sub- Himalayan
North.West Dry Area
Decade.
Variation pek crnt. in tahsils with a popclation pkk sqdare mils at
oommenoembnt op dkcadb op
Under
150.
■f
18S1— 1891
1891—1901
1901— 19H
1881—1891
1891-1901
1901—1911
1881-1891
1891—1901
1901—1911
1881—1891
1891-1901
1901—1911
1881—1891
1891—1901
1901—1911
- 3-9
- 3
-17-8
- 9-1
-45 3
-59 7
-40-7
+ 85-0
-t- 4'4
+ -6
+ 21
-f 14,0
- -7
+ 9-5
-15-0
150
to
300.
— 109
+31-3
+423
+ 2-8
+ 140
+68-5
-32-2
+ 56 3
— -4
—44-3
+21-3
+ 9-7
+761
+62-7
+50-4
300
to
450.
+ 23-5
+
+
+
+
2'2
7-1
50
25-6
18-2
-100-0
+
36-4
139
+ 34-6
450
to
600
+ 17-0
— 6-5
-29-8
+ 171
— 14-3
— 431
+ 17-0
— 10
— 21-6
No entries in the previous of the two decades compared.
600
to
750.
+ 20-7
+ 14-8
— 462
+ 2G 4
+ 15-3
— 31-5
—1000
+ 15-9
+ 14-2
— 65-6
750
to
900.
8
+ 154-2
+ 8-1
- 30-5
761
52-2
31-2
- 10-3
- 4-0
-100-0
+
+
900
to
1,050.
Over
1,050.
10
-100-0
—100-0
SUBSIDIARY TABLE V-
Capital outlay and irrigation from canals.
Major Ibriqation Works.
Western Jamna Canal (including Sirsa
Branch).
Sirhind Canal
Upper Bari Doab Canal
Lower Chenab Canal
Sidbnai Can«l
Indus Innndation Canal
Upper Sntlej Inundation Canal (including
Lower Sutlej and Parn Canal).
Lower Jhelam Canal
TOTAL
Date of
Completion.
1886-1895...
1886-1887...
1878.1879
1899-1900...
1886
1849-1850...
1858-1859...
In progress
Capital outlay.
17,135,032 17,389,200
24,470,507 25,078,325
18,448,173 21,015,533
25,885,143 29,049,15'
1,264,191 1,329,538
707,635 2,553,414
1,572,112 1,748,11'
16,188,437
89,i82,793 114,331,721
C ulturable area
comTnanded (acres).
2,143,085
2,456,410
1,479,257
2,645,992
344,000
300 000
767,754
10,136,498
2,365,082
2,273,467
1,589,065
2,702,518
344,159
422,923
899,836
1,161,96(1
11,759,010
Gross area actually
irrigated (acres)
7
566,405
961,927
861,301
1,830,525
169,780
222,565
376,297
4988,800
585,438
843,476
1,035,442
2,215,492
251,461
3111,605
282,397
746,446
6,270,757
Total length
(miles).
347
538
369
426
68
716
322
93
2,879
10
348
538
370
427
68
431
325
150
2,557
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VI-
Deaths from plague and malaria during 1901—1910.
(BRITISH TERRITORY ONLY.)
District and Natueal Division.
PUNJAB
Indo-Gangetic Plain West
Hisnar
Rohtak
Gurgaon ... _.
Delhi
Ksrnal
Jullundur ..
Ludhinna ...
Ferozepore
Lahore
Amritsar ...
Gujranwala
Himalayan ... ...
Simla ...
Kangra
Deatlis during 1901-10 /rom
Plagae.
2,025,220
1178.515
86,241
72,462
31,426
46,063
146,049
160,830
105,101
166,285
131,741
191,091
343
u
329
Malaria.
4,503,761
2,203,576
209,518
157,119
191,961
210,087
256,171
162,428
122,163
216,651
240,460
254,064
1R2,!I5+
155.493
^,9ul
152,592
District AND Natobal Division.
SOB-HlMALATAN
Amljala ...
HoflhiarpHr
Gurilaspur
Sialkot ...
Gujrat
Jhelnm ..
Rawalpindi
Attock ...
Noetu-Webt Dry Area
Montgomery
Shabpur ...
Mianwali...
Lyallpur...
J hang
Mciltan ...
Muzaffrtrgarh
DeraOhazi Khan
Deaths during 1901-10 /roiti
Plague. Malarii
2
728,422
99,331
110,938
148,308
1S9,830
107,647
.38,319
25,775
8,274
117,940
1 :;,5S0
78,265
141
12,808
11,979
1,571
60
536
3
1,265,929
162,641
195,080
186,816
237,215
145,361
114,466
143,226
81,124
87^763
88,216
112,034
97,488
72,132
139,321
156,274
110,613
104,685
Note.- Figures of Attock aro for 1904—10, while th<ise of Lynllpur are for 1904—10 and 1905-
tively, The earlier figure* are contained in thoee of the parent districts.
-10, Qoder plague and malaria respec-
CHAPTER 111.
Migration.
Panjabis who embarked from
Calcutta during 1900— 10 ...4,581
Panjabis enumerated in other countries.
GENERAL.
Reference 88. Imperial Table XI, containing statistics of birth-place, furnishes
to Statistics, material for gauging the growth or decline of the natural population (see Chapter II),
and shows how far people move from one part of the Province to another, and the
extent to which persons bom outside the Punjab contribute to the actual popula-
tion of the Province, This Chapter deals with the latter aspect of the statistics.
In the Subsidiaiy Tables these figures have been supplemented with information
received from other Provinces regarding the movements beyond the Punjab.
Subsidiary Table I shows immigrants into each l^s^atural Division, District or State
from other parts of the Province, from other Provinces and from other countries.
Subsidiary Table II gives similar figures of emigration. The proportional figures
of migration to and from eacb district or state will be found in Subsidiary Table III
and the extent of migration between the Natural Divisions appears in Subsidiary
Table IV. The migration between tlie Province as a whole* and other Provinces
of India is indicated in Subsidiaiy Table V.
Total Mig- 89, The total population of 24,187,750, enumerated, in the Punjab, at the
ration. „,„,,>,;. „,.„ „„k,.v». i^r. recent Census, comprises 23,527,531 or o.ver 97
per cent, born within the Province and 660,219 or
rather less than 3 per cent, born outside it.
Of the latter, 605,952 were born in other parts of
India and the rest ("2 per cent, of the population)
came from other countries. On the other hand,
516,612 persons born in the Punjab were
enumerated in the other Provinces of India. The
only available figures! of emigrants from the
Punjab to other parts of the world ai e those given
in the margin. These, however, are not a true
index of the adventurous spirit of the natives of this
Province who are found in almost all parts of the
world. Of the Panjabis enumerated within the
Province, 20,633,059 or over 88 per cent, were
present at their homes, i.e., in the districts of their
birth, on the night of the Final Census, 8 per cent,
were in contiguous districts and about 4 per cent,
in the more distant districts of the Province.
Compared with other countries, the figures of migration may look very
small. But the Indian is known to be passionately fond of his home and in some
of the districts, the proverb * ghar di addhi te bdhar di sari ' (half a loaf at home
is better than a whole one abroad) is still literally
adhered to. But the Jat of the central Punjab is
an exception to the rule and a comparison with
the figures of 1901 (see margin) will show that
the self-satisfied Panjabiof old is gradually giving
way to a more adventurous type, not averse to
travel. In spite of an absolute decrease in the population, there has been a rela-
tive increase in migration from district to district. This is due mainly to
improved means of communication, and the consequent free intercourse between
the different parts of the Province.
It should be noted that the 10th March, i. e., the day preceding the Census
night and the 11th March were declared to be holidays, in order to facilitate the
overhauhng of the Census record and the preparation of Provisional totals ; and
the 12th being a Sunday, the three consecutive holidays enabled several
• With details of British Territory and Native States.
tThe following figores wern received after the Chapter had gODe to Press, and could not bo inoluded
in the atatemeDt .- —
Union of South Africa ... ... ... .,. 842
Bcotland ... ... .., .., ,.. 29
Ceylon
Straits Settlement ...
Anglo-Egyptian Soudan
Northern Nigeria ...
Lagos
Fiji
Northern Rhodesia
Southern Rhodesia ...
Johore
Hong Kong ...
Uganda
Mauritius
Federated Malay States
In vessels arriving in Colombo after
10th March 1911
983
985
9
1
1
809
2
1
195
J ,197
341
18
7,574
335
Total
li!,451
Panjabis serving in the Army
ouUide India on 1-5-1911 ...2,218
The figures of Panjabis residing in the
British Isles, other European countries,
Armenia, South Africa, and Australia are
not available.
Propcrtion per mille born and enumerated
within the Province,
Enumerated in —
District of birth
Contiguous districts
Other districts of the
vince
Pro-
1901
976
19
1911
944
41
15
71
HI. QENUEAt. [ Punjab, 1911.
temporary or semi-permanent emigrants to return to their homes. The procla-
mations issued in the local area?, requiring people to be present, as far as
possible, at home on the night of 10th March, coupled with the movements on
the evening of the 9th and morning of the 10th went a long way to reduce the
extent of the Intra-Provincial migration. The date of the Census was so fixed as
not to clash with days held to be auspicious for marriages and other large
gatherings. The figures therefore are nearer the minimum, than the normal,
migration. The extent to which the Panjabis have taken to going outside India
cannot bo discussed, uiikf^s the immigration figures of other countries are
available, but the tendency of temporary or semi-permanent emigration out of the
country is npparent and has been stimulated by the rapid spread of English edu-
cation and the growing disregard of the restrictions of eating and drinking which
were, till lately, an insuperable obstacle in the way of undertaking journeys across
the sea. One still hears from old people, of the privations to which they exposed
themselves in their foreign travels, by restrictions in regard to food ; but an
overwhelming majority of the modern generation has no scruples about inter-
dining, and so the days of restrictions are already passing into liistory.
90. The causes leading to the movement of population are manifold Nature
and the nature of migration varies according to the conditions under which the and types of
change of residence occurs. But the different types may be broadly classified migration,
under the following heads : —
(a) Casual, (6) Temporaiy, (c) Periodic, {d) Semi-permanent, and (e)
Permanent.
(a) Casual. — The casual type consists of minor movements within adja-
cent villages. The rural population is constantly on the move between the
Tillage of residence and the neighbouring ones. Visits to relatives and friends
are the main cause of such migration and the movements come to notice only
in cases where the people cross the limits of the district or state. The bulk
of the movements between villages in the same unit, therefore, escapes notice.
The cases of females born in one village and married into another and their
return on visits to their parents' houses are often relegated to this type. But
the former is really permanent migration, although the connection with the
parental village leads to frequent change of residence. The latter, which is
really emigration from the permanent home, appears in the form of return to the
place of birth, and wrongly reduces the figures of permanent migration. It also
tends to vitiate the returns of place of birth m cases where the wife goes to the
home of her parents for her confinement. The only way in which such move-
ments can represent the casual type is when the woman goes to visit
her parents in company with her children born at her husband's home. The
practice of newly married wives going to their parents' home for the
first accouchement is limited to the eastern Punjab. The reason of this
practicH seems to be the confidence of a girl in her mother, in times of trouble,
and the anxiety of the mother to be near her daughter during her first confine-
ment, which is regarded as the most critical point in her life. When it is not
possible for the girl to go to her parents' home, the mother goes and stays with
her daughter for the ])eriod in question. lb is in places where it is considered
objectionable for the mother to enter the daughter's house or village, that the
practice of the daughter going to her parents' home for confinement is more pre-
yaleiiL But on the other hand, in the towns, even of the eastern Punjab, neither
will the daughter be sent to her parents for that purpose, nor will her mother enter
the daughter's house. In the rural tracts of the eastern Punjab, the custom is
more common among the Hindus than amongst the Muhammadans, But in the
westein Punjab, the case is the reverse. A Muhammadan will invariably get her
daughter to her house for the first accouchement, but this is not so in tho case of
a Hindu. The proper procedure according to Hindu ideas is that the wife should
be confined at her permanent home, i.e., at her husband's. This system is
generally adhered to in towns, and in the western Punjab, by even the rural
population who are mostly Aroras, and belong really to the townsman class.
Men, usually have their hands full of work and besides, have few chances of
changiiig residence casually. Females, therefore, preponderate in migration of
this type.
Census Report. ]
72
OBNERAL.
Chaptke
(b) Temporary. — Temporary migration is due to joaraeys undertaken on
business, to attend marriage or
death ceremonies, to partake in f eS'
District or State
1. Delhi ...
2. Lahore
3. Sialkot
4. Nabha State
5. D. G. Khan
6. Hoshiarpur
r.
8. Jhelnm
9. Montgomery
10. Gujramvala
11. Gujrat
Main oause of Migration.
No. of
Immigrants*
Coronation Durbar Works ..
Lower Bari Dcab Canal
Works at Balloki
Upper Chenab Canal Head
Works at Marala
Cattle Fair at Jaitu
Pilgrims to the shrine of
Sakhi Sarwar
Holi Fair at Anandpur ')
„ Mairi j
Cattle Fair at Chakwal
Canal Works
74,526
184,964
54,604
53,912
9,812
59,885
27,531
49.784
136,367
20,711
tivals, to visit places of pilgrimage,
preceptors (or Pirs) and the like,
or to the dispersal of the popu-
lation of a tract owing to panic
caused by epidemics, or the
collection of bands of labourers
in connection with extensive works
on roads, Railways, etc. The last
is the most important item of this
type and where large works are in
progress, the figures of migration
are appreciable enough to affect
the population. Some instances are quoted in the margin. Business visits mainly
affect the towns. This type of migration embraces far more males than females,
(c) Periodic. — Under this head should be classed, the periodical movements
of labourers for harvesting operations, of graziers accompanying their flocks or
herds, of Pirs and Mahants on their tours to visit their disciples, and of the inhabi-
tants of hilly regions, during the winter, for the purpose of trade or earning their
livelihood. In years when the south-eastern districts of the Province or the ad-
joining I'rovinces are affected by drought, large bodies of labourers move on to the
central and western Punjab to take up what work they can get, at the harvesting
of the spring crops, which are very extensive in these parts. On the 10th of
March 1911, migration for harvesting operations had not quite begun, and no
part of the Punjab or the adjoining Provinces was suffering from famine. But the
movement of graziers is a regular one. The Gaddi^ of the Kangra District shift
lower down, in winter, owing to the intense cold at their homes, and graze tlieir
cattle in the lower hills of the same district. This accounts for the presence of most
of the marginally noted Gaddis (with a small proportion
of females) in the western tahsils of Kangra. Similarly,
the Afghan Powindahs, who find it difficult to earn a
living or procure good fodder for their camels in
the hills, during the winter, leave Afghanistan in large
numbers and kill two birds with one stone. They bring
merchandise to the Punjab, leaving their camels on the Indus, to graze, through-
out the winter, in the sandy Thai of the Siudh Sagar Doab, sell their goods — some
of them going down country, as far as Calcutta or Bombay — and after disposing
of their imports, take up work as labourers, chiefly building mud walls, and
the richer and more intelligent of them lend money at exorbitant rates of profit —
a milder term for the prohibited interest. In March, they recover all their
dues and, with their accumulated earnings buy piece-goods and other merchandise,
after which they wend their way home, pickmg up their camels at the passes in
the North-West Frontier Province. '1 his immigration accounts for the presence
of the majority of 21,239 Afghanistan-born persons in the Punjab. The Powindahs
bring very few females with them and consequently the proportion of Afghan
females to males is only 1 to G.
The graziers in the plains take their cattle down to the riverain tracts in
the summer, when the supply of fodder in the uplands is restricted and the
flooding of the rivers produces rich pasturage within the reaches of inundation.
These movements are, however, usually confined within the districts. In the win-
ter, the cattle are taken to the uplands and the Birs (forests) of the eastern
Punj.'ib. The Thai of the western Punjab attracts cattle from long distances.
But these immigrants come from districts which are affected by other causes as
■well, and therefore it is very difiicult to obtain separate figures for this class of
migration, which, on the whole, is small.
The proportion of females cannot be large in this type of migration,
(d). Semi-permanent. — The semi-permanent type is an important one
and comprises a very large proportion of Government servants of all kinds,
• From within the Province.
Tahsils.
Persons.
Females.
Dera Gopipnr
Nurpur
Hamirpur
259
546
109
40
79
5
I
73
m.
KTEA-PROVINCIAL MIGRATION.
[Paiijab,1911.
servants of firms and other private concerns, domestic servants, persons following
such professions as Law or Medicine, and students, who reside at a place, for a
considerable time, for their livelihood, education, etc., but, sooner or later, return
to their homes witli which they do not break off connection, and keep in touch
by paying occasional visits during the interval. This class of migration
includes the majority of Europeans and is most in evidence in towns. Females
are also affected by this type of migration, but necessarily to a less degree,
seeing that students, soldiers and menial servants are the chief constituents of this
migratory element.
(e). Permanent. — Permanent migration occurs, either owing to the at-
tractions of a place other thaa that of one's birth, in connection with trade,
industries or professions, or in consequence of facilities of life, as in the newly
developed tracts. The bulk of such migration has, in this Province, taken place
from the congested districts to the Canal Colonies. The subject will be dealt with
further on (paragraphs 107 — 112). The cases of residents of villages who have
entered service or literary professions, taking up their abode in towns, even after
they retire from active life, because the environments are more suited to their
tastes and requirements, are comparatively small in number. In this type of
migration, a fair proportion of females accompanies the males, but the number of
the latter is usually in excess of the former.
EXTRA PROVINCIAL MIGRATION.
91. The totals (omitting 000) of immigrants and emigrants extracted from General
Subsidiary Tables I and 11, are noted in the remarks,
margin by Natural Divisions. Such figures
of emigration out of India as are available
have been given in paragraph 89, but are
not included in the marginal statistics. It
will be seen that immigration exceeds emi-
gration, except in the Sub-Himalayan tract,
which has received 143,000 persons against
146,000 sent out. The bulk of the immi-
gration (70 per cent.) is from the contiguous
districts of the adjoining Provinces, being
mostly of the casual type. Most of the emi-
gration (63 per cent.) is also to the con-
tiguous districts of other Provinces, but a
larger proportion of the emigrants goes to
distant parts. The Indo-Gaiigetic Plain,
naturally takes the largest share in the extra Provincial movements of the popula-
tion, and the Dimalayan Division, which is the most isolated tract, stands lowest.
The N.-W. Dry area is
the least adventurous,
as the number of emi-
grants to contiguous
districts of other Pro-
vinces is juBt over
one-half of the emi-
grants from such dis-
tricts, while the cor-
responding proportion
in regard to the non-
contiguous parts of
other Provinces ia only
^rd. The map in the
margin indicates the
direction of move-
ments of the popula-
tion of this Province
flmmigrntion.)
§°
"s.a
g,ftH
■2 „
03
M u
«S
oja M
O-Q .
bjoo o
.2
.
g-s-s
■op^S
a
J2
o
o
<^
O
H
Province
460 146
54
660
Indo-Gangetio Plain,
:i89 Hi
13
413
Himalayan
7
8
6
21
Sub-Himalayan
83
39
21
143
N.-W. Dry Area
32
38
14
81
(Emigration.)
Province
323
181
12
516
Indo-Gangctic Plain ..
142
110
• ••
252
Himalayan
5
8
13
Sub-Himalayan
90
56
146
N.-W. Dry Area
17
13
30
to and from the other
parts of India.
74
Census Report- ]
KXTRA-PBOVINCIAL HIOSATIOK.
Chaptkb
iBunigra- 92. The total number of immigrants from other Provinces and States in
tionfrom India is 605,952 as compared with 666,614 in 1901. The immigriition in 1901
•tier Pro- j^to the Mianwali and Attock Districts from the North-West Frontier Province
TiBces of which, was due to the absence of figures of birth-place for the new districts,
India. created on the separation of the North-West Frontier Province from the Punjab,
has been excluded.
Tlie figures of 1911 and 1901, for each Province, are given in the margin,
in the order of
strength of im-
migrants. The
six Provinces
which top the
list are conti-
guous to the
Punjab. Ben-
gal, which oc-
cupies an ex-
ceptional posi-
tion, in conse-
quence of a large influx of educated Bengahs for service in all departments of the ad-
Delhi 1,118 ministratioH, stands higher than Baluchistan, which is Separated fi'om
Lahore ... 684 \}^{q Provincc bj the hilly frontier of Dera Gbazi Khan. Tlie largest
R^aipindi 394 number of Bengahs was found in the marginally noted districts.
Ambaia ... 363 The figurcs iuclude Bengal-born Indian Cliristians and
erozepore K„^Tr.i„^: — c Some of the Government of India Offices-
Province or State.
1911.
248,152
1901.
Province or State.
1911.
1901.
Rajputana Agency
268,348
Madras
1,110
585
United Provinces
219,913
223,948
Hyderabad
689
744
Kashmir
72,369
77,302
Mysore
273
72
North- West Frontier Pro-
35,271
65,433
Baroda ...
225
89
vince.
Andaman and Nicobar ...
109
117
Bombay
10,583
10,801
India Unspecified
1,155
3,243
Bengal (and Sikkim)
5,136
6,613
3,587
3,529
French and Portuguese
100
149
Eastern Bengal
Baluchistan
Central India Agency ...
483
3,704
3,630
Settlements.
Burma
1,550
780
Total
605,952
666,614
Central Provinces and Berar
1,500
1,274
194 Anglo-Indians.
Mnltan ... 194 -augiu-jinuiaus. come ot tue Government or maia umces — e. g.,
the Foreign Department — had assembled at Delhi, in connection with the Corona-
tion Durbar, before the Final Census, and the Offices of the Deputy Accountant-
General, Tost Offices, and the Special Audit Officer, Delhi Durbar accounts, were
responsible for a large number of Bengali Clerks at Delhi. The figures of Lahore
have been swelled by the Military Accounts Department, which again has a large
proportion of Bengalis. The presence of Bengalis in Simla is due to the perma-
nent location of the IMihtary Offices of the Government of India, which are recruit-
ed at Calcutta. In the other districts, the Bengali population is confined mainly
to larger towns, being distributed between the town proper and the cantonment,
wherever there is one. All the other distant Provinces rank below Baluchistau.
There is a marked decrease in the numlier of immigrants from the North- West
Frontier Province (about 30,000), Rajputana (about 20,000), Kashmir (5,000),
and United Provinces (4,000). The increases and decreases in immigration from
the other Provinces are not important.
93. Immigration from Rajputana has fallen off about 8 per cent, as com-
f^m's^ripu"- pared with the figures of 1901, obviously on account of the favourable agricultural
*"*• conditions prevailing in that tract in the winter of 1910-11, which did not drive
the population to seek for livelihood in other Provinces. Nevertheless, Rajputana
supplies more immigrants to the Punjab thun any other Province, for the simple
reason that it adjoins a larger number of districts and stales of this Province and
the movements of a casual type are extensive. It may, however, be noted that
the immigration into Bahawalpur which adjoins Rajputana is not of the casual
type. The population of the State bt^ing mostly Muhammadan, there are few
marriage relations with the adjoining Hindu States of Rajputana. The proportion
of female immigrants to every 100 males is, therefore, 74 in Bahawalpur unlike
the Hissai', Gurgaon and other eastern districts where females preponderate.
The 17,000 odd immigrants into Bahawalpur are mostly of the labourer class and
work on canals and on the lands newly brought under cultivation. The bulk of
the immigrants to non-contiguous districts consists of labourers who migiated at
various times of distress and have settled, in a semi-permanent manner, in several
place.'), where the demand for labour is large ; or have adopted nomadic habits,
moving from place to place in considerable bands, for employment on Railways,
Lahore ... 4,705 canals and other extensive works. People of Rajputana are found
Son?"""'* 4 420 in strength in the non-contiguous districts named in the margin.
Muitan ... 4,476 Large canals are under construction in the Lahore, Gujianwala
and Montgomery Districts and the demand for labour is considerable in Muitan.
75
QL
EZTBA-FBOVIMCUL MIGRATION.
[ Punjab, 1911.
A list prepared from notes made at
the time of Abstraction, on
the com-
posit i o n
of large
streams of
immigr a-
tion ia
given in
the mar-
gin, to
show the
caste of
and occu-
pation fol-
lowed by,
immi-
grants
from Raj-
putana. It
will be
n ot i c ed
that con-
struct i on
■works on
the Railways have attracted most persons from Jaipur and Bikaner and that
the canal works rank next in importance, Ahirs, Jats and Bagris (largely Chamars)
form the bulk of the immigrants.
94. The decrease in immigration from the United Provinces is small and immigration
obviously due to deaths from epidemics among the immigrants. More than half the [-roTi^^!*'^
immigration from these Provinces is of the casual type. The rest of it consists
mainly of clerks, labourers, ayahs, kahars bearers, cooks, syces and other domestic
servants. The castes and occupations of immigrants to four of the districts are given
" the
Dbtail op typical
STBEAMS OF IMMIGRATION.
District where
enumerated
District or
No. of
State of
immi-
Caste.
Religion.
Occupation.
birth.
grants.
Lahore
Jaipur ...
2,038
Potters, Julaha,
Rajput, J at and
Jogi.
Hindu
Workers in cotton fac-
tories, canal labourers,
kiln labourers, beggars.
Bikaner...
125
Potter, Julaha
and Chamar.
Do.
Cotton mills.
Amrilsar
Bikaner ..
131
Jat
Do.
Labourers.
Gujranwala ...
Jaipur ...
2,995
Marwari and
Chamar.
Jat
Do.
Canal diggers.
Jhelum
Jaipur ...
161
Do.
Military service.
Rawalpindi ...
Jaipur ...
193
Kori & Brahman
Do.
Bearers and Pujaris.
Faridkot
Jaipur ...
844
Jat, Chamar and
Aggarwal.
Do.
Shop keeping, agriculture,
earth- works.
Alwar ..
114
Chamar
Do.
Agriculture, labourers.
Bikaner
404
Brahman
Do.
Agriculture, beggars.
Hissar
Jaipur ...
13,162
Aliir, iiajput, Jat
Hindu 11,507;
Cultivators, labourers on
and Bagri.
Mdan. 1,598.
Railway lines.
Delhi
Jaipur ...
11,464
Aliir and Jat ...
Hindu 10,374 ;
Mdan. 965.
Labourers on Railways.
Montgomery ...
Bikaner...
1,136
Bagri Chamar ...
Mostly Hindu
Canal diggers.
Jaipur ...
2,296
Bagn
Hindu
Do.
Mnltan
Bikaner...
2,248
Do
Do.
Coolies on new Lodhran
Railway line.
Jaipur ...
1,189
Do
Do.
Do.
Detail op certain ixstancbs.
District
where
enumerated.
District or
State of
birth.
No.
Caste.
Religion.
Occupation.
Lahore . . .
Saharanpur ...
274
Brah man, Rajput
Hindu
Muhammadan
Agents, Vakils.
Railway Clerks and
Chaprasis.
Meorut
186
Bania
Hindu
Clerk and Chaprasis.
Aligarh
147
Sayad
Muliammadan
Piri-Muridi.
Mathra
410
Aggarwal
Hindu
Clerks.
Bijnor
435
Aggarwal
Do.
Clerks in Military Offi-
ces and Banks.
Moradabad ...
105
Rajput ..
Muhammadan
Commissariat servants.
Shahjahanpur
150
Mahajan
Hindu
Brick Contractors.
Jampur
lu7
Brahman, Lobar
Do.
Agents and eniployts in
Railway Workshop.
Gonda
121
Ditto
Do.
Ditto
Sultanpur ...
208
Uitto
Do.
Clerks and chaprasis.
Pratabgarh ...
348
Potters
Do.
Canal digging and weav-
ing Mills coolies, grass
cutters.
Sialkot ...
Meerut
143
Chamar, Kahar
Hindu
Sycos and bearers.
Jhelum ...
Unspecified ...
191
Jat
Do.
Miliary service
Rawalpindi
Saharanpur ...
152
Kori
Do.
Polishing of boots.
Meerut
870
Kori, Rajput
Do
Syce
Pathan.
Muhammadan
Military service.
Agra
855
Jaiswara, Rajput
Hindu
Syces.
Sheikh.
Muhammadan
Railway Workshop cm-
ployds. Bearer, BUshtis.
Jampur
210
Jaiswara
Hindu
Coachmen.
Lucknow
147
Do.
Do.
Syce.
Raibareilly ...
152
Chamar
Do.
Bearers, servants.
Fyzabad
130
Brahmans
Do.
Beggars.
Gonda
118
Kori, Ahir
Do.
Servants in Railway
Workshop, milk sel-
lers.
Sultanpur ...
290
Kori
Do.
Shoemakers.
Pratabgarh ...
158 Kori 1
Do.
Syces and Coachmen.
Ill
gin.
mar-
The
syces, grass-
cuts, etc.,
are mostly
Koris, Cha-
m a r s, or
Jaiswara s,
and come
from all over
the United
Provi n c e s
and parti-
cularly from
Meerut and
Agra. The
bearers are
mostly Ka-
hars (from
Gonda) and
in some
cases Koris
or members
of other low
castes. The
Aggarw a Is
and other
Bauias us-
ually come
76
Census Report. ]
EXTEA-PEOVINCIAL MIGEATION.
CHAPTEa
ImmigratiOD
from N,.W. F.
ProTince.
as clerks or contractors. The Bralimans are generally clerks or cliaprasis or live
on gifts from their clientele. Muharamadan Rajputs and Pathans are employed
in the workshops, act as Bhishtis, Drivers, Bearers, etc., or are in Military
service.
95. The largest decrease has occurred in immit^ration from the North-West
Frontier Province. Dera Ghazi Khan alone accounts for a decrease of nearly 29
thousands out of 30. This variation is mainly due to the fact that the construc-
tion of the great American dam at the western end of the Indus, with a. view ta
divert its waters from the ill-fated town of Dera Ghazi Khan, which had been taken
in hand under the orders of His Excelleucy Lord Curzon, had attracted large gangs
ofPathan workers, in 1901. Moreover a larger number of Powindah camel graziers,
was present in the districts of the western Punjab, at the enumeration of 1901.
Some of these were probably registered as born in the North- West Frontier Pro-
vince, instead of Afghanistan, as would be inferred from paragraph 84, page 77,
of Mr. Rose's Census Report of 1901, and this may account for part of the decrease
in Dera Ghazi Khan. On the other hand, the Lahore District shows an increase
of 1,132. About 90 per cent, of the immigrants (born in I[azara 606, Pesha-
war 1,602, Kohat 558) were enumerated in the city of Lahore and nearly
half of them were Pathans in Military service or in the service of
Sardar Ayub Khan, of Kabul. But the increase apparently occurred in the
other half and was probably due to the attraction of the Railway Workshops
and a larger influx of students from the North-West Frontier Province to the
Islamia, Dayanand Anglo- Vedic and other Colleges. The increase of 795
immigrants to Delhi, was obviously in connection with the Coronation DurbarWorks.
The low proportion of female immigrants to males in the latter district (1 t) 10),
is an in(iication of the migration being purely temporary. The main occupations
of Patlian immigrants from the North-West Frontier Province into this Province
are. Military service and manual labour on Railways, etc.
^migr^ion 95 Immigration from Kashmir has also decreased by five thousand.
Here again, the high mortality in the Province carried away a number of the
settled immigrants and the development of industries in Kashmir — chief amongst
theiM the silk factory — resulted in fewer people leaviiig the state in winter. About
80 per cent, of the immigrants from Kashmir were enumerated in the adjoining
districts or states and represented the casual type. The occupations of immi-
_ grants to two of the other districts are
cited in the margin by way of example.
ccupation. rjij^^ other decreases call for no comment.
Property owners ; The largest increase in immigration is from
Govermnentser. Burma and the curious part of it is, that
vice; Private ^. t ■, -, in •
service; Charity, excfiptuig a limited number of servants m
^^^^^1 ?'^'"*=»'^'^ the cantonments, there are very few real
and labourers. „ • xi -n • rr,, r.
Government ser- Burmese in the Province, The Burma
mir.
District.
Lahore
Amritsar
No.
537
1,835
401
1,139
Caste.
Brah-
mans.
Kashmiri
Brah.
mans.
Kashmiri
Religion.
Hindu
Muham-
madan.
Hindu
Muham-
madan.
Immigration
frocD Madras,
D,- .;. ^*''^l'°°' born population of the Puniab consists verv
Private service; , i <• 1 -u , f n • 1 ■ J
Charity. largely ot children born ot Painabi parents
^abou°ers ^""^ '" Burma. Tiie number of Panjabis in
^ — ' Burma now is 22,983 males and 3,117
females, and a large number of married families return to the Punjab every year. It
is, therefore, not strange that the greater part of the 1,550 Burma boi-n inhabi-
tants of the Province should have come with the
Panjabi families from time to time. This explana-
tion is supported by the figures given in the
margin, which show that the districts which have
sent the largest number of emigrants to Burma
are also those which have registered large numbers
of immigrants from Burma, and by the fact that
the immigrants are mostly Jats. It has to be
remembered that 21,000 emigrants, out of 26,000
enumerated in Buima, did not specify their district of birth.
97. Immigration from Madras has nearly doubled itself although
the increase otdy amounts to 525. Most of the immigrants, who are
Christian by religion, are employed in the Cantonments and large Civil
Districts.
Emigrants
to Burma.
Immigrants
from
Burma.
Amritsar
Lahore
Jhelum
Patiaia
Eawalpindi
Ludhiana
Unspecified
1 ,490
650
389
360
285
33(>
20,733
186
339
59
85
49
202
odd
77
in.
BXTBA-PEOVINOIAL MIGRATION.
[ Punjab, 1911.
Stations as bearers, cooks, ajahs and other personal servants. The demand
for Madras! servants seems to be increasing, owing partly to the rise in
the wages of servants in the Punjab, and partly to the former being able
to talk English, and adopt themselves more readily to European requirements.
98. The number of immigrants from countries beyond India is 54,267 Immigra-
AsiaticConntries ... 29,885 (see detail given in the margin) against 39,504 in 1901. ti on from
The increase occurs in the number of persons born inother Coun-
the Asiatic and European countries, and is due largely to tries.
the development of commerce and industry. The Asiatic
54,267 countries which sent in most immigrants are mentioned
Most of tbe immigrants from Afghanistan were Pathans and
21,239 large numbers of them were enumerated in the following
V30 districts :— Lahore, 2,592 ; Guj.at, 2,148 ; Shahpur,
595 2,300; Mianwali, 1,400; Montgomery, 1,614; Lyallpur,
Dera Ghazi Khan, 2,974. Some of the trans-frontier
EarOpeaD
African „
American „
Australia
Total ..
in the margin
23,906
122
267
107
Afghanistan
Nepal
Tibet
China
1,246; Multan, 1,171
Pathans are employed in the Army, but most of them are Powindahs who work
in different places as labourers, mud- wall-builders, petty traders, &c., the only
exception being Lahore, where a large number of Afghans is found in the camp
of Sardar Ayub Khan, of Kabul, and a smaller one in the employ of the
Kazilbash Nawabs. The Nepalese are all Gurkhas in Military service and were
enumerated in the Gurdas-pur and Kangra Districts. The Tibetan immigrants
are mostly Bhotias, found mainly in the Himalayan Districts and States and to a
small extent lower down. Most of the Chinese were enumerated in tbe districts
noted in the margin. They are solely traders from Northern
China and appear to have been enumerated on their way back
from this Province. This accounts for the largest number
being found in Mandi which hes on the trade route to Tibet
and China.
The detail of European immigrants is given in the margin. By far the
Kangra
Ferozepore
Lahore
Amiitsar
Handi
... 62
... 83
... 45
... 113
... 128
Country of Birth.
1. United Kingdom
of Great Britain
and Ireland
2. Portugal
3. Germany
4. France
5. Belgium
fi. Italy
7. Malta
8. Spain
9. Switzerland
10. Bussia
No.
23,311
141
76
51
61
29
60
24
17
11
Country of Birth.
11 HoUand '
12. Austria and Hun-
gary
13. Greece
14. Sweeden and
Norway
15. Turkey in Europe
16. Denmark, Gibral-
tar and Ireland ..
17. rnspecified
No.
12
largest
19
8
8
6
5
67
23,906
amount of immigration is
from the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland. The immigrants
from other European countries are
either connected with trade or are
tourists, just a few being in Govern-
ment service. The immigrants from
Great Britain and Ireland belong
to various professions, e.^., service in
the Military, Civil, Technical and other departments, trade and Missionary
work. Immigrants from the British Isles also including
tourists. The composition of the British immigrants is
shown in the margin.
No persons are returned in Table XI as born at sea.
It has been ascertained by the examination of Schedules
that there are a few Europeans in this Province who were
bora on a voyage, but they appear to have been included nmong Italians owing
to the similarity to the word ' Italy ' of the Urdu word ' At Sea ' written on the
sorting slips. 1 have, however, come across oidy two such entries and the number
must in any case be insignificant
99.
Birlh-place.
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland
Unspecified
No.
18,596
1,790
2,915
10
a3,311
The emigrants to other
Emigrants.
Provinces of India are compared in
margin for the past two Censuses.
Province.
1911.
1901.
Differ,
ence.
United Provinces ...
122,289
131,357
- 9,0 G8
Rajputana Agencv ...
89,637
80,355
+ 9,282
N..W. F. Province ...
68,893
86,211
-17,318
Kaahmir
59.707
70,272
- 10,565
Bombay
55,444
43,302
+ 12,142
Burma
2e,luo
21,501
+ 4,599
Baluchistan
24,176
19,598
+ 4,578
Bengal
Zl,46«
)
JEastem Bengal and
} 22,333
+ 5,036
Assam
5,901
)
the Emigratiott
On to other
the whole, emigration to other Provinces Provinces
has decreased slightly ("o? per cent.), of India,
which is by no means strange, considering
the excessive mortality during the past
decade. But other causes have also been
at work. The decrease has occured mainly
in emigration to the contiguous Provinces,
to which the migration is generally of the
casual or temporary type, with the excep-
tion of Rajputana, Bombay, and Baluchis-
78
Census Report, ]
INTBA-PBOVINCIAL MIGRiTION.
Chapter
Central Provinces ...
Central India Agency
Hyderabad
Andaman and Nicobar
Mysore
Baroda
Madras
Sikkim
Tranvancore
Coorg
Cochin
11.655
6,908
8,293
20,030
4,869
2,429
2,072
..•
1,662
.M
921
68S
875
1,025
147
• ■•
39
...
10
24
3
506,033
504,161
+ 4,747
—11,737
+ 2,440
+
233
150
14
tan wtich show increases. The compara-
tively higher figures of emigration to the
United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, in
1901, were due largely to the movements
of famine-stricken people from the eastern
Punjab. Years of agricultural prosperity
have attracted them back, in spite of the
unhealthy conditions prevailing in the tract.
Total ... 504,161 506,033 -1,872 xiie decrease of over 1 7,000 in emigra-
tion to the North- West Frontier Province
can be ascribed partly to the separation of the two Provinces, which has some-
what reduced the mutual business intercourse of the inhabitants of the districts on
either side of the boundary. The loss of hfe due to plague and malaria must
also have affected the emigration, while the flow of the surplus population of
Jbelum, Gujrat, Shahpur, Sialkot, Gurdaspur and Hoshiarpur into the Jbelum
and Chenab Colonies may be the cause, wli oily or partially, of the decrease in
emigration from those Districts to the North-West Frontier Province. It is also
stated that the comparative insecurity of life and property in the North-
West Frontier Province during the greater part of the last decade has
discouraged the temporary or semi-permanent residence in that Province of
persons born on this side of the Indus. The decrease in emigrants to Kashmir
is marked. Emigration to Kashmir is mainly periodical and the late snow of
1910-11 seems to have delayed the summer influx into the Happy Valley. On
the other hand, openings in service and trade have attracted a larger number of
Panjabis to Baluchistan and the demand for natives of this Province was con-
siderable in Burma. Emigration to Rajputana was abnormally low in 1901,
owing to the prevalence of famine conditions in that t'rovince. The return of
prosfierity seems to have restored the free migration of the relationship type.
The industrial and commercial activity of the Province accounts for a larger
emigration to Bombay. Numbers of young men now go to Bombay to receive
commercial and technical instruction, and importers of goods are adopting the
sensible practice of running down to Karachi or Bombay personally, to make their
purchases. The opening of Prmjabi hotels and lodges in Bombay is an evidence
of the growth of Panjabi population of a casual nature in that city. Figures for
1901 are not available for Andamans and Nicobars, Cochin, Mysore and Travancore.
100. Statistics of emigration to the countries beyond India are not avail-
Emigra- able for 1901 and even those collected this time are not complete. A rough estimate
tiontoother of emigrants to the adioining Asiatic countries was obtained from the District
countries, officers. The reports show that only 9 Panjabis are in Tibet, being employed
at the Gartok Agency and that some 75 have gone out to Afghanistan. As
regards the number of emigrants to other parts of the world, the only available
figures have been given in paragraph 89. But besides the 12,822 persons there
referred to, there must be a large number of students and others residing in
the British Isles and in other European and American countries; but the figures
are unfortunately not procurable yet.
INTRA-PROVINCIAL MIGRATION.
101. The bulk c.f the movement of population being confined to districts
-^ — ^=^ and states within the Pi'o-
Migration
by Natural
Divisions.
Immigraiion,
E
migration
1
Natural Division.
1^
S
"S
h
"a .2
1
p-n-
en <U
B-^
s.s
a
►• C3
g«
2^
o
o°
o>
o
Eb
b,
E->
H
H
H
Indo-Oan .'Clio Plain...
374,874
23,675
39«,549
4R'=1,867
31,297
520,164
Himalavan
38,890
5,694
44,584
37,8H0
11,177
49,1 157
Sub-Himalajan
193,044
26,253
219,297
39',491
aso,363
670.851
N.-W. Dry Area ...
193,760
453,a43
647,103
53,946
15,060
69,006
vince, it is necessary to
notice the intra-Provin-
cial migration in detail.
The figures of migration
to and from the Natural
Divisions (excerpted from
Subsidiary Tables I and
II) are noted in the
margin. The Natural
Division which has gain-
= ed most in migration is
the North-West Dry Area, where the immigration exceeds emigration by close
on 500,000, The Chenab and Jhelum Canal colonies are mamly responsible
i
I
79
III.
INTEA-PEOYINCUL MIGRATION.
[ Punjab, 1911.
for this influx and the Indo-Gangetic Plain "West and the Sub-Himalayan tract,
which have been indented upon for colonists, show a corresponding deBcit in
immigration compared with emigration. The case of the colonies will be dealt with
separately in paragraphs 107 to 112. The immigration into the Indo-Gangetic
Plain is mostly from the contiguous districts and states and is mainly of the
casual type. Similarly the bulk of the emigration is to the contiguous districts.
The districts which have supplied most colonists to the Chenab and Jhelum
colonies adjoin it, but certain distant districts have also sent fnirly large
numbers. The immigrants to the Himalayan tract, in winter, are fewer than the
emigrants therefrom. Few outsiders live in the Himalayas during tlie winter and
those who do, have taken up permanent or semi-permanent abode there. The
emigrants are mostly Brahmans and Rajputs who take up employment as menial
servants in the towns and cities of the Sub-Himalayan tract and the Indo-Gangetic
Plain. The Rajputs also enlist in the army and serve as peons in offices. The emi-
gration to the adjoining districts is casual or periodic. The noticeable feature in the
Sub-Himalayan tract is the large emigration to the Chenab and Jhelum colonies.
102. The map printed in the margin indicates, by arrows, the flow of popula- Migration
tion from oneby Diatricts
contiguousdis- and States,
trictor stateto
another.
In migra-
tion between
contiguous dis-
tricts, the pro-
pot tion of fe-
males prepon-
derates gene-
ra lly, but the •
ratio is com-
paratively large
among the Hin-
dus, Sikhs and
Jains, in conse-
quence' of their
custom of mar-
ry ins: outside
the exogamous
group and the
native village.
Th's fact is il-
1 us I rated in the
margin, by the figures of a few selected districts in
which the Hindus or Muhammadans preponderate.
In the Hindu districts, the proportion of females
to every 100 male immigrants and emigrants is
lowest in the inaccessible Kangra District. The
largest figures are shown by Rohtak in immigration
and Delhi in emigration. It has to be i eme^mbered,
that the custom of marrying wives from the east
accounts for the immigration of females to Delhi and
other Districts which adjoin the United Provinces,
not appearing in the statistics of intra-l'rovincial
migration. Nevertheless, the p-opoit'on of female
immigrants varies in the Hindu districts from
125 to 330 and of emigrants from 145 to 260.
On the other hand, in the 7 Muhammaiian dis-
tricts, the proportion of females to every 100
male immigi'ants varies from 68 in Dera Ghazi
Khan which is an isolated and typically Muhara-
REFTRfNCDf
—
<,
MAP
f
» ^
MIGRATION BETWEEN THE CONTIGUOUS
/■'■"Vv /^ DISTRICTS ifc.STATFS OF PUNJAB
2Q000-3QD00
Sa000-ff7322
-*9*^o r
^\o^T^i H
A S
^
* v'
_^^-^^
H
* r-s f /
H
r
d
\ ^y"-
JAMMU ^HAMBA/^
"1^ •»
> -^ r
\ ^ j^i--^^"^ i
^
/i/J^
^^^ffr
\
* /
wD^^Xrw^k
tr'^^l
*~^i *T^
''^i^P^^^-A-'^^w^ \
^1
< \
r **
— y"*^ 1 7
W/
^P^^
^^^^^^^^^v|y^
AM o
Y * *
^^^^^^'j^^sala]
/ ^ o
^Mli^tAM^
"""ti^^^/^^ j^^^ ^**»\ L
^ ''*Tv^^ Oy
' ^ut
=;-■
<
h\
"' v-^
1 R
A J l> u Y
' " * rr&^«^
\ '
o / \_^
^7»-A.r.*^,.y
Pbofobtion of pbmales to eveey
100 MALE8.
District.
Immi-
grautg.
Emi-
grants.
Hindu.
J.
2.
Kangra
Amhala
126
184
115
150
3.
Rohtak
331
234
4.
Delhi
214
261
5.
Karnal
193
193
6.
Hissar
179
189
7.
Jind
Average
liuhammaAan.
208
259
203
196
1.
Attock
122
94
2.
D. G. Khan
68
71
3,
Jhelum
164
84
4.
5.
6.
7.
Rawalpindi
Gujrat
Muzaffargarh
Mianwali
Average
83
174
79
76
148
96
72
85
110
90
madan district, to 174 in Gujr.t, where the
80
Census Report, ]
INTBA-FBOVINCIil. UIGBATION.
Chaptbb
Immigra-
tion-
— flrrTf^t^"*^ —
zx3«o-aooo- -
ai>oo -*coo-
4,000-4000
6A0OAN0 ovtn
. MAP ■
MCRATDN BETWe'Sj NON CONTCUOUS
, DISTRCT5 OF THL PUNJAB
Muhammadan Jata and Gujars still prefer to marry outside their villages,
and the proportion of emigrants ranges from 71 in the former district to
148 in Rawalpindi, which again shows traces of the marriage restrictions
in Muhammadan Rajputs, Awans, etc. The average proportion of female
migration is 202 and 196 per hundred males, for immigration and emigration
respectively, in the Hindu and
only 110 and 90 respectively,
in the Muhammadan dis-
tricts. Both in immigration
and emigration, the move-
ment of females in Hindu
tracts is thus more than
double that in the Muham-
madan districts.
The movements of
population between non-con-
tiguous districts and states
of the Province are shown in
the marginal map. Roughly
speaking, the flow of popula-
tion is from the east to the
centre of the Province and
from north-east to south-
west.
The largest number of immigrants from contiguous districts (see
Subsidiary Table I) is met with in the units
noted in the margin. The movement of popu-
lation to the Lyallpur and Shahpur Districts being
solely to the new colonies, males are con-
siderably in excess of females., The Gujranwala
District consists of two Colony Tahsils and three
others. The proportion of males is larger in
103.
Omitling 000.
District
or State.
Persons.
Males.
Females.
Lahore
108
54
54
Lyallpur ...
132
74
58
Gujranwala
91
44
47
Shahpur ...
81
49
35
Ferozopore
)33
61
73
Patiala
193
68
125
immigration to the Colony Tahsils. But in the other
Tahsils, the casual migration of the usual relationship type preponderates. The
net result is that female immigrants are somewhat larger, on the whole, than males.
In the Lahore District, the casual immigration into the rural tracts, in which
females preponderate, is assisted to some extent by the semi-permanent immigi-ation
of Govertiment employes, who bring their families with them, but is counter-
balanced by the large numbers of immigrant students, litigants, laboarers and
business-men who come alone. On the whole, therefore, the immigrant popu-
lation is distributed equally over both sexes. Patiala is a typical example of
immigration of the casual type, based on marriage relations, and there, the female
immigrants are almost double the number of males. In Ferozepore, the ratio
is affected by the presence of troops in tne (Cantonment, the importance of the
town of Ferozepore as a commercial centre and the large number of other strong
towns in the District ; so the excess of female over male immigrants, though
considerable, is not quite so large as in Patiala.
The units which have drawn large numbers of immigrants from
distant districts and states are noted in the
margin. In all immigration from distant parts
of the Province, males preponderate, but tho
difference is not so large in the Lyallpur, Guj-
ranwala and Shahpur Districts with Canal Colo-
nies, where a fair proportion of females accom-
panies the males. The menial servant class, la-
bourers, soldiers, students and traders who form
the bulk of the immigrants to Lahore, M ultan and
Rawalpindi, seldom take females along with them. The districts of the western
Punjab offer few attractions to people born in distant units, nor does the Kangra
District, in winter. The eastern Punjab districts have their relations with
the contiguous districts in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. The other
Omitting 000.
Lyallpur
Gujranwala ..
Shahpur
Lahore
Persons.
Males.
425
250
45
26
52
32
77
61
Females.
175
19
20
26
8]
III.
INTBA-PBOVINCIAL MIORATION.
[ Punjab, 1911.
Omitting
000.
PersoDs.
Males.
Females.
Muzaffargarh...
3
2
1
Mianwali
3
2
1
Attock
2
1
1
D. 0. Khan ...
4
3
1
Kangra
5
2
3
Gurgaon
6
2
4
Rohtak
6
2
4
Gujrat
5
3
2
Jhang
6
4
2
Ludbiana
6
3
3
Omitting 000.
districts showing very small immigration from non-contiguous district are Gnjrat,
Jhang and Ludhiana. The figures are given in the
margin. The proportion of female immigrants
from distant tracts is abnormal in Kangra, Roh-
tak and Gurgaon. But this is really not the case.
The districts from which the excess of femalew is
received, though not contiguous, are quite close.
In the case of Kangra, the immigrants come main-
ly from the Simla District. The Patiala, Nabha
and Loharu States supply the excess of females to
Holitak. and Gurgaon draws largely on Hi?sar,
Patiala and Jhind. For all practical purposes these tracts are as good as contiguous.
104. The districts and states which show the largest emigration to con-Emigra-
tiguous districts, etc., are named in tl e margin, tion.
Emigration from Patiala is mainly of the casual
type and consequently about twice as many
females go out as males. The bulk of emigration
from Montgomery is to the Chenab ('olonj, and
being of the permanent type, accounts for the
moderate preponderance of males. The move-
ments from Ferozepore to Jullundur, Ludhiana,
Malerkotla and Amritsar were of the casual type,
but the semi-permanent emigration to Lahore for
study and employment, to Patiala and Faridkot
for service, to Hissar for work on thn Jodhpur-
Bikaner Railway and to Montgomery for work on
the canal, raised the proportion of males. Emigration from Amritsar is largely
casual, but business visits to Lahore and Ferozepore counteract the excf^ss of females
to some extent. Persons born in Gujranwala were found pai^tly in the Colony, where
males went in larger numbers and partly in the other adjoining districts, where
the casual nature of migration involved the presence of a comparatively larger
number of females. The net result was that the two sexes emigrated in about
equal proportion. Emigration from Ambala, Hoshiarpur and Rohtak was
mostly of the casual type showing an excess of females. Jhang sent most of the
emigrants to other parts of the Chenab (-olony and to the Jhelum ('olony, with
an excess of males. Sialkot had its usual casual emigration to Gurdaspur and
Amritsar, b-.it that to Gujranwala was of two kinds (a) of the casual type with the
villages adjoining the district, and (b) semi-permanent or permanent with the Colony
portion. The excess of females was therefore not marked here. On the other hand,
a large number of males went to Lahore, with the result that the emigration of fe-
males was not so much in excess as it should have been in purely casual movements.
)05. The more noticeable falling off in the number of immigrants has Variations
occurred in the districts mentioned in the margin. This is due in immigra-
Persons.
Males.
Females.
Patiala
195
66
129
Montgomery ...
10-1
57
47
Ferozepore ...
100
44
56
Amritsar
95
41
54
Ambala
84
34
50
Gujranwala ..
82
40
42
Hoshiarpur ...
81
29
52
Rohtak
7»
24
55
Jhang
78
44
34
Sialkot
78
34
44
Kamal ..
Jullundur..
Ludhiana ..
Ferozepore
Amritsar . ..
28,772
2o'io5 to no Circumstances maJiing the districts less inviting to immi-tion.
26[5ii7 grants, but the main cause seems to be the loss, from epidemics,
47,286 of a large proportion of permanently or semi-permanontlj settled
immigrants, along with the natural population of the tract. The other causes
explaining the variation are these. The abolition of the Karnal Military grass
farm is responsible for the departure of a number of persons belonging to other
parts of the Province. There were also some regiments encamped at Karnal, on
the Final Census night in 1901. In Jullundur, there was an influx of famine-
stricken people from the south-east, in 1901. The latter reason also ap[)lies to
Ludhiana, and the arrangements for the construction of the Dhuri-Jakhal and
Ludhiana-Macleodganj Railways, which have been completed since, must have
brought a number of immigrants in 1901. The decrease in Ferozepore is ascribed
partly to a large collection, in 1901, of labourers working on the Sirhind and
Gaganwal canals. The mortality has been so high in Amritsar tliat no other rea-
son is necessary in order to explain away the abnormal decrease in immigration,
but the growth of Lahore as a trading centre and the diversion of some of the trade
of Amritsar to it may also have been instrumental in reducing the number of immi-
grants into the former city. Moreover, the opening of several branch lines, from
CensQS Report. 1
82
CANAL COLONIES.
Chaptbr
"Variation
in emigra-
tion-
General
remarks-
Patiala
Montgomery ...
Shahpur
Sialkot
lighoro
Gurdaspur
Hoshiarpur
22,nU
21,176
17,729
16,095
Amiitsav into the country around, has also made those parts more or less inde-
pendent of the city, in the matter of trade.
The largest increases (see margin) are noticeable in the districts of Sliahpur
ehahpur ... 96,638 and Guiranwala and are due to the enormous streatn of immi-
Pafela"''''' ::: 23:564 g'-ants flowing into the Canal Colonies.* There is also a large
Bahawalpur ... 10,006 increase in Patiala owing to the general development of the
resources of the State, in consequence of the opening of the Dhuri-Jakhal, Rajpura-
Bhatinda, Bhatinda-Delhi and Jodhpur-Bikaner Railways, and the creation of
several il/a/frffsf in the State. Immigiation into Bahawalpur has increased owing
to the colonizition of Cholistan land^i witli the Sadikwah Inundation ('anal.
106. The districts showing large decreases in emigration are given in the
Jhang 135 250 ™argin. The decreases in Montgomery, Jhang, Gujranwala and
Gujranvala ... si'.btin Shalipur, which have Come wholly Or partialy under colonization,
thtla ^'"^d no explanation. The people had less cause to go out in
2(;,7'i9 search of livelihood. The prosperous conditions in I'atiala would
account for the decrease in emigration from that State. The
districts of Sialkot, Lahore, Gurdaspur and Hoshiarpur sent
out large numbers of settlers to the Chenab Colony (103,890,
28,620, 43,593 and 85,099, respectively) in the decade preceding 1901. No
allotments on a large scale were made to these districts during the last decen-
nium and there was practically no fresh emigration to the Colonies. But a large
number of these colonists died from plague and fever, thus reducing the number
of emigrants from the above districts. Moreover, the high mortality in the said
districts crippled their capacity for sending out emigrants to replace the losses of
their natural population in other parts of the Province.
The noticeable increases in emigration are noted in the margin. The Gurgaon
Garfiacm 7 540 Uistfict was drawu upon mainly by the Patiala State. Amritsar
i4,8a6 sent a larger number of emigrants to Lahore and the Colonies.
^^'^*^ Emigration from Lvallpur was chiefly to the new Jbelum Colony.
IMMIGRATION INTO CANAL COLONIES-
107. The Canal Colonies offer a splendid example of the formation of
new centres of agriculture and trade, mainly by immigration. The ('henab and
.Thelom Colonies have been selected for the examination of statistics, the Chunian
and other Colonies being too small for the purpose of drawing inferences. A
special Table XL A has been prepared showing the nature of immigration, by
age-periods and occupations, for certain selected castes. The sorting of all caste
entries for this table would have been a very lengthy process. All castes
of immigrants, below a certain limit for each sorting unit, were left out,
and in preparing the table, the figures of individual castes were taken only
from sucii districts as supplied more than 1,000 immigrants of each caste to
the Ohenab and 600 to the
Jhelum Colony ; and details
by religion were given only
when more than 100 or 50
of a caste belonged to a re-
ligion other than the main
religion of that caste, in the
two Colonies respectively.
The aggregate of the figures
given in the table will not,
therefore, be equal to the
total number of immigrants
of each caste.
Amrittiar
Lyallpur
■f^iriBUiCLS- —
Dlw inaoty
lo^wo— ^oooo
8»OOI>-*0,000
«ox»fr-»«.fie«
i\r
MAP c
SHOWING ' '
K ^1 IMMIGRATION INTOTHCCHtNAB
-AND JHtLUM COLONIt S
The map in the
margin indicates, by arrows,
the streams of immigra-
tion into the Chenab and
.Jhelum Colonies and the
sources thereof.
*lt is not pogeible to obtaia immigration figaree of 1901 for the tract now cocstitutiag the Lyallpur District.
tOrain marts.
III.
83
CANAL COLONIES.
[ Punjab, 1911.
The Chenab Colony.
108. The premier canal colony of tbe Province is that irrigated bythepetaUof
Lower Chenab Canal. It comprises tlie whole of tlie Lyallpur and Jhang^P^^sra-
Districts and the Hafizabad and Khangali Dogran Tahsils of the Gujranwala
District.* Colonization was started in this tract in 1892. The total population of
the Colony is nonr 1,785,700 souls against the estimated total of the tract iu 1891
which may be put at 661,904. As many as 608,847 or 34 per cent, of the resi-
dents are immigrants from outside the limits of the Colony. With the exception of
the adjacent district of Montgomery which has sent in 63,581 persons, the balk
of the immigrants camo from the congested districts of Sialkot (96,984), Amrit-
sar (81, U4), Jullui.dur (70,847), Gurdaspur (52,701) and Hoshiarpur (44,234).
In spite of the relief of tension by the said migration to the Chenab Colony and the
losses from epidemics, the density of population in the above-mentioned districts
is still very high. The Ludhiana District has sent in 28,306 persons, while the
adjoining districts of Lahore and Gujrat have contributed 23,176 and 25,174
respeciiveiy. Ambala, Multan, Shahpur and Ferozepore sent between 10 and 20
thousand persons each and the immigrants from each of the other districts
and states — ch ef amongst them being Patiala 8,324 and Kapurthala 8,129 —
numbered less than 10,000. The main causes of heavy immigration from
Montgomery are (1) that a certain amount of land in the southern portion of
the Colony was allotted to the inhabitants of Montgomery, which is a dry and
unproductive district and (2) that the injury suffered by the riverain lands, owing
to the diversion of river water into the canals, induced the cultivators of such lands
in all the adjoining districts, to resort to the Colony in search of employment
as tenants and agricultural labourers.
109. Figures of immigration into the Colony are given in the margin by castes, immigra-
, The Jatstion^by^^
who represent occupa-
over 23 pertions.
cent, of the total Jat».
number of immi-
grants are the
most useful body
of peasants.
They consist of
57 per cent. Mu-
hammadans, 40
per cent. Sikhs
and 3 per cent.
Hindus. Most of
the Muhamma-
dan Jats (21,377)
have come from
Sialkot, and the Montgomery, Multan, Shahpur, Hoshiarpur, Gnjrat, Gurdaspur,
Amritsar and Lahore Districts have also furnished large numbers of them.
Sikh Jats are chiefly immigrants from Amritsar (15,830); the other units
which have sent large numbers being Ambala, Hoshiarpur, JiiUundiir, Ludh-
iana, Gnrdaspnr, Sialkot and Patiala. Sialkot has also sent in the largest num-
ber of Hindu .Jats (1,250) and Ambala, Hoshiarpur and JuUundur have contri-
buted about 500 persons each. The Jats are mainly connected with agricul-
ture, 82 per cent, of them being landowners or tenants, 7 percent, agricultural
labourers, 2 per cent, cattle-breeders, and 3 per cent, engaging in the work
of cart-drivers or miscellaneous coolies. Only 2 per cent, are beggars, etc., and
4 per cent, follow miscellaneous avocations. The proportion of females to every
1,000 males among the Jat immigrants is 728 against the average of V54 for the
total population of the Colony and of 817 for the whole Province. The im-
migration of Jats is thus of a permanent nature.
* rhe colony originally inlcuded only parts of Chiniot, Jhang and Khangah Pogran Tahsils, but irrigation was
gradually extended to the other pans and to the Hafizabad T.ihsil as well. For the purpose of comparison 1 have,
therefore, taKen the whole of the above-mentioned tahsils as included in the Colony. But on thobisis of the 190L
limits, the population figures would be 1891— 112,286, 1901-791,861, 1911—1,071,369.
a a
•Si
Caste.
" r.
oJ
Caste.
-2
ro
CO
0. pel
total
gran
g
-3
a
-1
6 -^
03
§
to
S3
m
■3
a
£5
23 2
CL,
a
fo
'■^
'7
Ah
a
fa
Jat
141,088
81,660
59,428
Mirasi
4,395
2,599
1,796
Arain
117
7l.30y
40,209
31,100
Teli
•7
4,323
2,502
1,821
Chuhra ...
6-9
41,944
25,419
16,525
Mahtam ,.
•6
3,792
1,962
1,830
Chamar ...
4-4
2tiM*
15,276
11,658
Jhinwar ...
•6
3,724
2,360
1,364
Arora
25
15,345
9,771
5,574
Baloch ...
•5
3 093
1,704
1,389
Kamboh ...
19
11,893
6,250
5,643
Pathan
•5
2,994
2,324
670
Rajput
IH
11.879
6,961
4.91S
Lobar
"5
2,845
1,676
1,169
Tarkhan ...
14
8,228
5,204
3.024
Nai
•4
2,346
1,359
986
Mochi
13
7,686
4,322
3,364
Barwala ...
•4
2,314
1,255
],059
Julaha
1(1
6,14(1
3,581
2,559
Saini
•3
2,121
1,229
892
Musalli
1-0
5,K20
3 092
2,728
Brahman ...
•3
2,099
1,333
766
Kumhar ...
•9
5,5H7
3,179
2,388
Batwal
■3
1,502
876
626
Changar ...
0
5,3(11
2,876
2,425
Mazhabi ...
■2
1 ,502
791
711
Gujar
■h
5,177
3,385
1,792
Kashmiri ...
■2
1,398
858
540
Machhi
•R
5.002
2.897
2,105
Dhobi
■2
1,081
662
419
Census Eeport. 1
84
CANAL COLOKIES.
Chapter
Arams.
Chuhras.
Chamars.
Aroras.
Kamhohs.
Bajputs.
Ambala ...
Hofliiarpur
JuUundur ...
Ludhiana ...
Ferozepore
Lahore
Amritsar ...
Guraaspnr
Sialkot ...
Montgomery
Eapurthala
1,158
11,032
25,174
4.600
4,132
4,100
3,600
7,911
8,877
1.602
J!,123
Other Castes
Next in importance to Jats come Arains, who take up about 12
per cent, of the immigration. They are mainly Muham-
madans and hail mostly from the districts named in the
margin. They are the finest cultivators in the Province and
their functional distribution is as follows :— Landowners and
tenants 8.5 per cent , agricultural labourers over 6 per cent.,
raisers of cattle 1 percent., cart-drivers and coolies 2 per
cent., shopket^pers 1 per cent.. Government servants about
1 per cent., and miscellaneous 4 per cent.
The caste ranking third in numerical strength among the immigrants
are the Chuhras, who account for about 7 per cent, of the immigration.
Under instructions, they were in most places recorded as Hindus, but
nevertheless some of them have been leturaed as Muhammadan or Sikh, in tracts
where the last two religions were predominant. Chuhras have generally come
with the Jat and other peasant immigrants, as labourers and menial servants
but about 11 percent, of the workers have taken to agriculture, mainly as tenants,
21 per cent, work as agricultural lal)ourer8, 3 per cent, have started cattle-breed-
ing, 2 per cent, work as brickmakers and 6 per cent, as miscellaneous coolies, etc.
But over 53 per cent, of them are still scavengers, pure and simple.
Chamars who number more than 4 per cent, of the total immigrants,
mostly call themselves Hindus (under 20 per cent, of them being Sikhs)
and come from the eastern and central Punjab districts of Ambala, Kangra,
Hoshiarpur, Jullundur, Ludhiana and Gurdaspur, and from the Patiala State.
The largest number comes from Jullundur. Quite one-fourth of them are field
labourers, IG per cent, are weavers, 10 per cent, are miscellaneous coolies, etc.,
about 1 per cent, go in for shopkeeping and over 26 per cent, follow miscellaneous
hereditary pursuits, such as tanning and shoemaking; but about 17 per cent,
have taken to agriculture as tenants and 2^ per cent, rear cattle, while over 1
per cent, are engaged in making bricks.
Aroras who are shopkeepers and money-lenders by tradition, supply about
2^ per cent, of the total immigrants to the Colony. They have come mainly from
the western Punjab districts of Montgomery, Multan and Shahpur and also from
Gujrat and Sialkot. Over 66 per cent, of them are engaged in shopkeeping and
7 per cent, in money-lending and trade, but 12 per cent, have taken to agriculture
as landowners or farmers, less than 1 per cent, work as agricultural labourers,
about 4 per cent, ply conveyances on hire, about 3 per cent, are Government serv-
ants, 1 per cent, live on begging, and 6 per cent, follow other occupations.
Kambohn numbering less than 2 fier cent, of the immigrants, are mostly
Sikhs and have come from Jullundur and Amritsar. Like Arains they are very
hardy peasants and over 95 per cent, of them are either landowners or tenants,
1 per cent, breed cattle and very few belong to other professions.
The number of Eajput immigrants into the Colony is also less than
2 per cent. Very few of them are Hindus or Sikhs, thf> majority being
Muhammadans who have come from Ambala, Hoshiarpur, Sialkot, Montgomery
and Multan. They are mainly agriculturists, 70 per cent, of them being
landowners and tenants, 8 per cent, agricultural labourers, and 4 per
cent, cattle-breeders. A few (less than 1 per cent.) are weavers, 8 per cent, are
miscellaneous coolies or drivers, over 1 per cent, are shopkeepers, 3 per cent, are
in Government service, and 4 per cent, live on begging.
The strength of the other immigrant castes is small, but it
may be mentioned that the artisans like Tarkhans, Lobars, Mochis, Jubihas,
Kumhars, Machhis, Mirasis, Dhobis, Telis, Mais, Barwalas and Batwals usually
follow their traditional occupations. The Kashmiri Mussalmans are either weavers
or coolies, some of them keep shops, but 18 per cent, of them are landowners
and tenants, and over 4 per cent, of them are agricultural labourers. The
Musallis are tenants, agricultural labourers and coolies in about equal proportion,
but they also breed cattle and fellow other pursuits. There are Pattian landowners
who have come fi-om the western Punjab districts and Pathan labourers, who aro
immifjrants from Afghanistan. It is interesting to note that 6 of them have set-
tled down as weavers. The Biloches are mostly connected with agriculture and 9
per cent, are cattle-breeders, usually camelmen. About 10 per cent, of
in.
85
CANAL COLONIES.
[Punjab, 1911.
Immiokants.
the Brahmana own land, 85 per cent, are shopkeepers, 9 per cent, are in
Government service and the rest live as usual on birat (charitable dues) or follow
other miscellaneous occupations. The Changars are mostly labourers but quite
11 per cent, have settled as tenants. The Mazhabis (Siklis), mostly retired soldiers,
live on land, 66 per cent, of them being landowners or tenants and 13 per. cent,
agricultural labourers. The Sainis and Mahtams are also connected mainly with
agriculture and so are Gujars, who do very little cattle-breeding.
The most important feature of the functional distribution of immigrants
is that, to a larger or smaller extent, every caste is dependent on agficultare,
taking its place among the landowners or tenants and among agricultural
labourers and breeders of cattle. Even the lazy, talkative Mirasi, appears
occasionally as a tenant and the Batwal or Barwala, who is by profession a
Chaukidar, sets to work here and there as a cultivator of land. But, broadly
speaking, the Jats, Biloches, Mazhabis, Sainis, Kambohs, Mahtams, Arains,
Gujars and Rajputs live mainly on cultivation, while the bulk of field labourers
are recruited from Chamars, Chuhras, Batwals, Musallis and Changars, and
the Chamars, Kashmiris, Julahas and Barwalns do indigenous weaving. Aroras
are the principal money-lenders and shopkeepers, a.^sisted in the Intter callino-
by Brahmans and to a smaller extent by Machhis, Kashmiris, Mochis, etc. Al-
most every caste is found in Government service, the exceptions being Chamars,
Batwals, Nais, Changars, Kumhars, Mahtams and Chuhras.
110. An examination of the sex distribution of the immigrants shows thatSexpro-
there are 10 males to every 7 females. Very portions
few females come at first, but as each caste and age.
gets settled down, the proportion of female im-
migrants in that caste increases and that of
the children decreases. The figures of some
castes are quoted in the margin by way of
illustration. The Kambohs and Mazhabis who
are among the earliest settlers, show a larger
proportion of females than any other agri-
cultural class and the number per mille of
cLildren under 15 years, born outside the
colony, is small amonj^st them. The immi-
gration of Jats and Arains is also of a per-
manent type and the pi^oportion of immi-
grants of these castes under 15 years of age
is small. The Pathans, Gujars and some of
the Rajputs have not quite settled down yet.
The menial castes have established themselves
permanently, having brought a large number
of working children with them. Separate age
- statistics are not available for all the immi-
grants, but they represent 34 per cent, of the total population and have largely affect-
ed the age distribution of the inhabitants taken as a whole, which is -—under 15
753,670; 15 to 40, 666,367; over 40, 36-5,663; or 42, 37 and 21 per cent, respec-
tively, comprired with the Provincial averages of 38, 40 and 22 per cent., The com-
paratively largo percentage of children points to prosperous conditions in the colony.
The Jhelum Colony.
111. The main castes of immigrants to the Jhelum Colony, are noted in Immigra-
the margin with their relative strength tion by
and sex proportions. Tho castes not men- caste and
tioned are mostly menials or are numeri- occupation,
cally insignificant. Except the Pathans
and Gujars, tlio immigrants have come
with a fairly large proportion of females
and appear to have settled down perma-
nently.
The largest caste among tho immi- Ja(s.
grants is that of Jats, who have como
chiefly from Sialkot (10,696), Gujrat
Prop
,r. 1
Proper.
tion per
tion per
mille.
mille.
__
ai
CS
<D 3
Tl
"2 o
Caste.
e
o
3
2S
Caste.
a
o
S2a"
a o
S3
to
hildre
years
pulati
to
<D
»*-H
Tl P.
.«" o-
^'
o
o
698
O
Chuhra ...
650
259
Lobar ...
231
Chamar ...
763
252
Macbhi ..
727
244
Jat
728
2Ci!l
Mazhabi...
899
192
Mirasi
G91
247
Ubobi ...
633
249
Batwal ...
715
2H5
Saini
726
230
Kashmiri...
629
257
Jhinwar .,
b78
254
Nai
726
223
Kambob...
903
223
Arora
570
221
Mocbi ...
778
249
Musalli ...
882
269
Tarkhan ..
581
233
Pathan ...
288
2U5
Teli
728
273
Biloch ...
815
250
Barwala ...
844
242
Brahman ...
575
218
Mahtam ...
933
234
Changar ...
843
330
Arain
773
204.
Julaha ..
715
257
Gujar
529
208
Kumbar ...
751
250
Rajput ...
707
261
Per mille.
Caste.
Per rnille.
Caste.
a .
o a
oportionof
females to
males.
•si
oportion of
females to
males.
H
a,
H
Oh
Jat
269
666
Mochi ...
12
817
Musalli ...
72
867
Pathan ...
11
162
Bajput ...
27
630
Gujar ...
10
421
Arora ...
20
76!)
Sayad ...
.9
623
Chuhra ...
18
715
A wan ...
9
532
Arain ...
14
688
Biloch ...
8
739
Khatri .
13
803
Khokhar...
8
757
Census Report. J
CANAL COLONIES.
Chaptbb
Arains,
Khatris.
Mochis,
(10,657), Jhang (6,205), Gujranwala (4,461) and Jhelum (2,898). They are
mostly Muhamraadans, work as cultivators and cattle-breeders, and are
supposed to have settled down permanently, but the comparatively low proportion
of females amongst them shows that those, at all events, who hitve come from the
adjoining Distiicts, have not severed connection yet with their original homes.
Musaliis. The Miisallis have come mostly from the Gujrat, Jbelum and Jhang Dis-
tricts and in a smaller degree from Gujranwala. They work mainly as tenants
and agricultural labourers and have a very large number of female workers.
Rajputs. The Hajputs are natives of Jhelum and Jbang and also of Sialkot and
Gujrat. The largest proportion of females is amongst the immigrants 'from Jhang
and Jhelum (79 and 74 respectively), who are mostly landloz-ds and tenants. A
number of them are also in Government service and just a few go in for shopkeeping.
Aroras. 'X'Lie Aroras come mostly from Gnjrat, Jhelum and Jhang. In immi-
gration from Jhang, there are about four Hindus to one Sikh. But among
the Sikhs, there are only 46 males to 180 females, while there are 586 Hindu
males to 292 females ; which means that the Arora families are mixed up, the
wives of some Hindus having registered tliemselves as Sikhs. The Arora immi-
grants from Gujrat are half Hindu and half Sikh and the Hindus of this caste
coming from Jhelum are 2g times the Sikhs. Very few of them are landowners
or cultivators, their main occupation being shopkeeping or money-lending, while
some engage in driving ekkas and other conveyances. The largest number of
peasant Aroras has come from Gujrat.
The Arains come from Sialkot and Gujrat and are solely agriculturists.
The Khatri immigrants belong mainly to Jhelum (more than |rds o£
them are Hindus and less than ^rd Sikhs). A few of them pursue agriculture,
but a large number are in Government service and a still larger proportion keep
shop or lend money. But three Khatris aie carpenters and smiths by profession.
The Mochi immigrants are Mussalinans and belong to Gujrat and
Jhelum. Besides those who follow the traditional occupation of shoemakers
and tanners, 10 per cent, are tenants, 8 per cent, are field labourers, 3 per cent,
are coolies and, what is important, 2, Mochis are metal workers, i.e., follow the
occupation of smiths.
Pathans. The Pathaus are all put down as Afghans, but most probably a lot of them
were born in the North- Western Frontier Province. Some of them are permanent
residents of the Punjab and not a few have obtained grants of land in the Colony.
The majority of the Pathans are, however, periodical immigrants from Afghanistan
and a few of them go about as pedlars.
Gujars. 'Ihc Gujars are all Muhammadans of Gujrat Most of them are peasants or
agricultural labourers, but some of them rear cattle and a considerable number
are employed as coolies on Railways and canals. A good many of them are tem-
porary immigrants and the proportion of females amongst them is small.
Other castes. The Sayads come from Guj rat and Jhelum, and are mostly landlords or
tenants or live on charity. Some of them are in Government service. The
Awans, a Muhamraadan caste, come mostly from Jhelum and are mainly agricul-
turists or Government servants. The Biloches of Jhang are principally agricul-
turists, and the Khokhars, who also come from Jhang, depend similarly on
agriculture.
Age-distri- 1 1 2. The age-distribution of the immigrants to this Colony is shown in the
button. ~ Proportion of popu- margin, by caste. The largest proportion of adults is
among the Pathans, who have very few females with
them and fewer children, owing to the temporary
nature of the immigration of the majority of them.
On the other hand, the Musallis and Khokhars, who
are settlers of a permanent tpye, have brought with
them all their children and females. A striking fea-
ture of the age-distribution is the fact that the labour-
ing classes cannot afford to take the old and infirm
with them to the colonies. For instance, theOhuhras
have only lO per cent, and the Gujars 19 per cent, of
persons over 40 years of age amongst them, against
Proportion of popu-
liticn in the age period.
0-15
16-40
40 & over
Jat
3S
43
21
Musalli ..
35
42
23
Rajput
30
47
23
Arora
24
62
24
Chuhra ...
38
46
16
Arain
34
43
23
Khatri ...
23
52
25
Mochi
32
45
23
Palhan
15
58
27
Gujar
27
54
19
Sayad
27
43
24
A wan
2i
50
26
Biloch ..
35
38
27
Khokhar .
■^ —
35
41
24
the Provincial average of 22.
87
m.
MISCELLANEOUS.
[Punjab, 1911.
Immigration to Native States.
Years.
1901
1911
Persons.
Males.
Females.
MISCELLANEOUS.
113. The total migration between British Territory and the Native States, Migration
as ascertained at the persent Census, is compared in between
the margin with the similar figures for 1901. Immi- British Ter-
gration into the Native States was smaller than emigra- "*'°^ ^"^^
tion therefrom, in 1901, while it now exceeds the latter. Jifative
The migration being mostly of the casual type, States,
with the neighbouring districts, the proportion of
females is much larger than that of males, the
figures being: — males 41 and females 59 per cent. o£
immigrants to, and 37 and 63, respectively, of
emigrants from, the Native States, in 1911. Immigration to the Native States
has decreased 4- 7 per cent.
418,4481 171,339
398,7711 163,3y6
Emigration from Native States,
247,109
233,375
1901
1911
458,155
372,700,
166.383
138,695
291,772
23-1,011
Immigration into.
Emigration from.
State.
Dif-
Dif-
1901.
1911.
ference
p. c.
1901.
1911.
3,546
ference
p. c.
Loharn
1,152
1,401
+ 22
4.718
—25
Dujana
3,787
4,037
+ 7
5,984
4,321
—28
Patandi
5,(i83
4,494
— li;
3,501
2,970
—15
Ealsia
16,203
13,563
—16
ll,26u
8,874
—21
Nahan
14,177
9,166
—35
2,327
2,153
—7
Simla Hill States ...
14,164
12,629
—11
13,118
8,257
—37
Mandi
6,173
2,020
-67
6,622
5,433
—18
Suket
1,121
694
-38
807
544
—33
Kapurthala
65,245
47,157
— 2S
54,038
43,958
—19
Malerkotla
7,470
7,415
—I
10,575
8,611
-19
Faridkot
2ft,185
25,947
-^-8
23,990
20,102
-16
Nabha
28,908
21,1,^6
—27
37,481
29,592
-21
Patiala
140,849
155,452
+ lu
190,731
156,256
-18
Jind
44,293
44,014
-1
55,903
44,370
—21
Chamba
3,124
2,227
-29
9,386
10,251
+9
Bahawalpur
38,514
47,399
+23
27,714
23,468
—15
compared with 1901, and
emigration therefrom to
British Territory has also
fallen by 19 per cent. The
figures for each state are
compered in the margin.
The heaviest decrease in
immigration occurs in the
Kapurthala State and is
probably due to heavy
mortality. Immigration to
Patiala and Bahawalpur
has increased, for reasons
given in paragraph 105.
The prosperity in the
Patiala State, coupled
with high mortality, has resulted in a heavy fall in emigration from that
State. The Jind State also shows a large decrease in emigration, owing
apparently to similar reasons, and to the return of some famine-stricken
people who had gone out in 1901. For the considerable deficit in emigration
from the Simla Hill States, there seems to be no reason except that the labourers
working on the Simla-Kalka Railway in 1901 might have been enumerated by the
Railway officials and included in British Territory. The only increase in emi-
gration is that from Chamba, but it is not a very large one.
114. A Summer Census of the hill stations — Simla, Murree and Dalhousie, Summer
was taken under the orders of the ^^^^^^ °^
Local Government, on 30th June ^^^^ ^*^"
1911. The figures are compared *'°°''-
General Census of March 1911.
Summer Cfnsus of
June 1911.
Simla
Murree ...
Dalliousie
Persons.
19,405
1,705
1,582
Males.
Females
14,107
1,239
1,053
5,298
466
529
Persons.
37,895
16,934
7,592
Males.
28,459
12,99:
3,826
Females.
9,436
3,935
1,766
in the margin with those of the
General Census. The difference, in
each case, represents the periodical
migration to the principal hill
stations of the Province, during the summer.
The summer population of Simla i.s just about double the number of its
winter residents, but if the exodus to this hill station, during the summer, is
large, owing to the move of the Imperial and Local Governments, the per-
manent population, in winter, is also by no means inconsiderable. The hill
station of Murree appears to have a very small permanent population,
which increases about 9 times in summer. Tiie summer population of Dal-
housie is a little less than 5 times the strength of its permanent inhabitants,
but the notable feature of the summer immigration into Dalhousie is that, while the
proportion of females to males in Simla and Murree only fell from 38 and 37 per cent,
in winter to 33 and 30 per cent, respectively in summer, it diminished in Dalhou-
sie from 50 ti) 30 per cent. Tlie cause of this large variation, in the case of Dal-
housie, appears to be that the girl schools there strengthen tlio proportion of females
in winter, but males preponderate in the summer exodus, and so, while they increase
more than 5| times, the number of females goes up less than 3^ timss. An accoant
Census Report. ]
88
MiSCELLANEOOa.
Chaptkb
Fairs.
of the Summer Census of each hill station has been published separately. A rough
idea of the composition of this summer exodus will be formed from the figures
given in the table below : —
Summer Population of Simla, Murree and Dalhousie, by Religion.
Bindu.
Sikh.
M
ihammadan
Stations.
1
CO
1
1
a
Oh
en
a
00
1
i
m
la
«
"3
a
Co
Simla
Murree
Dalhousie
22,127
3,872
3,210
17,676
2,787
2,456
4,451
1,085
754
1,028
616
130
854
477
109
174
139
21
8,709
6,892
1,795
6,819
5,675
1,399
1.890
1,217
396
Total
29,209
22,919
6,290
1,774
1,440
334
17,396
13,893
3,503
Summer Population of Simla, Murree and Dalhousie, by Religion — concluded.
Christian.
Others.
Total.
Stations.
g
m
i-.
CO
1
a
2,894
1,481
590
a
o
£
00
o
1
"a
E
i
CO
CD
Simla
Murree
Dalhousie
5,921
5,509
2,445
3,027
4,028
1,855
110
45
12
83
32
7
27
13
6
37,895
16,934
7,592
28,459
12,999
5,826
9,436
3,935
1,766
Total
13,875
8.910
-
4,965
167
122
45
62,421
47,284
15,137
Summer Population
of Si'
mla,
Murree and Da
Ihousi
e, by Nationality.
Europeans.
Anglo-Indias.
Indians.
Asiatics.
Total.
Stations.
i
<2
a
a
m
a
o
OQ
cu
i
S
513
89
24
626
03
a
o
m
32,686
11,726
5,281
m
a
a
m
"3
i
to
a
o
tn
©
Cli
264
23
30
'a
a
§
3
a.
"3
a
(2
Simla
Murree ...
Dalhousie
...
3,961
5,027
2,256
11,244
1,997
3,740
1,723
1,961
1,287
533
984
158
25
471
69
1
541
25,781
9,177
4.080
6,905
2,549
1,201
210 54
13 10
22 8
37,895
16,934
7,592
28,459
12,999
5,826
9,436
3,935
1,766
Total
7,460
3,784
1,167
49,693
39,038
10,655
317
245 72
62,421
47,284
15,137
115. The fairs named in the margiuj which took place in March, slightly
affected the movements of population
but none of them was sufficiently large
to have an appreciable effect on the
figures of migration. Most of the
fairs Avere local or at the most at-
tracted visitors from the adjoining
districts. Pilgrims to the Rakhi Sar-
war shrine, in tlio Dera Ghazi Khan
District, move long distances, in a
body. These were enumerated in the
Lahore, Montgomery and Jhang Dis-
tricts. But the sangs (gatherings)
do not assume largo proportions until
they reach tlie Miizaffargarh District,
and the enumeration took place a little
too early for people to reach there.
The only fair of importance
which attracted people out of the Pro-
vince was that of Piran-i-Kaliar in the
Saharanpur District of the United Pro-
==^ vinces. The pilgrims went mostly from
Arrangements were made, in consultation with the
Provinces, to enumerate the pilgrims, before time.
District.
Place.
Date.
Estimated
strength.
Hissar
Cattle fair ...
1-14 March
500
Delhi
Deoki
10th „
2,000
Thaua Khurd
1,000
„
Nangal Kalan
>» »»
2,000
Ambdla
Mandar Kali
at Kalka ..
9th
1,000
,.
Moving gather-
ing of persons
going to Anand-
pur
10th ,.
1,000
Hoshiarpur
Anandpur ...
10-llth„
600
„
Kiratpur
Mairi
11 )i
700
1,000
Lahore
IloliatChattan-
wala
8-1 Gth „
4,000
Jamiat atBhai
Pheru
10th „
2,0"0
Sang Sakhi
Sarwar
2,000
Jholum
Cattle fair at
Chakwal ...
13-I6th„
20,000
Montgomery
San? Sakhi
Sarwar
10th „
1,000
Mabha State
Mandi Jaitu
fair
lOth ,.
5. coo
the Delhi and Ambala Districts.
Census Superintendent of those
in.
89
MISCGLLAKEOUS.
[ Punjab, 1911.
at their native places and to issue passes to them. So the migration does not
appear in the returns. But altogether, the number of emigrants on this account
did not probably exceed 5,000.
116. The arrangement for enumerating persons on the move have been Passengers
discussed in the Ad- in Railway
ministration Volume. Trains.
The only item worth
notice in connection
witb migration is the
movement by Rail-
way. In the margin
is given the number of
trains enumerated in
each district or state.
These movements had
some effect ontheintra-
Provincial and extra-
Provincial migration
and accounted for the
temporary presence at
GO
S
C3Q
■i
.9-S
2-3
OQ
.3 ^
Station.
O
station.
S
° §
.2
,2
o§
1-1
EC
. 13
o »
(a
»
Q
a
3
1
Bhiwani
Hissar.
Thatta Mohla
Jhang.
1
Bahadurgarh
Rohtak.
Gunjial
Shahpur.
2
Rewari
Gurgaon.
Bhalwal
,,
1
Nangloi
Dfllhi.
Gujar Khan
Rawalpindi.
1
SaraiRohilla
,j
ChakLala
»)
1
Mustafabad
Ambala.
Rawalpindi
II
1
Kesri
,t
Jhalar
Attock.
S
Ambala Cantt.
Shah Alam
MianwalL
2
Kalka
^_
Salarwala
Lyallpur.
3
Ludhiana
Ludiiiana.
Lyallpur
>>
Jallalabad
Ferozepore.
Gojra
11
Golewala
tt
Khanewal
Multan.
11
Lahore
Tishore.
KachaEhuh
Lahore Cantt.
»,
Shujabad
,,
Shahdara
Maler Kotla
Maler Kotla
Chichcki Mallian ...
Gajranwala
Dhuri
Patiala.
Baairpur
Mon t g 0-
mery.
Bulluana
Raman
Amritsar
Amritsar.
Bhatinda
))
Beas
tt
Nabha
Nabha.
Tarn Taran
»>
Bahawalpur (West).
Bahawalpur.
Sialkot
Sialkot.
Chabiana
It
Lalamusa
Gujrat,
Khanpur
»
1 Harriah
»
the stations
meration, of
of enu-
persons
ration was quite insignificant.
never intending to
visit those districts or
states. But on the
whole, the proportion
of such abnormal mig-
Census Report- ]
90
SUBSIDIABT TABLES.
Chaptbe
SUBSIDIARY TABLE I-
Immigration (actual figures).
District, State and Natural
OlTlBION WBEBE ENUHSKATBD.
TOTAL PROVINCE
1. Indo-Gangetic Plain West-
1.
Hissar
2.
Loharu State
3.
Eohtak
4.
Dujana State
b.
Gurgaon
6.
Pataudi State
7.
Delhi
8.
Karnal
9.
JuUundur
10.
Kapurthala State
11.
Lndhiana
la.
Maler Kotla State
13.
Ferozepore
1*.
Faridkot State
15.
Patiala Stale
16.
Jind State
17.
Ifabha State
18
Lahore
19.
Amritsar
20.
Gujranwala
HlHALATAN—
21.
Nahan State
22.
Simla
23.
Simla Hill States
24.
KaDt;ra
25.
Mandi State
26.
Suket State
27.
Chamba Stjte
3. SUB-HlHALAYAN —
28.
Ambala
29.
Kalsia State
30.
Hoshiarpur
31.
Gurdaepur
32
Sialkot
33.
Guj rat
34
Jhelum
85.
KftwHlpindi
36.
Attock
4. North-Wkst Dry Area—
37.
Montgomery
38.
Shahpar
39
Mianwali
40.
Lynllpur
41
JhariK
42
Multan
43.
Bahaicalpur State
44.
Muzaffurgarh
45.
Dera Gbazi Khan
Born in (OOO'a omitted).
District, State (or
Natural Diiisiort).
^
03
ffl
O
in
s
2
3
23,528
12,963
s
V
10,566
10,217 5,751 4,466
668
13
461
19
538
13
496
693
715
219
433
52
763
93
1,162
200
185
818
779
77T
1,658
123
21
385
729
178
52
132
5,113
575
89
857
761
901
714
474
478
bOO
1,900
477
e42
328
291
492
729
707
542
812
380
8
271
12
315
9
289
398
420
134
263
34
437
57
700
126
120
466
451
441
67
11
202
381
92
27
68
3,006
340
25
481
439
512
386
249
250
263
258
289
172
156
264
393
387
293
278
Contiguous
District or Sta'e
in the Province,
288
5
190
7
223
4
207
295
295
85
170
18
326
36
462
74
65
352
328
336
789
56
10
1«3
34N
86
25
64
2,137
235
14
376
322
3S9
328
225
228
237
2,618 2,252
219
253
156
13,")
22H
336
32<
249
234
68
2
66
5
30
4
60
69
68
44
74
16
133
27
193
59
48
108
71
91
39
8
3
IS
31
2
2
2
193
a
375 178 197
24
1
15
1
8
1
19
24
20
14
24
5
61
11
68
19
14
54
26
44
20
65
23
14
5
52
15
52
19
44
14
16
6
20
8
15
8
10
4
194
112
35
19
84
49
4
2
132
74
15
8
42
23
34
21)
22
12
6
4
Other farts
of the
Province,
S
24 18
44
1
51
4
22
3
41
45
4t
3(
50
11
72
16
125
40
34
54
45
47
19
17
73 120
42
9
37
33
30
10
12
7
6
82
15
*"6
1
6
1
14
10
14
4
6
2
20
8
18
6
6
77
22
45
2
3
1
13
4
10
3
3
51
14
26
10
6 1
26 11
15
2
8
7
10
5
8
20
2
153 270
14
52
3
425
6
30
16
3
4
10
32
2
250
4
19
10
2
3
Contiguous
parts of other
Provinces, ^c.
26
12
183
4
20
]
175
2
11
6
1
1
11
160
289
23
22
83
11
1
12
17
7
7
16
5
12
219
121
14
1
17
"12
3
"12
"e
"2
32 18
13
211
168
18
2
"46
*18
41 42
14
Son-contigu^u
parts of other
Provinces, ^X.
14
146
111
21
'"9
1
7
2
55
20
4
1
4
*20
2
13
7
2
28
20
15
87
66
12
32
9
2
1
20
39 25
16
."^9
45
23
11
14
Outside India
17
54
13
38 26 12
14
18
15
11
21 19
11
91
ni.
SUBSIDUET TABLES.
[ Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE II.
Emigration (actual figures).
DisTaiCT, State and Natobal
Division whbbb boen.
TOTAL PROVINCE
1. Indo-Gangetic Plain West-
1.
Hbsar
2.
Loharu State
3.
Rohtak
4.
Dujana State
b.
(inrgaon ...
t>.
Pataudi State
7.
Delhi
8.
Rarnal
9.
Jullandnr ...
10.
Kapurthala State
11.
Lndhiana ...
13.
Maler Eotla State
13.
Ferozepore
14.
Faridlcot State
15.
Patiala State
16.
Jind State ...
17.
Nabha State
18.
Lahore
19.
Amritear ...
20.
Gnjranwala
Himalayan—
21.
Nahan State
22-
Simla
23.
Simla Hill Stales
24.
Kaogra
25.
Mandi State
2(j.
Suket State
27.
Chamba Slate
3. Sob-Himalayan—
28. Ambala
29. Ealsia State
30. Hoshiarpur
31. Gurdnspur
32. Sialkot
33. Gnjrat
34. Jhelum
35. Kawftlpindi
36 Attock
4. Nobth-Wkst Dry Abba—
37. Monteomery
38. Shahpur ...
39. Miaiiwftli ...
40. Lyallpur ...
41. Jhang
42. Mullan ... \
43. BahaxoaljiuT Stute
44. MuzaSargarh
45. Dera Ghazi Khan
Enomkbjtkd in (OOO's omittbd).
District, State (or
Natural Division).
23,528
10,217
668
13
461
19
538
13
496
693
715
219
433
52
763
93
1,162
200
185
818
779
777
Contiguous
District or State
in Province.
12,963 10,565
5,751
380
8
271
12
315
9
289
398
420
134
263
34
437
57
700
126
120
486
451
441
1,658 869 789
123
21
385
729
178
52
132
6,443
575
39
857
761
901
714
474
478
500
4,900
477
542
328
291
492
729
707
542
512
4,466
288
5
190
7
223
4
207
295
295
8f
170
18
326
36
462
74
65
352
328
336
6
11
202
381
92
27
68
3,006
340
25
481
4.^9
512
386
249
250
263
2,618
258
289
172
158
264
393
387
293
278
56
10
183
348
86
25
64
2,437
235
14
376
322
389
328
225
228
237
2,252
219
253
156
135
228
336
320
249
234
489
75
4
79
4
49
2
41
64
64
32
75
15
100
21
195
5
55
63
95
82
88
3
4
14
26
7
1
10
84
10
81
58
78
63
32
10
J3
54
104
19
6
9
78
31
20
19
12
248
26
1
24
1
14
"I'l
22
23
10
28
5
44
8
66
16
17
29
41
40
15
Other parts
of Province.
241 31
49
3
55
3
35
2
30
42
41
22
47
10
56
13
VM
41
38
34
54
42
23
22
1
12
1
19
1
14
U
102
12
42
4
16
4
25
5
9
45
112
11
11
10
20 11
390 185 205
34
3
29
19
34
32
17
4
7
28
50
7
52
39
44
31
15
6
6
25
471
11
3
4
34
13
1(1
8
5
5
60
7
26
2
9
2
12
2
3
24
65
7
Contiguous parts^
of other PrO'
vinces, etc.
12
42
13
3
6
21
47
4
280 173 107
32
1
78
75
i.'^g
31
14
14
3
15
20
"so
45
84
20
10
10
2
o
11
323
142
90
14
20
8
3
5
10
17
12
166
50
12
50
11
13
157
92
31
"io
8
40
12
5
1
2
2
Non.coTtti-
guoiis p'l'ts
of other Pro
tinces, etc.
14
181
no
7
"ll
56
13
15
138
81
44
7
6
8
7
12
15
43
29
2
4
Ou.t-ide
India.
12
17
12
18 J 19
11
Census Report. ]
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
Chapt
SUBSIDIARY TABLE III.
Proportional migrat
ion to and from each district
•
NCUBBB Of FEMALES To 100 UAI.SS ■
District, State and Natdbal
Division.
NCMBEE PKB
MILLB OP ACTUAL POl'CLATION OF
AUONUUT
Immigrants.
Emi^rantfi.
Immigrants.
Emii/rants.
4.i
*— ^ rr
O
00 U
a O
o
&5
00
o
03
"S.
'■5 i3 »■
S « *
u
o
o
S
"3
m
"a
i .2 ^
U
H S °
a 0 t.
oq'
eJ
■S-2 «•
o as
".2 5
■g
o
2 o c
2 -
"o
„T=-i
o
o o o
£ e.
o'-
o
H
b
4
H
6
in
^
b
fa
Ei
Eh
1
2
3
6
7
9
10
11
.TOTAL PROVINCE
27
19
8
21
13
8
110
51
95
30
1. I^Do-GANGKT^c Plain West — ...
74
60
14
70
57
13
121
56
112
40
1. HiBoar
169
124
45
145
109
36
162
85
179
96
2. Luharu State
300
282
In
323
271
52
180
88
193
222
3. Rohtak
149
122
27
190
147
43
331
212
234
52
4. Dujima State ...
261
190
71
220
165
55
398
553
361
124
5. Gargaon
164
144
21
187
143
44
284
236
266
69
«j. Patavdi State ...
342
216
126
164
127
87
291
383
369
204
7. Delhi
245
138
107
163
97
G6
191
65
263
68
8. Karnal ...
134
96
3N
110
94
16
188
136
195
94
9. Jallandur
108
85
2H
219
80
139
242
91
173
65
10. Eapurthala State
182
164
It-
168
121
47
220
104
212
82
11. Ludhiana
163
144
19
241
146
95
202
76
166
55
12. Maler Kotla State
270
230
41
260
206
54
191
lOg
223
92
13. FHrozepore
205
162
4;<
137
116
21
112
47
122
67
14. Faridkot State ...
290
210
8(1
197
161
36
144
72
164
117
15. Patiala State ...
175
152
2;<
171
145
26
188
73
202
79
18. Jind State
266
219
47
235
211
24
208
145
259
124
n. Nabha state ...
255
226
2'.<
277
235
42
257
116
233
130
18. Lahore
2U
104
107
119
61
58
101
46
UG
73
19. Amritsar
116
81
35
257
107
150
175
5*
130
66
20. Gajrauwala
158
99
69
107
89
18
107
68
107
56
2. HlMALATAN—
38
26
12
36
25
11
91
44
136
25
21. Nahan State
no
63
47
34
28
5
92
56
177
49
22. Simla
475
71
404
346
94
252
26
34
121
81
23. Simla Hill States
49
41
h
37
35
2
103
37
121
64
24. Kangra
54
43
11
61
37
24
123
67
141
17
J 25. Uandi State
17
12
5
46
37
p
54
54
117
36
26. Suket State
53
45
8
26
18
8
67
58
69
69
27. Chamba State ...
31
25
6
83
79
4
65
39
91
44
3. ScB-HlHALATAN — ...
62
47
15
141
83
58
143
49
105
55
28. Ambala
167
109
5S
188
129
59
179
47
150
67
29. KaUia Slate ...
3(i4
271
3;s
196
180
16
193
164
189
146
30. Hoshiarpur ...
67
56
11
182
88
94
236
91
175
52
81. Gardospnr
90
77
13
185
86
99
181
62
182
ei
82. Sialkot
80
63
17
253
100
153
210
59
136
64
83. Gajrat ...
43
31
12
151
96
55
151
47
102
49
34. Jheliun
74
52
22
123
68
55
128
32
83
29
85. Rawalpindi
128
56
72
87
28
59
63
4r
113
MC
36. Attock
37
28
9
54
44
10
106
41
61
22
4. Nobtb-West Dby Abba—
130
40
90
18
18
5
78
65
81
4S
37. Montgomery
109
66
43
198
193
5
87
40
83
57
38. Bhahpur
39. Mianwali
211
123
H9
52
27
25
72
58
12«
4S
40
24
16
72
38
34
86
38
65
4(
40. Lyallpur
41. Jhang
42. MolUn
43. Bahawalpur State
44. Muiaffargarh ...
45. l>era Ghaii Khan
ti60
153
507
23
10
13
78
69
89
69
46
106
94
49
32
30
62
61
39
16
16
54
33
10
16
160
48
3?
41
36
151
38
31
34
27
9
10
8
7
S
95
80
74
79
65
61
5a
60
59
69
76
72
8H
72
70
5a
Si
58
81
1
III.
93
S0BSlDI4Rr TABLES.
[Punjab, 1911
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV.
Migration "between natural divisions (actual figures) compared with 1901.
Natobal Diyibios in which bobs.
NDMBEB ENCMBRATBD (OOO's OMITTBD) in NATUBiL DIVISION. 1
Punjab.
Indo-Oangetio
Plain West.
Himalayan.
Snb.Pimala.
yan.
North-West
Dry Area.
1
3
3
4
5
6
PUNJAB ... -.
1911 ...
1901 ...
23,528
24,049
10,615
11,558
1,703
1,665
5,663
6,035
5,547
4,790
iDdO'GaDgetio plain West
1911 ...
1901 ...
10,737
11,674
10,217
11,097
8
11
171
216
341
3b0
Himalayaa
1911 ...
.1901 ...
1,707
1,657
16
16
1,658
1,607
31
33
2
1
1
Sab- Himalayan
1911 ...
.19(31 ...
6,114
6,487
331
394
37
48
5,443
5,768
303
277
North-Weet Dry Aiea
•1911
1901 ...
4,969
4,227
51
50
...
18
17
4,900
4.160
ifote. — Fignres for Panjab (columns 2 — 6) include persons born in " Pnnjab Unspecified."
SUBSIDIARY TABLE V.
Migration between the Province and other parts of India-
Note. — This table is divided into 3 parts : —
(»). Showing the total 6gnreB of immigration to and emigration from the whole of the Pnnjab (with details of British Territory
and Native States) tMking all the other Provinces of India togethpr.
(ii). Coi.taining details of migration between this Province (British Territory and Native States) and the British Territory
of each of the other Priivinces.
(Hi), Giving similar details of migration between this Province (British Territory and Native States) and the Native States
of each of the other Provinces.
Pbotinci OB Statb.
Immigrants to Punjab.
Emigrants from Punjab.
Excess (4-) or
deficiency ( — ) o/
migration over
emigration.
1911.
1901.
Variation,
1911.
1901.
Variation.
1911.
1901.
1
2
3
4
5
6 7
8
9
l.-Total'
605,952
6H6,614
- 60,662
(i)504,16
1 506,033
- 1,872
4-101,791
4-160,581
(a) British Territory
(b) Native States
514,162
91,790
567,202
99,352
- 53,100
— 7,562
438,43
39,98
4 (6) 416,031
8 (b) 31,026
+ 22,403
4- 5,9(32
4- 75,728
-t- 51,8u2
4-151,231
-f 65,326
II.— British Territory-
Co) Total
(b) British Territory ...
(c) Native Slates
278.275
25b,iH2
23,233
70,174
(g) 07,359
(?) 2,061
+208,101
+ lh?,683
+ 21,172
(i^332,74
i!97,l7
14,94
6 12.'i,483
« (c) 97,168
7 (c) 3,218
+207,263
4-200 010
4- 11,729
- 54.471
— 42,136
+ 8,286
- 55,309
- 29,809
- 1,157
Ajmere Marwara
1,543
754
+ 789
(i)4,ll
1 3,572
4- 539
- 2,568
- 2,818
1. British Territory
2. Native States
1,317
226
1 Not
] availablf
Not
available.
f 2,99
I ei
3 ■> Not
5 i available
...
— 1,676
— 389
\ Not
) available
Andamans and Nicobara
109
117
8
2,07
2
4- 2,072
- 1,963
4- 117
1. British Territory
2. Native States
109
111
6
— 2
— 6
1,94
12
7
5
4- 1,917
4- 125
— 1,838
— 125
4- 111
4- 6
Balachistan (Districts and Administered
Territories).
3,662
3,182
+ 480
23,74
8 19,598
4- 4,150
- 20,086
- 16,416
1. British Territory
2. Native States
3,570
92
3,165
17
+ 405
+ 75
22,98
76
3 18,698
5 900
4- 4,285
135
— 19,413
- 673
— 15,533
— 883
For footnotes see page 96.
Census Eeport. ]
94,
BDBSIDIARY TABLES.
Chapter
SUBSIDIAKY
Migration between the Province
PbOTINCE OB SlATX,
II.— British Territory— concZuded.
Bengal (1)
1. British Territory
2. Native States
Bombay including Aden
Burma
British Territory
Native States
British Territory
Native States
Central Provinces and Berar
Coorg
British Territory
Native States
British Territory
Native States
Eastern Bengal and Assam (I)
1. British Territory
2. Native States
Madras inclading Laccadives
1. British Territory
2. Native States
N.-W. F. Province (Districts and Ad-
ministered Territories).
1. British Territory
2. Native States
United Provinces of Agra and Oadh ...
1. British Territory
U. Native States
III— Native States—
1. Total
2. Native States
3. British Territory
Balachistan Agency Tracts
1. Sative States
2. British Territory
Baroda
1. Native States "'
2. British Territory [[[
Immigrants to Punjab.
1911.
1901.
5.057
4,59G
461
9.872
6,282
3,590
1,550
1,412
138
1.497
1,375
122
452
401
51
1,083
1,044
39
35.060
34,521
53rt
218,390
200,415
17,975
326,422
(.8,515
257,9n7
42
12
30
225
47
178
780
761
20
Variation.
; Not
, available
65,341
163,323
2,018
349,827
('1)5,060
(hi77,173
405
3
402
89
12
77
Not
available
N..t
available.
To.
Do.
+ 770
+ 652
+ 118
Not
available
Do
Do.
Not
available
\ot
available.
— 30,281
— 28,802
— 1,479
Not '
available '
- 23.405
4- 63,455
+ 180,734
363
Emigrants from Punjab,
Excess (+) or
deficiency ( — ) of
migration over
emigration.
1£11.
19C1.
Vfuriation.
+
9
— 372
+
37
136
35
101
(a) 21,501
) Not
I available
*
(a) 24
I Not
i available
20,595
1 19,280
) 1,315
(.i) 52,795
30,613
3,28R
26,100
25,595
505
10,410
9,480
930
10
10
(j)"5,329
4,223
181
874
874
(j) 65.220
63,501
1,440
121.482
(2) 1 15,679
5,803
(j)171.415 (<i>175.625
25,04l| (e) 17,614
+ 4.599
80,788
78,470
2,318
141,25«
428
5
423
921
II
910
(e) 125,6 58
688
170
518
- 14
1911.
-15.568
—14,969
— 878
- 4,210
+ 7,397
+ 15,598
+
+
+
+
+
428
5
423
233
159
392
-15,538
—14,684
-854
—42,923
—24,331
+322
-24.550
— 24,183
— 367
-8,913
—8,105
—808
-10
—10
-4,877
—3,822
—130
+209
+170
+39
-30,160
—28,980
—901
-196,908
+84.736
+12,172
+155.007
+ 43,t74
+ 116,651
- 386
+ 7
— 393
696
36
732
190L
+
Not
available.
Not
available.
- 20,721
I Not
I available
- 24
I Not
I available
— 15.447
— 15,147
— 300
+174,202
— 12,584
— 48,485
+
+
+
405
3
402
599
158
441
(1). Figures for the new Provinces of (i) Bengal, (li) Behar and Orissa, and (Hi) Assam are as nnder-
1911.
( Total
ImmigranU to Pcnjab } British Territory
( Native States
(Total
Kmigrants from Punjab } British Territory
(. Native Ptates
Cn8peci6ed
Bengal.
... 3,987
... 3.752
235
... 18,523
... 17,075
... 1,045
408
Behar and Oritta,
1,401
1.147
264
4,423
4,086
337
Aeiam.
121
88
23
2,973
2,342
114
517
(2). The figures originally supplied by the Census Saperintendent of United Pronnees have since been altered as under :—
EMIGRANTS.
From
Punjab — British Territory
To Number,
United Provinces- British Territory 115,702
For other footnotes see page 96.
i
III.
85
•SnBBIDIAET T1BLB8.
CPunjalj, 1911.
TABLE V.
and other parts of In^iB,— continued.
Province ob State.
III.— Native States — conrfndcd.
Bengal States (1)
L Native States
2. British Territory
Bombay States ...
L Native States
2. British Territory
Central India Asency
1. Native States
2. British Territory
Central Provinces States
1. Native States
2. British Territory
Eastern Bengal and Assam States (1)
1.
2.
Hyderabad
1.
a.
Kashmir
Native States
British Territory
Native States
British Territory
1 Native States
2. British Territory
Madras States including Cochin and
Travancore.
1. Native States
2. British Territory
Cochin
Native States
British Territory
Immigranti to Punjab.
1911.
76
4
72
711
566
3,630
503
3,127
3
3
81
1
30
689
123
566
72,369
2,658
69,711
27
27
Travancore
Mysore
1. Native States
2. British Territory
1. Native States
2. British Territory
1901.
X9
19
273
14
25S
3,529
246
3,283
Not
available,
Do.
Do.
744
123
621
77,302
4,670
72,632
Not
avaiUMa
Do.
Do.
Not
availahle.
Do.
Do.
72
6
66
Variation.
Not
available.
Do.
Do.
Not
available.
Do.
Do.
+ 101
+ 257
— 156
Not
available.
Not
available.
Do.
Do.
- 55
— 55
-4,933
-2,012
—2,921
+ 201
+ 8
+ 193
Emigrants Jrom Punjab.
1911.
S73
45
828
0")2,649
86
832
8,293
(2)420
(2)7,873
L245
396
849
0:^572
75
450
0')4,859
399
2,214
59,707
1,207
58,500
43
1
10
(i)3
; Not
5 available
C})39
1
9
1,662
18
1,644
1901. Variation.
(,a)20,030
I Not
f available
*
(o)2,429
^ Not
) available
70,272
1,097
69,175
-11,737
+ 2,440
Not
available.
-10,56.5
+ 110
—10,675
Not
available.
+
» Not
) available
+
+
39
+ 1,662
+ 18
+ 1,644
Ba!C«s« (-f-) or
^ficiency { — ) of
migration over
emigration.
imu
— 797
— 41
— 756
— 1,938
+ 59
— 266
— 4,663
+ 83
— 4,74H
— 1,242
— 39(i
— 846
— 641
— 74
— 420
-4,180
— 270
— M*8
+12,662
+ 1,461
+ 11,211
— 16
— 1
+ 17
— 1
+
2
20
+ io
- 1,J
— 4
— 1,385
1901.
Not
available.
Not
available.
-16,501
I Not
) available
Do.
Not
available,
- 1,685
\ Not
f available
+ 7,030
+ 3,573
+ 3,457
Not
available,
Not
available.
Not
available.
+
+
72
6
66
(I). Figures for the new Provinces of (i) Bengal, (»i) Behar and Orissa, and (»»i) Assam are as under : —
1911,
r Total
Immigrants to Punjab < Native States
(, British Territory
( Total
Emigrants from Punjab < Native States
I British Territory
Unspecified
Bet'gal.
82
4
28
82
"55
27
Behar ani Orissa,
44
"ii
841
45
79a
Assam,
31
1
30
52a
75
427
20
(2). The figures originally supplied by the Census Superintendent of Central India Agency have since been altered as Under : —
EMIGRANTS.
Prom To
Punjab — British Territory ... Central India Agency
„ States ..■ ,,
Number.
7,859
For other footnotes see page 96 ,
C«BSU8 Report]
96
BUBaiDIABT TABLES.
Chaptee in.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE V.
Migration between the Province and other parts of IndiA— concluded.
Fbotincb oa Statb.
III.— Native States — coneld.
North- West Frontier Province (Agencies
and Tribal Areas).
1. Natire States
2, British Territory
Bajpntana Agency
1. Natire States
2. British Territory
Sikkim
1. Native States
2. Bntieb Territory
United Provinces States
Native States
British Territory
India Unspecifled
1. British Territory
2, Native States
French and Portuguese Settlement
L Native States
2, British Territory
Jmmigranti to Purvjah.
1911.
211
19
182
216,609
64,422
182,187
3
1,523
567
956
1,155
1,140
15
100
27
73
1901.
92
92
267,594
Not
available
Not
available.
Do.
Do.
3.243
2,912
331
149
3
146
Variation,
Emigrants from Punjab.
1911.
+ 119
+
+
19
100
-20,985
6
0')3,673
321
3,281
(;)85,526
21,871
62,674
147
131
807
177
630
-2,(
— 1,772
— 316
— 49
-f 24
— 73
1901.
5,423
370
6,053
(<J)76,783
1B,007
50.912
Variation,
7
— 1,750
— 49
— 1,772
+ 8,743
+ 5,864
+11,762
+ 147
+
+
Not
available.
Excess (-f-) Or
deficiency { — ) of
migration over
emigration.
1911.
1901.
8
- 3,462
— 302
— 3,089
+161,083
+ 42,551
+119,513
- 144
9
138 —
+
+
+
9
136
716
390
- 5.331
370
— 4,961
+190,811
) Not
) available
* Separate fignres are not available for British Territory and Native States of the Province of enomeration for emigrants and
that of birth for immigrants. The figures detailed belov? have been included in the total (Part I).
ENUMERATED IN
Bengal
Assam
Bombay
Centml Provinces
Madras
United Provinces
A j mere Marwara
Coorg
Total
Punjab.
16,119 ■)
6,214)
43,302
6,908
1,025
131,857
204,925
EMIGRANTS,
BoBN IN
British
Territory.
15,114
38,863
6,283
46
124,808
8,067
24
193,806
Native
States.
1,005
4,439
625
6,'549
546
BOBN IN
Punjab.
IMMIGRANTS.
British Native
Territory. States,
13,164
1 . Bombay
2. United Provinces
3. Central Do.
4. Genial and Assam
5. Madras
6. A j mere Bajpntana
Total
10,801
223,948
1,274
6,613
585
5,790
208,395
1,217
6,236
563
197,471
243,221 419,672
5,011
15,553
57
377
22
70,877
91,897
t Exclndo fignres of persons born in Hazara and ennmerated iu tie Attook Tahsil and also those bom in Banna and
Dera Ismail Khan Districts and enumerated in Mianwali District.
(o). Include persons born in North-West Frontier Province also,
(b) Exclnde figures of persons born in Punjab Unspecified and enumerated in (1) Bengal and Assam 6,214, (2) Ajmere
Marwara and C. 1. Agenoy 14,989, (3) Central Provinces and Hyderabad 2,429, (4) Coorg and Madras 979, (5)
Burma 21,601 and (6) Bajputana 9,864.
(c).
(e).
(h).
0^.
Exclnde Bgnres of Ajmere Marwara, Burma and Coorg.
Include 9,864 persons born in Punjab Unspecified and enumerated in Bajputana Agency,
Exclude figures of Ajmere Marwara, Burma and Coorg.
Exclude ngures ui ojiunio i,ini"«,n.
Exclude figures of Ajmere Marwara.
Exclnde figures of Bajputana Agency.
Include 25,739 persons of Punjab Dnspeoified i
I below : —
Ajmere Marwara
Bombay
East Bengal and Assam
North- West Frontier
Part II
Pa
IT III.
503
Bombay ...
...
...
1,731
18,914
East Bengal and Assam
...
*•.
47
^B8am
925
Hyderabad •••
...
,.,
2,256
tier
279
Cochin ••■
...
...
»
Travancore •••
...
...
29
North- West Frontier
„.
...
71
Bajputana
...
981
■
Total
... 20,621
Total
...
5,118
CHAPTER IV.
Religion.
GENERAL.
117. Imperial Table VI sho-vvs the distribution of population by religion. Introdac-
T r. 1 J- . -u .- t 1 *• u r • ^^^ Subsidiary Tables named in the tion.
I.— General distribution of population by religion. . r ■ ■ j. • i -n- • ,
II — Distribution by diatricta, of maiu religions. margin, wiiicn lumish adaitional statis-
W~^*""''"^''j~'"""^®nf -^ J"'*"""' tics bearing on the subiect, are append-
IV. — Races and sects of ChriBtians. j j. i.u- rii i mi i -i "
v.— Distribution of ChristiaoB per miUe. SQ tO tUlS Luapter. ihe details Of SectS
(a) races by sects, and (6) sects by races. ^aye been given in Imperial Table
VL—Eeligions of urban aud rural population. -.-.^ . . , , ° „• -. ^., f J-auit3
VI A, for the Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and
Muhammadans, and the sects of Christianity will be found in Imperial Table XVII.
No sect table was prepared in 1901, but the total Bgures (for the Punjab and
the North- West Frontier Province) were given in Subsidiary Table V, for the
Sikhs (British Territory only) and those for Muhammadans (male adults over 15
years of age, for British Territory and Native States), in Subsidiary Table VI
appended to Chapter III of the Census Report for that year.
118. There has been no alteration in the significance of the terms denotino- Meaning of
the religions, except that the arbitrary restriction of the term "Sikh," to Kes- figures,
dharis (who wear the Kes and observe certain other rules of conduct), which had been
adopted at the Census of 1901,* was removed on this occasion, and every person
was allowed to call himself the follower of whichever religion he liked. Religion
•being a matter of profession, it did not appear to be within the competence of the
Enumerators to put down a person as belonging to a religion different to that
which he alleged to profess. This circumstaDce has led to a considerable expan-
sion of the significance of " Sikh " at the expense of " Hindu " as will be explained
further on. In the instructions to Enumerators, it was laid down that the
religion, to which a person claimed to belong, should be entered without any
question, but in view of the tendency of large numbers of Hindus, who were the
followers of the tenets of Guru Niinak, to return themselves as Sikhs, a dis-
tinction was drawn between the Kesdhari and Sahjdhari Sikhs and the fio-ures
;given in Imperial Table VI A show that a large body of Hindus have returned
themselves as Sikhs, although they do not wear the Kes and do not follow the
•other restrictions laid down for the followers of Guru Gobind Singh. Some
Sikhs insisted on caUing themselves Hindus and some Jains were also unwilling to
be classed separately from the latter. Permission was therefore given to put down
such persons as Sikh Hindus or Jain Hindus. The total number of persons who
returned themselves as Sikh Hindus was 43,613 and the entries of Jain Hindus
numbered 1,290. The former have been classed in the returns as Sikhs and the
latter as Jains. The members of depressed classes, i.e., Chuhras, Sansis, etc.,
who did not profess to belong to Islam or Christianity were returned as Hindus at
the three previous Censuses, and similar instructions were issued at the recent
Census. Nevertheless, a number of rtansis and Chuhras, residing in Muhammadan
villages were returned as Muhammadans and some Chuhras living in Sikh villao'es
were entered as Sikhs. There was no difference in the meaning of the terms used
for the other religions. With reference to the controversy as regards Sikhs and
Jains being Hindus or not, all the four religions of Indian origin, viz., Hindu, Sikh,
Jain and Buddhist, have been grouped under the head Indo-Aryan, in Table VI,
under the instructions of the Census Commissioner. The figures will be available
for such conclusions as the adherents of different views may wish to draw.
119. The number of the followers of each religion is given in the margin. General
The total population is made up of 363 Hindus, 119 Slkhs,2di8tribu-
Jain3, 508 Muhammadans and 8 Christians, per mille. tion of po-
The proportion of Buddhists, Zoroastrians and Jew.s is too pnlation by
small to bo taken into account. The Muhammadans thus religion,
represent more than half the population and are more
numerous than the Hindus, Jains and Sikhs put together.
rr . 1 o, ,^-,',-r. T'^^ Sikhs for the first time show a substantial proportion
lotal ... ^4,107,700 I ■ 1 • 1 1 , , -1 1 • ■■ .
which IS, however, somewhat exaggerated, as explained in
the preceding paragraph. The Christians, though still insignificant compared with
the total population, are nevertheless coming into prominence.
Muhammadans
... 12,275,477
Hindus
... 8,773,021
Sikhs
... 2,883,729
Christians .
J99,75l
Jains
40,775
Buddhists ...
7,690
Parsis
tiS.'?
Jews
54
* Punjab Census Report, 1901, Chapter III, paragraph 19, page 124.
Local dis*
tribntion*
Censas Report- ]
98
QBNEBAL
Chapter
Per 10,000.
Natural Division.
Muham-
madan.
Hindu.
■3
1'
.1
Indo-Gangetio Plain
1,714
1,981
824
24
16
West.
Himalayan
31
674
3
2
3
Sub-Himalayan
1,468
657
234
38
3
North-West Dry A.Tea
1,862
316
131 19
...
...
SIKHS
HINDUS
MOHDMS
INDOCANCrriC HIMALAYAN SUB NORTHWEST
PLAIN WEST HIMALAYAN DRY AREA
120. The religious dis-
tribution of the people is given in
margin by Natural Di-visions.
The Muhammadans are strongest
in the North-West Dry Area
and weakest in the Himalayan
tract. The Hindus, on the other
hand, are most numerous in the
Indo-Gangetic Plain, and their
proportion is smallest in thfr
.North-West Dry Area. Their numerical strength compared with the total popula-
tion is not very large in the Himalayan tract but their relative proportion to other
religions is overwhelming. The Sikhs are strongest in the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
The diagiam in the margin indicates the relative strength of the
main religions in each Natural
Division. In the Indo-Gangetic
Plain, the Hiniius are stronger
than the Muhammadans. the
Sikhs are less than halt the
latter in number and the Jains
are con6ned mainly to this tract.
The Hindus, Sikhs and Jains
put together stand to the Mu-
hammadans in the ratio of
28: 17. The proportion of the
Muhammadans in the Hima-
layan Division is very small
(4 per cent.) and the Sikhs,
Christians and Buddhists are
insigniflcant. In the Sub-Himalayan Division, the Muhammadans preponderate and
number more than twice the Hindus who, along with the Sikhs, only come up to
fth of the former. The North-West Dry Area is a mainly Muhammadan tract, the
Hindus and Sikhs put together amounting to less than jth the followers of Islam.
In the margin is printed a map, showing by convenient signs, the districts
having a popu-
CHRISTIANS
D
1-a +
£
3-5 + ♦
8 + + •♦"
SIKHS
30-45--#
eo-80 — o
JAINS
1 «
MAP
SHOWING
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION
OF RELIGIONS
Cn8 per cent)
lation of 50 per
cent, or more,
of Hindus or
Muha m m a d-
ans. The pre-
sence of large
numbers of
Sikhs, Jains
and Christians
i s indicated
b y separate
marks. The
western and
south-wester n
Punjab is the
stronghold of
the Muham-
madans, while
the Hindus
abound in the
Himal ay a n
Division and
the Rohtak
District. The latter preponderate in the east and south-east, the popu-
lation is mixed up in the central Districts and the Phulkian States and the
IV.
99
HINDOS.
[ Punjab, 1911
proportion of Mahammadans is larger in the western half of the central tract.
The local distribution will be examined in detail under eacli religion.
121. The proportional strength of each religion, at thelast two Censuses, is Variations.
given in the margin, with the rate of variation General,
per cent. The general development of the
resources of the Province should have resulted
in a marked increase in population, but the
epidemics of plague, fever, cholera and small-
pox have had the reverse effect, in varying
degrees, on the followers of each reli-
gion. The growth or decline of the different
religions has been very uneven. While the
Christians have nearly trebled their strength,
the number of Muhammadans has remained
practically unaltered, there being only an increase of about 1 per cent. The Sikhs
nave increased 37 per cent. ; but, on the other hand, the Hindus and Jains have de-
creased 15 and 6 per cent., respectively. The increases in Buddhists, Zoroastrians
and Jews are largely due to additions by immigration. The special causes for the
variation, in the case of each religion, are dealt with in the following paragraphs.
HINDUS
1 22. The local distribution of Hindus is illustrated by the map printed in the mar- ^°'^^^ ^^^'
The only *"^^ti°°*
■' ' "
Varia-
Pbopoetion in
tion PBB
Religion.
10,000.
CENT. IN
POPOLA-
TION.
1901.
1911.
1901-U.
Muhammadans ...
4,922
6,075
+ 1
Hindus
4,179
3,628
- 15
Sikhs
849
1,192
+ 37
Christiaiis
27
83
+ 200
Jains
20
19
- 6
Buddhists
3
3
+ 11
Parsis
+ 37
Jews
...
4- 50
§
MAP
8H0V/ING
HINDUS PER IQOOO OF POPULATJON
gm.
tract which
can now be
called exclu-
sively Hindu
is the Hima-
layan Natural
Division with
a proportion
of 80 to 90
per cent. In
the rest of the
Province, the
Hindus are
mixed up with
the Muham-
la a d a n s ,
Sikhs, Jains,
Htc. Their nu-
merical stre-
is small
the north-
western Dis.
tricts of Guj-
ngth
m
rat, Jhelum, Rawalpindi and Attock, and very low in the whole of the westren Punjab
including the Bahawalpur State, i.e., in the districts west of Sialkot, Lahoi-e and
Ferozepore. In the central Districts of Sialkot, Lahore, Amritsar and Ferozepore
and also in Ludhiana and the Faridkot State, they do not contribute more than
30 per cent, to the total population. The proportion of Hindus increases as we go
east and south. But in only one district of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, viz.; — Rohtak,
does their proportion go above 80 per cent, of tho total population.
123. The number of Hindus to every 10,000 of the total population is noted Variations,
in the margin, for the last four Censuses, with the rate of variation
during each decade. They increased 11 per cent, from 1881
to 1891, but the rate of progress became less marked in the
next decade, and the relative proportion of the followers of this
religion, to the total population (which had sliown an increase
in the preceding decade) dropped from 4,408 to 4,179 per 10,000.
In other words, the Hindus did not keep pace with the deve-
a o f d a -J
^:°g
Census.
® ca fct
R.g
«-cS.
fu
«
1881 ...
4,384
1891 ...
4,408
+ 11
1901 ...
4,179
+ 3
1911 ...
3,628
- 15
Censas Report. ]
100
HINDUS.
Chaptee
of decrease.
HiNDO.
MtJHAMMADAN.
Sikh.
Caste.
1901.
1911.
1901.
1911.
1901.
1911.
Chuhra ...
Musalli ...
Mazhabi ...
Chamar ...
947,943
■"784
1,121,873
789,857
"" 58
952,770
217,805
57,410
17
10,332
84,128
309,568
22
658
22,718
8,961
76,229
51,549
2T,611
175,150
lopment of population in the other religions. Mr. Rose attributed the decrease
to the difference in the social system which formed the natural structure
of the great religions.* The downward tendency of the Hindus is more
marked in the results of the recent Census, which show a decrease of
15 per cent, in the population and a further contraction of the proportion of
True measure Hindus to the total population, from 4,179 to 3,628. A partof this unsatisfactory
"'"' result is due to the general causes which have led to a decrease of 2 per cent, in
the total population of the Province. But the abnormal decrease exhibited by the
figures of the Hindu religion requires a close examination. Several causes appear
to have been at work. First and foremost, the term Sikh has been taken in a wider
significance than before and, as is shown in paragraph 118, includes the persons
returned as Sahjdhari Sikhs wbo were, according to the definition adopted in
1901, then classed as Hindus. In comparing the figures of this Census with
those of 1901, the transfer of Sahjdharis (460,918) should be ignored. Secondly,
the Hindus have lost 158,806 Chuhras, and 169,103 Chamars, as the figures
in the margin will show. Pre-
suming that the natural in-
crease in population was wiped
out by the abnormal deaths
from epidemics, the above
losses seem to be due partly
to real conversions to Christ-
ianity or Islam and partly to
misclassification. There can
be no doubt about a large number of Chuhras having been converted to Chris-
tianity, for instance in Sialkot and Gurdaspur, and there have also been numerous
conversions to Musallis (a Chuhra converted to Islam is usually called MusaUi) ; but
the abnormal rise of 252,158, i.e., about 439 per cent, in the number of Musallis,
would indicate that in some places, Chuhras have been returned as Musallis at
the recent Census, and in others Musallis were shown as Chuhras in 1901. An
examination of the caste figures for some of the districts
which showed no MusalUs in 1901 (see margin), supports
this theory. Some Chuhras have also returned themselves
as Mazhabi Sikhs. An increase from 8,961 to 21,611 by
the ordinary process of growth of population is not con-
ceivable. The obvious explanation is that those Mazhabis
who do not wear the Kes (and have no scruples against smok-
ing) were not returned as Sikhs in 1901 owing to the stricter
definition of the term and that consequently they preferred
to return themselves as Chuhras, Mazhabi- Hindu conveying no meaning. The
Mazhabis, however, believe in the tenets of Guru Nanak and have now called
themselves Sikhs, giving Mazhabi as their caste. Similarly, the greater part of
the Chamars lost to the Hindu religion have been included in the Sikhs. These
also in large numbers follow the teachings of the Sikh Gurus, particularly Guru
Ram Das and (iuru Kam Rai, though not wearing the Kes or observing the other
ordinances of Guru Gobind Singh, To eliminate this source of error, the decrease
in the number of Hindu Chuhras and Chamars should also be left out of account.
Thirdly, conversion from Hinduism to Islam and particularly to Christianity,
from castes other than Chuhras and Chamars must also be considerable. Statis-
tics of such conversions are not available, but Christians alone have increased by
133,160. Allowing for Christian immigrants and for the natural increase in
population, it will be safe to assume that about 110,000 of the persons now
enumerated as Christians are converts of the past decade. The majority of these
have been drawn from the Hindu religion, and bearing in mind that most
of them are Chuhras and Chamars, the number of converts from other Hindu
castes might be estimated at 35,000. Conversions of Hindus to Islam are esti-
mated at 40,000 (paragraph 246). Assuming that more than half of them were
Chuhras and Chamars, there would be a loss of some 15,000 persons from other
castes of the Hindus. The total number of conversions from Hindus other than
Number of
MOSALLIS.t
District.
1901.
1911.
Ferozepore
Gujrat
Shah pur ...
Montgomery
9,576
33,674
56,273
18,238
• Punjab Census Report, 1901, Chapter III, paragraph 3, page 114.
"f Including Kutsnas.
IV.
101
HINDC9.
[ Panjab, 1911.
Loss in Cbuhras
Loss in Chamars
Converta from other
castes
Total
158,086
169,103
50,000
838,107
Population of Hindus in 1901 ...
Add births during the decade, ...
Total
Deduct deaths during the decade
Net population of 1911
Decrease in population
3,001,828
10,876,241
3,457,839
7,418,402
456,011
BeligioD.
Births.
Deaths.
Hindus* including
Sikhs.
Muhammadans
38
40
44
43
Chuhras and Chamars would thus amount to some 50,000. The decrease in the
Sahjdhdri Sikhs ... 460,918 Hindu population amounts to 1,570,848 which should be
reduced to the extent of 838,107 (see margin) for reasons
given above. This would leave a decrease of 7^2.741 or a
little over 7 per cent, to be accounted for. This is about
the real measure of decrease in the Hindu population which
is due to natural, and not artificial, causes. The calculation made in the margin
7,874,413 from the vital statistics of British Territory
shows that the Hindu population of that part of
the Province should have decreased by 6 per cent.
Vital statistics for the Native States not being
complete, similar conditions may be taken to
apply to the whole of the Province.
124. The comparison of birth and death-rates made in the margin will causes of
Percentage on total population of decade, show that the Hiudus have had a somewhat higher decrease.
death-rate, while their birth-rate has been con-
siderably lower than that of the Muhammadans.
The heavier losses of the Hindus are due to the
ravages of plague in tracts with a strong Hindu
population, and the thinning down of the female
population at child-bearing ages, by that epidemic,
is in no small measure responsible for a fall in their birth-rato- The other
causes of the decrease of over 7 percent, probably are: — (1) ht.d,vy losses in
towns ; (2) losses from earthquake in 1905 in a purely Hindu district, viz., Kangra ;
(3) effects of famine on the districts of Hissar and Gurgaon, both mainly Hindu ;
(4) restriction of fecundity by enforced widowhood; (5) evil effects of child
marriage on prolificness ; (6) loss of vitality in consequence of the occupations and
habits of the Hindus in towns ; and (7) difference in food.
(1). The proportion of Hindus living in towns is higher than that of
any other religion (see paragraph 20, Cliapter I) and they are affected most
by the conditions prevailing in towns, which result in a comparatively lower
birth-rate and higher death-rate in the urban population (as shown in
Chapter V). The urban population has decreased on the whole and so has
that of the Hindus, as shown in the
margin. But the latter has de-
creased only where there is a general
falling off, and it so happens that
in the towns which have suffered
most, the Hindu population is con-
siderable. Where the urban popu-
lation has increased, the Hindus have
also multiplied (see margin). This
would lead to the inference that the
losses of the Hindus in the towns are
due largely to general causes which
affected the whole urban population,
in varying degrees.
{•2). The earthquake of 1905
affected the Kangra District where
94 per cent, of the population is
Hindu. It killed 20,000 to 30,000
^th of the population) straight away (paragraph 53,
Chapter II), carrying off a number of females of the child-
bearing ages. It also exposed the population to the incle-
mencies of weather for a considerable time. Those two
causes weakened the vitality of the population and resulted in
a high death-rate and low birth-rate. The figures in the
margin will illustrate the effects of the catastrophe. I'he birth-
rate rose moderately in 1905 but there were 54 deaths per
Year.
Total
population.
Hindu.
1901
1911
Variation
p.c
2,789,373
2,567,282
222,091
—8
1,232,565
1,037,498
195,067
-16
Actual variation
1901 to 1911.
Variation
p. c. 1901 to
1911.
Towns.
Ol'S
3
CI
3
-J
o «
o
c
Townst showing in-
crease in Hindus ...
Other Townst
4-112,534
-151,457
+ 35,882
-128,571
— 9
-f 10
- 17
Total
— 38,923
— 82,689
- 2
— 8
persons (i.e., about
Year.
Birth-
rate,
Death-
rate.
1904
36 0
29-4
1905 ...
37-0
53-6
1906 ...
38-7
31-6
1907 ...
35-8
31-7
1908
32-2
38-9
1909 ...
33-9
26-8
* No separate figures are given in the Sanitary Keport for lUe Silcbs.
t Common to Imperial Table V of 1901 and 1911.
102
Census Report ] Hindus. Chapter
mille that year compared with 29 in the previous one. The effects on the birth-
rate could only appear after a whole year and consequently the birth-rate kept
rising till 1906. The consequences of the general weakening of the population
became apparent in 1907 when the birth-rate fell to 36 and then went down
farther to 32 in 1908. The death-rate, on the other hand, kept high ever since
the earthquake, and it was only in 1909 that it dropped suddenly.
(3). The only districts which were affected by famine during the decade
under review are Hissar and Gurgaon and the percentage of Hindus in these
districts to total population is 67 and 66, respectively. The injurious effects of
famine must, therefore, also be more marked among the Hindus.
(4) and (5). The disadvantages of the Hindus in the matter of propa-
gation, owing to enforced widowhood, compared with the other religions
which allow widow marriage, have been discussed in Chapter VII, and the
effects of child marriage have been examined in the same Chapter. The
two customs go a long way to check the growth of the Hindu population
and, although they cannot be cited as causes of the decrease, yet they have
had their share in handicapping the recuperative capacity of the followers of the
Hindu religion.
(6). The sedantary habits of the majority of the Hindus hving in towns
have a marked effect on their general health, and a fortiori on their productive
powers. The commonest occupation of the Hindus in towns is shopkeeping, and
passing through a town, one cannot fail to mark the fatty and pale appearance
of most of the middle aged business men squatting in their shops. The cause is
not far to seek, when one examines the curriculum of the ordinary shopkeeper.
In nine cases out of ten, the owner of a shop gets up early in the morning, usually
before sunrise and hastens to his place of business as soon as he has finished the
essential morning duties. He opens and sweeps the shop and takes his place in
it before the sun is up. There he sits the whole day long, with a short interval
before midday for his breakfast, eating the indigestible food sold in the bazar or
walking home for his meal, if his house happens to be near by. If tired, he
stretches himself in the shop for his siesta, but never gets out of the closely
packed up cell till late in the evening, when he is able to close it and go homo
for his dinner and night's rest. He gets very little fresh air except what he can
get in his shop and practically no exercise beyond a stroll or two between his
house and the shop. If of the orthodox type, he fares a little better, for oftener
than not, he will go to the river, stream or tank (if one happens to be within
reach) early in the morning for a bath and visit some temple in the evening
before going home for his meal. If of modern ideas, he may or may not attend
a meeting of some society on Sunday morning. An excursion outside the four
walls of the city is a privilege which the average shopkeeper will allow himself
only on exceptional occasions like fairs and festivals. That this style of living
should result in flabby and pale specimens of humanity, is by no means strange.
The low birth-rate of towns which has been noticed in Chapter V, is the result,
and it is more in evidence amongst the Hindus than amongst the followers of
other rehgions, whose occupations involve a more active life.
(7). I'he question of food is, of course, a very debateable one, and it is
not intended to discuss here what kind of food is good for the physical growth
of population. I have only to examine in this paragraph, whether the food
of the Hindus is such as affects their procreative power, compared with the
followers of other religions. The Hindu, on the whole, is a vegetarian and abstains
not only from meat but also from eggs and in most cases from such stimulating
spices as onions and garlic. A number of Hindus, particularly in the towns, eat
meat, but the percentage of such people is small. In the rural tracts the
meateaters, whether Hindus or Muhammadans, live mostly on vegetarian and
milk diet, using meat occasionally by way of a change. The staple food-stuffs,
therefore, are wheat and pulses, and the Hindu rural population does not
appear to be worse off in this respect than their Muhammadan brethren.
Unfortunately the districts with a large rural Hindu population have suffer-
ed heavily from epidemics, and it is not possible to arrive at any conclusions
regarding the effects of food on their fecundity. But the conditions prevailing
in towns are too patent to escape notice. The fondness of the Muhammadans
103
I^' HINDUS. [ Punjab, 1911.
for food is proverbial. On the other hand, the Hindu townsman usually
exercises more economy in the matter of food than in any other direction.
Leaving alone the more wealthy merchants and property-owners, the average
townsman usually has one full meal in 24 hours. The second meal is very often
a makeshift, either obtained at the place of business or served at home late at
night. The meal is usually composed of chapdtis and ddl or some veg^etable curry.
The chapdtis are sometimes eaten with a little pickle or with sour milk or perhaps
with pakauras* or some similar cheap indigestible stuff sold by the confectioners.
During the day, however, people keep eating sweets of all kinds whenever they
have money to spare and get a chance. But food of this kind is not very nutritious.
The vegetarian inhabitants of towns have so far had plenty of milk and ghi
(clarified butter) within their reach and this element supplied the defioiency
of easily digestible nutritive matter in their food. But the rents of houses and
the prices of grain and fodder have risen, making it impossible for milk-sellers
to keep their cattle (whose price has also risen considerably) in the cities and
towns on a large scale, and the supply being unequal to the demand, the prices
of milk and ghihave become prohibitive for the average townsman. The food
of the Hindu townspeople is, therefore, deteriorating further.
The Hindu Religion-
125. So much has been said on the subject, in the previous Census Reports j^ature of
of the Province and in the Census Report of India for 1901, that it would be super- jiiaiuisin.
fluous to discuss the origin or growth of this rehgion. The only thing that might
be noted, is that tha Hindus consider their religion to be eternal. Whatever line
of argument is employed by the different sects, the doctrines inculcated by each
are traced back to the beginning of creation. The orthodox Hindus and the Aryas
ahke believe in the eternity of the Vedas. The followers of certain religious
leaders observe specified rules of practice, but they all believe in the existence
of the doctrines, among the Hindus, from time immemorial.
The mass of divergent beliefs and forms of worship prevailing among the
Hindus, have been a puzzle to those who have attempted to classify them, but if
two broad considerations are borne in mind, it becomes easier to comprehend the
innumerable forms which the observances of individuals have taken. The first
consideration is the extreme antiquity of the religion and the second the varying
degrees of intellect for which the doctrines are intended. The religion, if it may
be so called, has come down from prehistoric times. Dates have no doubt been
assigned to the reduction of the Vedic hymns to writing, but no ono has yet been
able to determine how long the beliefs contained in the hymns had existed among
the Aryans before the Vedas were compiled in their present form. The least that
can, therefore, be said about the Vedic beliefs, is that their origin transcends antiqua-
rian knowledge. In the Vedas we find worship of the forces of Nature, worship of
Devas, regard for the dead, the highest philosophic conception of an abstract deity
evolving into a concrete one, an account of the creation of the physical world,
traces of the doctrine of re-incarnation (see paragraph 130), and so on. The Upa-
nishads establish monotheism in the adwaita (Monism) form. In more recent
books we hear of the trinity, the triple manifestation of the concrete deity, the
incarnation of the one or the other manifestation in human form, the deifi-
cation of the force with which each form of the concrete God manifests itself
(Shakti), the belief that the all-pervading divinity exists in a more or less marked
degree in all creatures, human or spiritual, who have any duty assigned to them
in the economy of the Universe and other similar doctrines. While the subtler
minds evolved the highest philosophies, there always was an undercurrent of coarser
forms of worship practised by the masses. The man in the street or the rustic
could not conceive an impersonal God and needed some concrete object of devo-
tion and worship. The extreme catholicity and flexibility of the tenets hav<^ resulted
in the present congeries of religious beliefs from the Vedic ritual down to what is
called idol worship, object worship (or animism), animal worship (toteraism), saint
worship and ancestor worship.
Hinduism (whatever meaning may be attached to tho term) claims to be
a natural religion, neither based upon the teachings of an individual, nor built on
the hatred of other faiths. But, on the other hand, it would appear to have
• Vegetables covered with gram -flour paste and fried in oil.
104
Census Report. ] hindib. Chapter
been evolved out of the inspiration of human thought by the objects of Nature
and the forces governing natural phenomena. It is held by Max Miiller, that the
first display of human mind is magic, wherein the self begins to assert itself as
all powerful and capable of controlling the forces of Nature. The next stage
in human evolution is religion, when experience shows the forces of Nature
to be too powerful to obey human will. Man therefore begins to worship the
forces of Nature or gods or one God, who is all powerful — the fountain head
of all that is beyond human control. This is religion. From religion the next
step is science. All the other great religions of the world are said to belong to
the second stage and are, therefore, supposed to come in conflict with magic
on the one hand and science on the other. In Hinduism, we still see remnants
of tbe magic stage. The faith in the control of sages over the forces of Nature
is the equivalent of what is commonly called faith in magic. Magic however
exists in Hinduism not as a preliminary step to religion, but as a concomitant
thereof. Then Max Miiller says there are three stages of Natural religion : —
(1) the Physical, where one fears the forces of Nature and worships a God or gods
directing these forces, (2) Anthropological, when people respect the memory of
the ancestors treating them as superhuman, and (3) the Psychological, where an
attempt is made to discover what lies hidden in man, not merely as a creature
but as a self-conscious subject. All these three stages can be studied
in the Hindu religion. They may have followed one another, but the
resultant of the growth is a religion in which all the three stages exist side
by side. We have now Guru (preceptor) worship, river worship, tree worship,
animal worship, performed by orthodox Hindus who also go in for the worship
of sages and Avatdras and believe in, and some of them act upon, the most
subtle philosophy of the Upanishads. Scientific research is finding explanations
foi" what at one time seemed superstitions. The religion, therefore, seems to
cover all the stages of manifestation of the human will and all the different
grades of development of religious thought. No wonder that it should claim to
be an all-embracing religion meant for all, which provides methods of union of
the Self with tlie Supreme, for the crudest mind who cannot conceive an imper-
sonal God, as well as for the subtle intellect of the philosopher which transcends
the material and the ascetic (Yogi) absorbed in meditation.
Religion permeates the life of a Hindu. The conception, birth, name-
giving, tonsure, investiture with the sacred thread, marriage and death are all
attended by elaborate rites. The caste system which has su far played such an
important part in the Hindu religion, made it inseparable from the social aspect of
life. Hinduism may, therefore, be called a religio-social organization resulting
from ages of natural development of tlie human intellect.
Sir Alfred Lyall in the Asiatic Studies, first Series, taking Brahmanism
in the meaning of Hinduism, says : —
" For first Brahmanism is indigenous to India, whereas the other two religions are
exotic. Secondly, Brahmanism is a religion of the pre-Christian old world type, being
neither a State institution like Islam, nor a great Church or else a congregation of wor-
shippers having a common creed, like Christianity. It is a way of life in itself, a scheme of
living so interwoven into the whole existence and society of those whom it concerns and
placing every natural habit or duty so entirely on the religious basis, as the immediate
reason and object of it, that to distinguish in Brahmanism, between matters known to us
as sacred and profane, is almost impossible."
Definition 126. What is a Hindu, is a question which is a most difiBcult one to answer,
of Hindu, jj^i; t^e significance of the term is as plain to the mind of a Hindu as it is complex
to the enlightened intellect of the Western scientists. Revd. W. J. Wilkins*
says : —
" The more one looks into it, the more clearly it is seen that Hinduism is a moat
expansive and inclusive system ; those who have carefully studied the question, find it
difficult to define clearly what Hinduism is. No answer, in fact, exists, for the term, in
its modern acceptance, denotes neither a creed nor a race, neither a church nor a people, but
a gemral expression devoid of precision, and embracing alike the most punctilious disciples of
pure Vedantism, the Agnostic youth who is the product of Western education, and the semi-
barbarous hillman who eats without scruple anything he can procure, and is as ignorant of
the Hindu mythology as the stone he worships in times of sickness and danger."
* Modern Hioduism, 2Qd Edition, page 310.
105
IV. HINDUS. [ Ponjab, 1911.
Sir Alfred Lyall again points out that —
" It is not exclusively a religious clenornination, but denotes also a country and tc Derivation.
a certain extent a race. When a man tells rae he is a Hindu, I know that he means all three
things taken together— religion, parentage and country. Hinduism is ft matter of birth-
right and inheritance; it means a civil community quite as much as a religious association.
A man does not become a Hindu but is born into Hinduism."
127. The term Hindu is obviously of foreign origin. It appears to be a
corruption of Sindhu, the Sanskrit name of the river Indus. The earliest post
Aryan invaders, having entered India from the north-west, came first in contact
with the people residing on the banks of the Indus and known by the geographi-
cal terna Sindhu, which is still preserved as one of the sub-castes of the Jats of
this Province and the foreigners for some time knew the Sindhus alone as their
opponentp. The letter " S " is phonetically changed into " H " in Eranian and
consequently the Persian speaking inhabitants acioss the Frontier obviously pro-
nounced the name as Hindu, which appears in Greek with the "H" turned into
"I". The use of the term cannot bo traced further back than the earliest Muham-
madan invasions, and Hindu being the name by which they evidently distin-
guished the custodians of the Frontier, its use became more and more general
with the extension of the Muhammadan inroads into tlie country, until the
appellation came to be applied, indiscriminately to all the inhabitants of
the Punjab. The continuous application of the term by the invaders
and rulers seems to have led to its general adoption by the people themselves.
The inhabitants of the Punjab though belonging to different castes and tribes,
were yet then, all of one religion and the Hinduisation of the aborigines, if any,
being complete, the term covered the whole social organization. With the spread
of Muhammadan influence, it seems to have been extended to all Indians of the old
faith. Another explanation of the term seems to be that the Punjab was called
the Sapta Sindhu (the land of Seven Rivers) in Vedic times, and the name was
pronounced Haft Hindu by the Iranians and is found in the oldest Zoroastrian
books. The inhabitants of this Haft Hindu were called Hindus by the Persian-
speaking Muhammadan invaders. So far as can be Seen, it had no religious
import to begin with and was merely a geographical term, but it gradually came
to be naturalized and with the changing circumstances, it has passed through a
religious and social significance, until, at the present time, it has become a wide
and complicated designation for the religious, social and hereditary conditions
of a people embracing most diverse shades of thought. The word does not
occur in any of the Hindu Shrutis or Smritis or in the ancient Hindu literatiire.
The earliest book which is known to mention the name is Meru Tantra (prakash
23), but this is a Tantric work of comparatively recent origin and was
obviously written long after the first Muhammadan invasion. The derivations of
the term given by modern Indian Sanskrit scholars, such as Ayendu=goddes8
Durga, or H/r(=pain and c?«=prevent, are attempts to ascribe a meaning
according to Sanskrit grammar and vocabulary, to foreign words.
128. The eaz^liest term applied to the people, whom the modern Hindus re- Local equi-
present, was Arya as opposed to Dasyu, which is found in the Vedas ; but this term valents of
signified the status more than tlie religion. In later books, where the division of the term^
society into castes and of the life of a dwija into the four stages have been more
fully developed, the religious duties of the people are designated merely by the
term Dharma (<iuty), and the whole social and religious system (it is to be re-
membered tliat the whole Hindu social fabric was built on the basis of religion)
came to be called the Vorndshram Dhanrm. Any person, who did not conform
to the elaborate rules laid down, became jJ^^fit (fallen) and the punishment for non-
observance of these mlos was excommunication or degradation from tho caste
(Varna). Strict observance was enforced by the fear of suffering in the future life
for the sins committed here. Till the rise of Buddhism, there was but one religion,
and the necessity for distinguishing religion from social rules did not arise.
Buddhism was a revolution of the whole religious and social system and on the
revival of Varndshratn Dharma under Shankracharya, the old condition of things
was restored with still greater vigour. It was only when Islam was introduced,
that people began to live in close social ties, in spite of a change of faith. By
that time the term Hindu had been coined and came to be applied to such of the
106
Censns Report.] hindub. Chapteb
Modem
Hisdns.
inliabitanta of the Punjab or India aa did not become Muslims. Meanwhile
diffeieot schools and teachers were fouuding different sets of doctrines among the
non-Muslim inhabitants, and the word Hindu was extended to them without dis-
tinction. The Ashram Dhartna gradually disappeared but the Varna or caste
system maintained a strons? hold on the people till comparatively recent times.
For a considerable period, therefore, the Hindu religion was considered to be
identical with the observance of the caste system and respect for the Brahman
and the cow which are ordained by all the Hindu law-givers— Manu, Yagyavalka,
Apastambha, etc. To this day one hears the form of salutation to the king used in
Rajputana and particularly in Udaipur, viz., Qau Brahman he pratipdlak Mahirdj
Cliiranjiv (the protector of cows and Brahmans, Oh, King! May you Hve long).
Under the processes of Anuloma and Pritiloma, laid down by Manu in
Chapter X, the mixture of castes went on, resulting in the formation of in-
numerable new castes in various degrees of degradation, and the less intellectual
aboriginal classes were added to these lower groups. But the Hindu law books
did not lay down the total expulsion, from either their religion or their society, of
the meanest of the mean or of the worst sinners. The four Varnas according to
Manu are the four castes, there being no fifth caste,* but all mixed castes were
allotted to one Varna or the other, and the inclusion of even the degraded Shudraa
among the Shudras has resulted in the sub-division of that Varna into iti^^tm,
madhyam and adham. But even the most degraded were considered to be
under the heirarchy of Varndshram Dharma. Foreigners, whether the aborigines
or those coming from other countries, were admitted to different Varnas and
entered the religio-social system.
The code of Manu (as it now exists) depicts the state of society which
prevailed at the time of its compilation. The date has been put by Biihler at
200 B.C. to 200 A.D. The Muhammadan invasions began much later and
by that time the Hinduisation of all foreign elements had been thoroughly
completed in the Punjab. It is, therefore, clear that the term Hindu was
applied for the first time to the people of a country (or Province) which
knew of no foreign religion. Then came in a foreign rehgion — Islam, and all
non-Muslims appear to have been called Hindus. Later on Christianity spread
its influence over the country and began to convert the Hindus. Those who
went over to one of these great rehgions, openly dissociated themselves from
the religion in which they were born. The residue was the body of Hindus who
observed the restrictions of caste more or less and believed in some sort of
religious doctrines based on the Hindu scriptures or the teachings of saints.
129. But a further compHcation arose in recent times, when the system of
caste was assailed by some modern teachers and the restrictions of eating and
drinking and inter-marriage, which confined the Varnas within water-tight com-
partments, began to be given up. And yet, owing to the vague and extensive
application of the term, all these persons of reformed ideas claim to be as good
Hindus as those strictly observing the caste, interdining and inter-man iage
restrictions. Considering the modern state of Hindu society, therefore, the question,
'Who is a Hindu,' has become most puzzling. At the instance of the Census
Commissioner, the opinions of Hindu leaders of vai'ious shades of thought were
obtained. The question was fully discussed from various points of view and
various definitions were put forward. Certain tests were prescribed by the Census
Commissioner, but it was found impossible to apply them to the various groups
who claim to be Hindus, from the orthodox worshippers of the Hindu gods
(Sanatanists), the believers in the revelation of the Vedas (Arya Samajists) who
discard incarnations and the caste system, the Brahmos who believe in neither,
the Vaihhnavas who are strict vegetarians, the Shaktiks who oat meat, the
Vam-margis who use hquor in their worship of Durga, the Nanakpanthis who
follow the doctrines of Guru Nanak, the Siddh (Saint) worshippers, the Adwaita
Vedantis who beheve in the unity of self with God, and so on, to the modem
unbehevers who believe in nothing but God and sometimes not even in Him
and observe no restrictions whatever and yet call themselves Hindus.
• Mann, X— 4.
107
IV. . HINDUS. [ Punjab, 1911.
130. I shall try to show in the following lines what in my opinion ought to Essentials
be taken as the meaning of the term (Hindu) as used at the present time. As the of Hinduism.
Revd. J. N. Farquhar, M.A., has truly remarked,* two things are essential for
a Hindu — (1) birth, and (2) conformity. In order to be a Hindu, a man must
have been born in one of the social groups which historically have become
associated together in Hinduism chiefly under Brahman supervision, and which
are known as castes. An European may call himself a Hindu, because he believes
in certain Hindu doctrines, but according to all Hindu books and all Hindu usage,
it is absolutely impossible for him to become a Hindu.t Hinduism is essentially a
non-proselytizing religion and, as will be noticed further on, absorption into
it took place in the old days by individuals or families coming under the
influence of the Varndshram Dharma and getting gradually assimilated
to the Hindu society. "While, therefore, it was open for a non-Hindu to
profess some of the doctrines of tbe Hindus, and perhaps also to call himself
a Hindu, he could not be admitted into tbe Hindu society, although
his descendants gradually acquired the right. The modern advocates of
conversion, bowever, hold that Hinduism being the oldest religion and the
followers of all the other rehgions being converts from this old faith, it is open
to take them back into the Hindu society, and so they are prepared to overlook
the first essential of Hinduism, viz., birth ; and considering the tendency of
the educated classes, it will not be strange if conversions to the Hindu com-
munity or admissions as they should be more properly called, should become
in the near future, the rule rather than the exception.
The second essential of Hinduism is conformity. It does not require
much investigation to come to the conclusion, that tbe proportion of Hindus
who conform to the rules of daily life or the restrictions regarding resi-
dence, food and occupation is diminishing rapidly. In his daily life, a twice-born
is supposed to perform Panck Mahd Yagya (five great sacrifices), which are : —
(1) Brahma Yagya, which means Swddhydya (reading the Vedas) ;
(2) Pitri Yagya, i.e., offering oblations to the ancestors ;
(3) Dev Yagya including Agni Hotr, i.e., worship of, and sacrifice to,
the gods ;
(4) Manushya Yagya or feeding of men, particularly guests ; and
(5) Bhut Yagya, which means feeding of animals and offering hali
(sacrifice) to the spirits.^
These five Yagyas were supposed to be the means of pleasing the
Rishis, gods, ancestors, men and spirits.
SivdiJliyayendirchayetdrshin, homairdevdnyathdvidin,
Pitrinckhrdddkenanrinannairhhutdni balikarmand.^
(Let him worship according to the rule, the sages by the private recita-
tion of the Veda, the gods by burnt oblations, the fathers by funeral offerings,
men by gifts of food, and the spirits by the bali offering).
The first three are fast disappearing. The fifth is now done for the
sake of one's own benefit or out of fondness for domestic animals. The fourth is
treated as a social, rather than a religious duty.
The 8anskdras\\ which were considered essential for a Dvija are not even
known to all of them. With the exception of high caste Brahmans who perform
12, the Samkdrait usually observed now are, — Ghurdkanna (tonsure), Yagyopavit
{investiture with the sacred thread), and Vivdh (marriage). The first is done
usually without ceremony, at some sacred place, and even the Yagyopavit, which is
considered to bo tbe most important ceremony in the life of a twice-born, is now
* See page 145, Chapter 13 of his Primer of Hinduism, 1911.
"fJndiiism is a parallel. A man could not be made a Jew, although marriages with females of non-Jewieb
races were permitted and absorption was allowed in this manner.
J B/iiit is a very extensive term, covering the lower deities, the elementals, the evil spirits, the God of death
(Yama) and his dependents, sacred animals such as the Surabhi (cow) and Yama's dogs, birds (crows, etc.) and
insects (ants, etc.>.
§ Manu, III— 81.
y The 16 SansMras prescribed aro (I'l Rajo Darshan, (2) Garbhidhiia, (3) Punsavan, (i) SIraantonnayana (the
order oiNos. 3 and 4 is reversed by Laugdksha), (5) J4takarma, (6) Naraakarua, C?) Nishkramana, (8) Anna Prishana,
(9) Chiira Karma, (10) Kama Bhodana, (,11) Upnayana, (12) Yagyopavit, (13) Vedirainbha, (14) Keshinta, (lo) Sami-
vartana, (Ifi) Vivah. Nos. 1 , 2, 3, i, and 16 are Sanskars of females ; Nos. 5, 6, 7 and 8 are common to both sexes ;
and the others are for males only. Some regard cremation as the last Sanskira — ZJ/wjswantano Sharirang, Yajur
Veda, Adh. IV, 15.
108
C3eiisus Report. ] hihdus. , Chapter
performed sometimes with scant ceremony. For instance, on Baisakhi day, the
Mahant of Datarpur (Hoshiarpur District), a Bairagi, invests the children of the
pilgrims with the sacred thread, without any pretence of ritual. So oven the
observance of Sanslcdras is not universal now. The Shrddh (or regular periodical
oblations to the ancestors) is being almost completely given up, except by
the most orthodox, and where the practice has not been wholly abandoned,
it is virtually restricted to the Shrddh of the father or in some cases also
of the grandfather, instead of performing it for three generations, both
male and female on the father's and mother's side. The formalities of the
marriage ceremony are still in force, but the advanced sections are now dispens-
ing with the greater part of the ritual or celebrating it according to new and
abbreviated methods. The inter-caste marriages are becoming more frequent,
but a Hindu will still ordinarily marry a Hindu, if not a member of the same
endogamous group. The death ceremonies have also undergone variations, but
the essential feature of cremation is adhered to by all except (1) certain classes
of ascetics, (2) in the case of young children* and (3) certain low castes who are
allowed to be buried instead.
The cow still plays a most important part in the religious life of a
Hindu. She is the God incarnate of the 3 worlds — earth, firmament and heavens
and is said to be one of the outcomes of the chumings of the sea of milk, by
the gods and the Asuras. And this deification of the cow is by no means
a recent development. In the Vedas she is termed Aghani., that which must not
be killed. She is the mother of the Rudras, the daughter of the Vasus and
the sister of the A/lityas. In most ceremonies where charities have
to be dispensed in order to please the gods, or to remove the evil effects
of grihas (planets), the gift of a milch cow ranks very high and if a man can
afford it, a cow must be given away, just before his death, to a Bi'ahman, in
order to enable him to cross the Faitarni (a river which has to be crossed,
before reaching paradise). The cow takes a share in the household economy.
Before beginning to bake loaves of bread for the family, one loaf baked on one
side only must be set aside for the cow.t
So another rule which is observed more strictly than any other is, the res-
pect for the cow and no Hindu will eat beef. The prohibition has become a sort of
instinct and even the most advanced Hindus who are void of all feeling and might
secretly have no objection to transgressing the rule, would not do so openly.
As to the psychological aspect, the doctrine of re-incarnation (which appears
to be as old as the Vedas) f and that of the Law of Karma, (causation) in one form
or another, underlie the whole set of beliefs sprung up from the Vedic Religion and
now forming the collection known as Hinduism. Even the ignorant mstic or the
degraded chuhra will attribute his difiiculties to his Prdlahdh (fate) or his Khote
Jiarma (bad actions in the previous life). Fortified with these two explanations
of the inequalities of conditions of life, the orthodox Hindu from the highest
* A baby who dies without suckling or before the pcriormance of Nama-iania— i.e., within 11 or 12 days of
birth, is buried. If older he is drowned, or if no river is nearby, buried, provided that he dies under 5 years of
age, after which a child is cremated. According to Yagj-avalka Smriti PrAyashchittadhaya Chapter I verses 1 and 20,
a child, under 2 years should, on death, be buried, but cremated, if older. According to others a dead child should
be drowned if he has not cut his teeth and cremated if he has.
■| The respect for the cow, is not merely based on economic grounds, but every inch of the cow's body is
supposed, in the religious books of the Hindus, to represent some God or Goddess or force, and while her excreta
are known to purify the floors of houses and panchgavya (a mixture of cow-dung, cow's urine, cow's milk, curds
and butter"! is sprinkled about and drunk in order to remove the state of impurity which is known to exist during the
10 days after child-birth and so on, she herself is supposed to purify one's sins. Nagosha taltjam dhanamasti
hinchit, duhanti wdhaiiti, haranti pdpam^ trindni hhuktiva amritassravavti vipreshndattdh kulamuddharanti. (No
wealth is equal to that of cows, they give milk, provide the means of sustenance and remove the sins. They eat straw
and nectar flows out of them, given to Brahmans they uplift the family). The various points of the cow repreKnt : —
Hoofs = the four Vedas and the four yugas ; forehead = iJudra (Shiva); eyes = Surya (Sun) and Soma (Moon);,
nostrils = rdt/ii, teeth = Rishis ; lips = UAarma and adharma; tongue=Omfair and Saraswati, neck = fia/ardfrt (a
goddess who presides from 15 th November to )5ih December); low)ng=Prajdpo(t (inhjiling) and Vedaa and
Veddngas (exhaling) ; horns = lfcru and Mandar hills; horntips = /7irfrn and Vishnu ; ears = Ashxi;ani humdrs ; back
= Brahma ; sides = the (ten) directions ; middle of the back= Fis?i7i«, Dhruva, Asuras and Oanas ; head = Brahm (the
Supreme) ; breast =SJton(Jo (Kitmdr) ; roots of hair = Si(/(Jha'ii and Vidyddhards, stomach = H«((isfta»a — i.e., Agni; hind-
quarters =pt(ris (ancestors) ; tail=niar«(s ; teats = the four oceans (of milk, saltwater, curds and ghi) ; heart = Vardh-
auWr ; armpits = the gods ; apdn (anus) = all tirthas (places of pilgrimage) ; urine = Ganges ; cowdung = Lafchami
and Jamna ; soles = gandharvds ; hoof-tips = pnnnagas (serpents) ; heels = Rudraganas.
i It is sometimes stated that the doctrine of re-incarnation is not found in the Vedas, bat the following refer-
ences will show that this view is not correct. Shatampurah dyasi amkshan (A hundred forts, i.e., bodies enclosed me
in the past) Rig Ved IV— 27-1. Sayana translates dyasi by forts and explains the meanings by interpretting the term
to signify bodies. Asunite punarasmdsu chakshuh (may yon agi^n equip ns with the eyes, etc.) Rig- Ved X — 5-96,
and 97. Punarmanah punarayurma dgan,eti:. (May monas and age enter me again, etc.) Yajur Ved IV — 15, als*
see Atharva Ved Kand VII, Annvik 6, Varga 67, Mantra 1 and Kand V— 1. 1. 2.
109
IV. HINDUS. [Punjab, 1911.
caste, down to the most degraded shudra, has been able to reconcile himself to
mental or physical afflictions, accepting the present disadvantages, as a penalty
for his past misdeeds and endeavouring to regulate bis life in the sphere in which
it -was cast in the hope of improvement in the next birth. Reformers hke the
Brahmos and Dev Dharmis profess to ignore these doctrines, but these faiths are
still young and in the course of evolution. Then again belief in one Supreme
God, whether separate from the world and manifesting Himself in various forms
or existing in every object, underlies the whole set of Hindu behefs (see para-
graph 166).
What a Hindu is expected to conform to, depends now upon the group
to which he belongs. K he belongs to some orthodox section, he has various
restrictions to observe, if he is of a reformed order, he might even eat and drink
freely with non-Hindus, need not observe any of the Sanskdras, i. e., need not keep
a Shikha, might or might not go through a form of Yagyopavit, might marry
contrary to the rules of his own socciety, might not worship any gods or believe
in them, and yet be a Hindu, if he will conform to the barest emblems of Hindu-
ism— viz., marriage within the Hindu society (and if he wants to marry a non-
Hindu woman, convert her to Hinduism by some of the modern processes), believe
in monotheism (pure and simple, or tending to polytheism or pantheism) cremate
the dead and respect the cow (at least pretend not to eat beef even if he sits at
a table where beef is served).
In 1881 the late Sir Denzil Ibbetson remai-ked* that —
" Every Native who was unable to define his creed or describe it by any other name
than that of some recognized religion, or a sect of some such religion, was held to be and
classed as a Hindu."
The necessity for adopting such a wide definition of the term has become
more imperative now, after the further complications of the past thirty years.
131. In short, the definition which would cover the Hindu of the modern Hindu de-
times is, that he should be born of parents not belonging to some recognized flned,
rehgion other than Hinduism, marry within the same limits, believe in God, res-
pect the cow and cremate the dead.
But it will be clear from the above explanation, that the word Hindu, as
now understood, is based upon no principle. The term is neither geographical
social, religious nor racial. It is applied to the remnants of a great religion
and civilization, as much as to sinners against the most essential rules laid
down by the codes of religion and social law and to the reformers who profess to
belong to that body merely in name. Such a body corporate can have no
adhesive force and cannot be called a living organism. Unless therefore, there
is a reaction, the process of disintegration does not appear to augur a promising
future for the religious aspect of the Hindus.
132. The Census returns include Hindus of numerous behefs and usages. J!^^1%?''®:l
According to various views, some of them may or may not be considered as falling census com-
within the pale of Hinduism. The more orthodox will not consider the liberals °ii5sionor.
to be Hindus, and judging from the standpoint of behef in the Vedas, worship of
Hindu gods and observance of restrictions, some of the castes or sects may be
declared to be quite outside the limits of orthodoxy. In the modem state of
Those who— society, however, it is
()) deny the supremacy of Brahmans = 108,439. This category includes two impossible to draw
distinct groups .— +u T A n fl 4.
(a) certain sectarian groups which owe their origin to a revolt against the toe UnC, auQ all tUat
Brahmanical supremacy = 108,439, and Can be done is tO give
(h) the aboriginal tribes, and also certain low castes, who being denied the -i . . n . •,
ministration of Brahmans, retaliate by professing to reject the llStS Or castes and
Brahmans = none; grOUpS fulfilling each
(2) do not receive the Mantra from Brahman or other recognized Hindu n .1 ■, r, , r i -j
Giiru=none; of the 10 tests laid
(3) deny the authority of the Vcdas=7,e66 ; down bv the OcnSUS
(4) do not worship the great Hindu gods=104,677 ; ~ . .' . j a
(5) are not sp^^•ed by good Brahmans as family priests=2,268,831 ; (commissioner and tO
(6) have no Brahman priests at all=2,268,S31 ; leave Clltics to ar-
(7) are denied access to the interior of ordinary Hindu temple=2,268,831 ; • j. i i
(8) cause pollution, (a) by toncb = 2,268,831 ; (b) within a certain distance= I^^e ^t SUCn CODClU-
none ;
,„. ^ I . J , o,« sions as they may.
(9> bury their dead^^SOO ; nn, 1 A f + ^ U
'10) cat beef and do net reverence the cow=none. ine 1 U testS are dealt
■with below, and an abstract of figures relating to each is given in the margin.
* Punjab Census Report, 1S81, page 101, paragraph 19G ,
110
Census Report. ] Hindus. Chapter
Who deny the 1 (a). The groups -wliicli deny the supremacy of the Brahmana are noted in
Brahmant "^Arya 100 783 *^® margin. The ascetic orders have to be left out of account.
Brahmo ... ... 'toq The Arya, Brahmo, Dcv Dharm and Radha Sw^imi communi-
Bidha^Swdmi '" 3 862 *i^^ ^^ recruited from various castes. The figures in the
" '■ — margin are therefore by sect and not by caste. The Aryas rea-
Total ... 108,439 pgg^ ^Yxe Biahmans, but maintain that a man is a Brahman
by learning and not by birth. The other three sects ignore the Brahmans
altogether. None of the lower castes deny Brahman supremacy, — not even
the Chuhras.
Who reject the (6). The lower castes which have their own Brahmans or do without
Brahmans. them, owiug to their inability to persuade the ordinary Brahmans to minister to
them, are the same as enumerated in clause 8. The Bawai'ias, however generally
receive the assistance of Brahmans. The Chamars have their own priests
called Chamarwa Brahmans, but when they go to places of pilgrimage, they
receive ministi-ations from the ordinary Pandas (priests). These are usually poor
Brahmans whose clients are mostly of the low classes. Chuhras usually nominate
some old man of their own community to serve as a priest. He consults some
Brahman about auspicious days, etc., and officiates at ceremonies hke a Brahman.
There are also Chuhra Brahmans, who are Brahmans degraded for various
reasons and have established themselves as priests acting exclusively for
Chuhras. Enquiries about Dumnas show that in some places, ordinary Brahmans
will officiate at their ceremonies, but not eat at their hands, taking supplies
instead. In others, they do not, and the Dumnas have to get one of their own
. caste to act as a priest. Meghs also fall under the same category, but the
majority of them have joined the Arya Samaj and receive the assistance of the
Arya Samaj updeshak, usually a Brahman, at their wedding ceremonies, etc.
Other low castes invoke the assistance of Brahmans and receive it in varying
degrees. But it appears that none of them professes to reject the Brahmans even
when they have to do without them.
Who do not 2. The manircf is of two kinds, (1) the Gdyxlri mantra which is pre-
manTra from scribcd Only fop the Dwijas (Brahman, Kshattriya and Vaisha), who received it
a Brahman, at the invostiture with the sacred thread, and (2) the G^iru vxantra, which every
person can receive from his Guru, be he a Brahman or not. The Quru mantra is
the aphorism, which a person is required to repeat daily according to the Guru's
instructions, for the sake of his spiritual advancement. It may consist of
the highest philosophic maxim or the mere name of God, Rama, Bhagwan,
Krishna, or praise of the Guru. The mantra is, therefore, different in different
cases. All Shudras and castes not entitled to wear the sacred thread are
precluded from receiving the Gdyatri mantra. As regards the Guru mantra,
the Brahman will usually receive it from a Brahman or a religious order of
the same standing (Sanyasi, Bairagi, etc.). A Kshattriya can get it from a
Brahman or a Kshattriya, and so on. The lowest of Shudras may attach himself
to a Guru of the same or some other caste and receive Guru mantra from him.
So the Shudrns cannot, as a class, receive the Gdyatri but can get the Guru mantra
from a Brahman or other Guru. The untouchables have great difficulty in
obtaining instructions from the Brahmans and have generally to content themselves
with a Guru of their own caste or of the same status. Bat it would be incorrect
to say that they do not receive the manlra from a recognised Hindu Guru, for a
recognized Guru of any of the Hindu castes would be a recognized Hindu Guru.
The strength of the untouchables is given further on.
Who deny 3. The Only groups which deny the authority of the Vedas are the Brah-
o/theVcZs!' Brahmo 700 mo, Dev Dharm and Eiidha Swami sects. The Brahmos have
S^Iu^^o™ • - o'cfo one division called the Adi Samai which respects the tiuths
EadhaSwami ... 8,862 i. • j • .i 17 i 1.1 i,i ^ . • j
contained m the vodas, although they are not recognized as
Total ... 7,056 revealed and infallible. Indeed the teachings of this section
are based mainly on the Upanishads. The Radha Swami faith is based apparently
on doctrines contained in the iihdstras. All other sections of the Hindus respect
the Vedas as the highest authority even though they may not know anything
about them. The groups above mentioned are only 7,656 strong (see margin).
^'""'o '^« 4. It would not be correct to say about any of the castes that the mem-
dtt so'(i '"* bers do not worship the Hindu gods. Even the Chuhras worship Devi (goddess)
IV.
Ill
HINDUS — WORSHIP.
[Punjab, 1911.
Aiya
Brahmo
Dev Dharm
Total
100,7)53
700
3,094
Barar
5,723
Jaiswara .
. 11,159
Batwal ...
21,312
Khatik ..
12,359
BAwaria ...
26,854,
Kori
. 17,997
Bhanjra ...
1,114
Mazhabi .
58
Chamir ...
952,770
Megh .
39,694,
Chanal ,„
12,321
Mochi
6,865
Chuhra
789,857
Pasi
2,295
Digi-Koli...
172,656
Sansi
23,585
Dhanak ...
82,618
Sapela ..
911
Dumna
77,166
Sarera
9,391
Gagra
1,149
677
Gandtila ...
Gedri
300
Total ..
. 2,268,831
Who have no
good Brah'
mans asfami-
l y priests.
Who have
no Brahman
priests at all.
Who are not
allotced into
Bind'i, tem-
ples.
The un-
toucluibles.
The Arya, Brahmo and Dev Dharm groups are the only ones,
who do not. Even the Eiidha Swamis -worship Radha Swumi
which is another name for Krishna. A detail of the figures
104,577 jg given in the margin.
5. The castes which have no Brahman family priests, as a rule, are those
enumerated in clause 8, subject to the remarks made in clause 1 (i) above.
6. The castes which have no Brahman priests at all, or have their own
Brahmans, are also the same as referred to above. But it must be noted that
in many cases ordinary Brahmans will officiate ns priests to Chamiirs and other
untouchables, assist at the performance of ceremonies without touching them and
receive food stuffs from them besides the cash dues.
7. Access to the richer Hindu temples is denied to all the untouchable
castes, but they are all allowed to make their offerings at the temples of
Deoi or Bhairon and at unenclosed temples of Shiva, as of right. At other
temples, whether of Vishnu, Shiva or Devi, they may offer cash, fruits or grain
without actually entering the temple. The temples of minor deities like Sitala,
Ndgs, Sidhs, &c., are not closed to any castes.
8. (a). A list of untouchable castes is given in the margin with their
numerical strength. They are all supposed to
pollute by touch in so far that food touched
by them will not be eaten by high caste
Hindus, but merely touching them does not, in
this Province, at all events now, pollute suffi-
ciently to necessitate bathing or washing the
clothes, except in the case of such members
thereof who pursue scavenging or other un-
clean professions. For instance, a Brahman
will not mind touching a Jaiswai'a, Kori or other Chamar who works as a syce
or grass-cut, but he will have to bathe and wash his clothes if he touches a
Chamar who skins dead cattle. Chuhras being all scavengers by profession may
not be touched, but a shoe-making Mochi will be permitted to try shoes on the foot
of a member of the highest class, although such members of his fraternity who
engage in removing dead cattle will cause pollution by mere touch. Julahas, as a
rule, are not untouchables in this respect. The same considerations apply to all
cast«s enumerated in the margin, although the degree of liberty allowed to
them in social intercourse varies from place to place. Most of the Meghs, as
already noted, have been raised by one section of the Hindus, to the status of
touchables, i.e., even food and water are taken from their hands. Thus, although
the number of persons who pollute food by touch is 2,268,831, as noted in the
margin, yet the strength of such of them, who will pollute a high caste Hindu by
touching him, is probably less than half of that figure, i.e., not more than a million.
(6). But nowhere, in this Province, do the untouchables pollute merely
by coming within the smallest distance.
9. Chuhras in Hindu villages usually cremate their dead but those living
in Muhammadan villages bury them. Gedris (300) found in the Muhammadan
tracts of Muzaffargarh and Bahawalpur are the only caste, who have return-
ed themselves as Hindus find, yet bury their dead. All the other castes
practise cremation subject to the exceptions mentioned in paragraph 130.
10. All Hindus reverence the cow, even the Chuhras. The Chuhras,
Chamiirs, &c., have no objection to eating beef in Muhammadan villages, but
not 80 in Hindu tracts. Chuhras, Chamars, Dhtinaks, &c., eat dead cattle, hut a
Chamar or Dhanak, eating beef otherwise, is excommunicated.
Forms of worship.
133. Dealing with the forms of worship,* the orthodox Hindus may be General-
divided into (1) the Brahmans and members of other higher castes versed, in
religious literature or ritual, and {2) others who, though implicitly believing in
one or the other god or goddess or in several of them, do not practise much ritual
♦Worship (updmnd) is of three kinds:— (1) adhydtmic (meditation of tho Supremo Solf>, (2) adhidaivik
(worship of the impersonal (Jod) and (3) adhibhautic (worship of animate or inanimate objects as representations
of God).
Who bury
their dead.
Who do not
reveretice the
core.
Census Report.]
112
HINDUS— WORSHIP,
Chaptbr
except at specified occasions. Among the first group, the daily -worship is differ-
ent from the worship on ceremonial and festive occasions.
Daily 134. The daily worship begins with Sandhyd, which means a prayer at the
worsliip. two junctions of day and mghi— viz., morning and evening — and at midday (all
the three prayers are usually combined into one offered in the morning, or the
midday prayer is dispensed with, the morning and evening prayers alone being
recited in due form). The prayer consists of purification of the body and the
mind by means of Mantras, the practice of Prdndydm and the. Tap (silent recitation)
of Gdyatri after preparing one's mind for it. It includes repentance for the sins
committed through thoughts, words or actions, since the last prayer. The recita-
tion of Gdyatri is supposed to absolve one of sins and elevate his intellect towards
the reahzation of the Supreme. After the Sandhyd prayer, the individual
performs the peculiar worship of his creed, which may consist merely of
meditation, of Agnihotra (fire sacrifice) or of the usual entertaining processes
towards any image or images (milrti) of gods kept in the house. Some
people who have no murtis in the house go to a temple for the purpose. These
processes consist of bathing the image, offering gandh or tilak for anointing ahhshat
(rice), pushp (flowers), burning incense and Batan Dip (consisting of a light burnt
by immersing a cotton wick in ghi) and presenting ndived (sweets or fruits —
eatables). After these formalities of entertainment, prayers are offered to the
god or gods. Where the family can afford to keep a priest and there is no elderly
member thereof who prefers to worsliip the family god himself, the duty is
entrusted to the priest, the members of the family present, going and making their
obeisance at the time of the worship and being anointed with tilah and receiving
the ndived — i.e., sweets, etc., which are distributed after presentation to the gods.
Those who do not go in for image worship read the Dpanishads or some Puran, or
Bhagvad Gita, or some stotra (devotional composition) instead.
Occasional 135. On ceremonial or festive occasions, the gods are invited one after an-
worship. other, the first to receive attention being Ganpati or Ganesh and after he has
been invoked, the process is repeated for such gods as may have to be worship-
ped on the occasion. The cosmopolitan nature of these ceremonials will appear
from the following description of the ceremonies, performed by one of the most
orthodox sections : —
The usual devotional ceremonial of this section is called Fanchdyatna*
and comprises the worship of Ganesh (as the first Dwdrpali or gate-keeper),
Surya as the principal graha (planet) and Shiva, Vishnu and Devi as the
principal gods, the Isht, Devta or Devi (the family god or goddess) receiving
principal attention. After the worship of Ganesh and offerings to the EshetrapdlsX
(protectors of fields), the Vedic gods are invoked as Dashadikpdl or Dashalohapdl
(the ten gods presiding the ten directions). A list of the Dihpdls with their
_, emblems and the directions which they preside, is
given in the margin. After them come the
Navagrahas (nine planets) — tiz., (1) Surya (Sun), (2)
Chandrma (Moon), (3) Mangal (Mars), (4) Budha
(Mercury), (5) Brahspati (Jupiter), (6) S/im/lt (Venus),
(7) SJmni (Saturn), (8) Rdhu and (9) Ketu, with
the two polar stars — Dhruva (northern) and Agastya
(southern). When all the preliminary worship has
been completed, the worship of the Isht Deva (family
god) appropriate to the occasion begins, with or
without the Eavan^ (sacrifice into fire) as the case
may be. Before the ceremonies end, all the above
* The worship of five Gods is commou to most orthodox sections.
t The six dxcarpdU usually recognized are Qanesh, Kvm&r, Shri, Scrasvati, Lakshmi, and
Vishwaiiarmd.
J There are two gronps of ffs/iefrapdis (1) Heruladis and i2) rafuladig. The former are eleven in number
including the central figure of the goddess, each of the other ten being located in one of the 10 directions. They
are :— (1) Heruk. [2) Tripurdnfal, (3) Vetal, (4) Jhha, (5) Kardla, (6) Kardkhya, (7) Ekpdda, (8) BMmrupini, (9)
Tdrakdkhya, (lu) Edthakcshwar. The first three and No. 10 are males and the rest females. The second group
consists of eighteen, i.e., 17 in addition to the central figure of the goddess, >■« .•—
(1) Vatukndth, (2) Toginis, (3) Sthinakh>hetrapdla, (4) Bhutabali, (5) TetdUirttj, (6) Bahukhdtak, (7)
Mangalrdj, (8) Vhhaksen, (9) Anandrdj, (10) Piirnarnj, (11) Dhanyardj, (12) Kuthdrardj, (13) Satirdj, (14) Tarushkarij,
(15) KhshcmardJ, (16) Jayaksena. (17) Khshctrapdl.
§ If the Baian is performed, ahutis (offerings) have to be thrown into the sacrificial fire in the name of every-
one of the gods, etc., mentioned above, previous to the ritual appropriate to the occasion.
God.
Indra ...
Agni ...
Yama ...
Nainarit
Varuna
Viyu ...
Kuver..
Isb4n ..
Brahma
Vishnu
Emblem.
Vajra (Dart) ...
Shakti (Force)...
Dand (Club) ...
Kharga (Sword)
Pish (Noose"' ...
Dhwaj ;Flag) ...
Gada (Mace) ...
Trishdl (Trident)
Padma (Lotus)
Chakra (Disc) ...
Direction.
East.
8. East.
South.
S. West
West.
N. West.
North.
N. East.
Above.
Below.
113
iV. HiKDu-woEflHip. [ Pnnjab, 1911.
mentioned gods, grahas, etc., not forgetting the KshetrapMs are attended to and,
requested to depart. To describe the rituals in greater detail would occupy too
much space.
This is the worship of gods connected with the world of the living.
The deities and spirits concerning the realm after death are appeased at
Shrddha ; when bej^inning with Yama and his dogs, offerings are made to all
kinds of spirits and animals such as cows, crows and ants.
136, As regards people falling in the second group, a Hindu will, except Worship
under disabilities, bathe every morning. Indeed he is not supposed to eat his food among the
until he has bathed. The elderly men and women, will bathe in the river, if there masses,
is one near by, or at a well or at home, and visit a temple whether of Vishnu or of
Shiva or of a goddess or of some Bir or 8i3h if one happens to be within reach.
They will recite the name of God (Parraeshwar, Bhagwan, liam Ram, Hadha
Krishna, or the like), early in the morning and after bathing. This is about all that
Btands for daily worship amongst this class. On festive occasions, they will dispense
charity and make offerings to the local or sectional god or goddess. In times
of troubli^, they will worship the goddess of disease, Guga fir or some other
saint, etc., according to requirements. Their faith in the eflBcacy of witchcraft
and charms is considerable and many a disease is treated by worship, offering or
magic, as if it were due to the displeasure of some deity or to the evil
designs of some malevolent spirit. The details of faiths and worship among
the masses are given in paragraphs 216 — 246 of Sir Denzil Ibbetson's Census
Report for 1881, and an account of the worship of Devat Sidh and Birs in the
hills is contained in paragraph 14, pages 119 et seq. of Mr. Rose's Report of 1901.
I will only supplement the information with a few striking facts. In the Simla
Hills, the territory is divided into a number of Devtds (local godlings) who
may be said to be deified heroes. They generally have their temples on the highest
ridges. The images are made usually of wood or sometimes of stone and are
of very crude workmanship. These territorial gods are supposed to rule over
their respective dominions, irrespective of the minor gods belonging to each
village or small unit. Some of the gods have tribal instead of territorial juris-
diction, and offerings are made to them by certain castes, wherever they may hap-
pen to reside. Some of them are Dudhddhdris {i.e., take offerings of milk
alone) ; others are meat-eaters and receive offerings of animals. These gods
are worshipped at marriages, on every Sanhrdnt (beginning of solar m^nth)
and on Diiudli. Every votary of the god has to send a certain amount of produce
to the temple at each harvest, and whenever his cow calves, he has to make an
offering of milk. In the month of Sawan, Asauj or Katik (July- August, Sep-
tember-October or November-December) the votaries from the neighbouring
villages assemble at the temple, on a fixed day, and keep up the whole night,
singing praises of the god (this is called Jdgrd) to the accompaniment of drums
and cymbals. The image of the god is t^ken round by the Pujdri (custodian of the
temple), on a tour every six months, for the collection of dues from the votaries
attached to him. A cash account is kept up for the Devta and the funds are
managed jointly by the people of the village in which the temple is situated or by
the caste of votaries. The Devta maintains friendly relations with the Ruling
Chiefs and sends contributions at the time of marriages, etc., to the family. On
the otlier hand, tlie Ruling Chiefs attend the temple at the Shint ceremony,
which is performed once in 10 or 15 years, when the temple is repaired and put in
order. On such occasions, the Devta gives a feast to the Ruling Chief and to
all the people assembled at the time. The latter sometimes takes advantage
of the Devta' s friendship and when he is displeased with tiie people of some village
or tract, he forbids the Devta, visiting that locality. For fear of the Devla's wrath,
the people have to go and make extra offerings at the temple and the Ruling Chief
is enabled to bring them down on their knees. In the westt-ru Punjab, the
worship of Saturn is very common. In every bye-lane of a town or village
inhabited partly by Hindus, one finds little mounds of earth, besmeared with oil.
These mounds are consecrated to Saturn {Ghhanchhan) and are regularly attended
■to. On every Saturday, the Hindu will give away some oil, usually after seeing
^the reflection of his face in it and dropping a pice therein (this is called
Census Report. ]
114
HINDU-DK7I CULTS.
Chaptke
Worship in
low castes
Castes
ofi&ciating
2.t temples
The origin
of Goddess
■worship.
Chhdydpdtr*) to tbe Dakauts called Chhanrhhanis in these parts, or will go and pour
a little oil on one of the chhanchhan mounds. This is supposed to remove the eyil
effects of past Karmas—i.e., of the bad grahas (planets).
Throughout the Province, attending on holy people and hstenmg to
Kathd (dit^coul-ses from the l^hdstms) are considered sacred duties. The help of
the Brahman priest becomes necessary at marriage and other ceremonies, when
the ritual, elaborate or brief, according to the traditions of the family, is gone
throuo'h. Even the Chuhra will consult the Brahman as to auspicious days for
marriage and regular marriage rites are performed by the Kolis and other un-
touchable castes, the gods being regularly invoked, even though a Brahman
may not be in attendance.
137. Local inquiries made at different places in the eastern Punjab show
that the favourite worship of the low castes such as Koli, Dhanak and Khatik,
generally is, the worship of Devi, Bhairon and Qugn. Even the Lai Begi Chuhras
worship Devi, Gngd and Sitala in addition to Ldl Beg whom they call Ldl Guru.
yir Alfred Lyall says : — " That belief in a mornl purpose and a just Provi-
dence should be rooted in the Hindu mind, side by side with all these absurd
mythologies, is only one of tbe numerous anomalies natural to symbolic polythe-
ism. " The fact that the most ignorant rustics, following the crudest form of wor-
ship have a firm belief in the highest philosophic theories of re-incarnation and
the law of Karma, might, according to some, be taken as proving that the various
forms of worship are not of independent growths, but are the ramiBcations of a com-
plicated system of worship, evolved by highly intellectual theologians, with reference
to the mental capabilities of the innumerable grades of intellect amongst men.
138. The priests at the temples of Vishnu, Shiva and the goddess should,
according to rule, be Brahmans. The temples of Vishnu in this Province are
dedicated to either Krishna or Rama. In the former case the Pnjdris (priests) are
Goswamis (Brahmans). In the latter, the temples are looked after by Bairagi
Sadhus, who may or may not be Brahmans. The Pujdris of Shiva are usually
Sanyasis. The Sanyds Ashrama was originally intended for Brahmans only, but other
castes are also now admitted and conse-
quently, the persons presiding at Shiva
temples may be Brahmans, or tSanyasis
of any kind. The Pujdris of the higher
goddesses {Durga, Jimld, Kdli, etc.) are
Brahmans. In the Kangra Hills they are
termed Bhojki Brahmans and hold a pecu-
liar status. But the temples of the minor
gods and goddesses are generally in charge
of non-Brahmans. Some instances are
given in the margin.
Devi Cults.
139. Goddess worship can be traced back to the Vedasf where she pro-
claims herself to be the all-powerful, all-pervading, identical with all the gnds and
the giver of all strength and bounties. There is but one Goddess ; her worship in
various forms being a later develcpnit-nt. The stone 6gure of Prnjnd Pdramitd,
discovered m Java and now at the Ethnographical Moseum at Leyden, dates from
early Buddhist time. The treatise named Prajnd Pdramitd, written by Nagar-
juna, preacher of the Mahayana dootiine in the 2nd century A. D., proves the
existence of this conception at that date.f Figures of great antiquity representing
Tdrd have been discovered in Nepal. Now Prajnd Pdramitd and Tdrd are names of
Durga occurring in Bhawdni Sahasrndm, wliich though probably a moie lecent
compilation, yet represents ideas olier than Buddhism and found in the liihdses
(epics). This will lead to the conclusion that even before the Buddhist time,
• The formula recited by the Priest at the performance of this duly is :—
Atntano vangwanahkayo parjil pap niidrifidrtham dtmar.ah grahapird nivdranartham shan{ devatdsan-
toshandrtham chhdyd pdtram patikalpaydmi. (I give away the Chhdydpdira (vessel in which ihe
reflection has been seen) in order to remove ihe sins committed through my words mind and body, and
to nullify the evil effects of my Orahai (I'lanets) and to please Ood Shani). One idea about seeing
the reflection in oil is, that if a persun has to die within six months, he cannot see a clear reflection and
is thus warned of his approaching end
• , t See Devi Sukta, Rig Veda, X, 125. Also see Muir's Sanskrit Texts, Vol. V. p. S.-?? ef s??.
J E. B. Havells Indian Sculpture and Paintings Edition, John Murray, London, 1908, pp. 51.52.
Temple of God
or Goddess.
Caste of priest.
Bhairon
Sftala
Guga
Kumhar.
(Sometimes the landlords of the
village share the profits and
keep a servant, of whichever
caste they choose, to officiate).
It is interesting that at Kewari a
Jain gentleman receives the
offerings through his lessees.
Aughar Jogis, JuJahas, Chuhris.
115
IV. HINDC-DEVI CDLIS. [ Puiljab, 1911.
Devi Tvorship was in vogue from Nepal to Java. In the preamble to Bhawdni
Sahdsrnam,* which contains the thousand names of the Goddess, sup-
posed to have been recited by Shiva to ^'andi (tiie bull), Shiva explains the
greatness of Devi thus : — " Purdkalpnkhshaye lolcdn sisrikhshu murk chetanah,
funatrayamayi Shaktirmnlprakriti Sangyitd." [In the beginning of creation, i.e.,
at the termination of a Ealpa, when He whose activity had disappeared, wished to
create the universe (again), the force of triple quality {Sat, Raj and Tam) was
called the Mula Praknti]. The preamble goes on "I got into this with the great
elements and some Shakti (force) appearing as activity possessed me. Then this
force mnnifested itself as desire, (in the form of) Brahmi, Vaishnari and Raudri.
It is she who creates the whole universe and holds it without support ; it is
she who preserves it and unto her does it disappear (at the end). Her of
such qualities have I humoured, whereupon she has entered my very self, securing
me the universal sovereignty. With her strength have I created the Universe."
This explains the conception of the Goddess. Shakti is the force or energy
which causes the cosmic evolution. It would be beyond the scope of this work
to desciibe the various kinds of Shakti and to show how each is supposed to
be connected with the Sat, Raj and Tam,, or creation, preservation and destruction
of the Universe. The main classification alone will be noted briefly.
140. The triple nature of the creative force, has resulted in the Goddess The three
being worshipped in the three aspects of (1) Brahmi Shakti {Brahma's creative Goddesses.
■poMf ev) = Saras7vaf.i, Vaishnavi Shakti {Vishim's power of preservation) = La./i:sftwi,
and Raudri Shakti {Shiva's destructive power) = Kdli. A long story is given in the
Lievi Bhdgwat as to how the invincibility of Mahikhdsur (personified evil)
necessitated the exhibition of the separate and united Shakti (force) of each
of the three manifestations of Ishwara (i.e., hrahma, Vishnu smd Shiia). These
goddesses were personified and were worshipped according to the quality with
which the devotee was most concerned. The addition of various attributes,
according to the inspiration and emotion of the worshipper, resulted in
... Brahmi. i]^Q multiplication of the forms of each goddess,
"" I Vaishna^^. Until the One came to be worshipped under the
}^ thousand names given in Bhawdni Sahasrandma, the
Z I book above referred to. Here the threefold dis-
••■ I tinction is given up and all names including the three
".'.'. J- Raudri. main aspects of the goddess are put together,
- 1 as appellations of one. The goddess is commonly
'.■.;! worshipped in this Province under the names given in
-J the margin. Sarastvati is invoked only at Vidyaramhha
(commencement of learning). Lakshmi is worshipped as the goddess of wealth, with
or withmt Nardyana (Vishnu) her spouse. Taishnava Devi is tlie same as Vaishnavi.
All the other names are those of Edli, in various aspects and manifestatinns.
1 might mention that in the adjoining State of Kashmir, where the number
of plHCesdeiiicated to the worship of different goddesses is unlimited and where
most of the thousand names of Bhawdni are personified, the goddesses to whom
most of the votaries are attached, are Jtvdld {Kdh), Rdcjijd, Shdrikd and Kdli ;
(Ragyd and Shdrikd being names of Lakshnii),
It space permitted, it would have been interesting to go into the distin-
guishing fetitures of all the goddesses worshipped in the Province, but an ex-
aminat on of the forms of one goddess of each class will illustrate the fact that
the peisoiiification is purely symbolical. Saraswati is represented as
riding a Rdj Eansa (swan) with a book in one hand and a Vina (stringed instru-
ment) in another. Vina is the emblem of sound, which is one of the signs of the
origin of creation. The book represents knowledge and EaiL^d means purity and
discriniinaii'in. In occultism, Bansa represents ' Om,' which again is supposed
to be Bralnnf and the beginning of the Vedas,f and hence of all knowledge.
Lakshmi \s, seated in a lotus with a S/ia;?/!-/; (conch) and a lotus in her hands,
of fair complexion, bedecked with pearls. She is also shown as riding an
elephant. Tlie conch is the emblem of authority and the lotu^ signifies the
existence of spirit in matter. The pearls represent wealth and the elephant
• bee Kudr.i Vamal (a Tantric bookT!
t Om iiyeiidkshaTnm Brahtn (Om which is the Brahm in one word) — Bhagwat Gita, VIII, 18.
% Pranawah chhandasdmiva (like the Pranawa (Cm) is the beginning of the Vedas), — Raghuvansa 1. 11.
1.
Saraswati
2.
Lakshmi
3.
Vaishnava
Devi.
4.
Indrakshi
5.
Parrati
6.
Kali
7.
Bhadr Kali
8.
Jwali
9.
DurgA
10.
Bhawdni
11.
Chandi
12.
Sitala
116
Census Report.]
HINDU SECTS.
Chaptee
The wor-
ship of
Earth.
Descriptive
General.
is a mark of pomp. Kdli is depicted black, riding a tiger or a dead body
with (1) sword, (2) chalcra (disc), (3) mace, (4) arrow, (5) bow, (6) parigh (iron
club), (7) lance, (8) bhusundi (a missile), (9) skull, and (10) conch in her ten
hands, with her red tongue protruding in thirst for blood. All these are signs
of destruction. Sitala, which is supposed to be a form of Kdli, rides a donkey.
Las a broom in one hand and a winnowing basket in the other. The meaning
is that she sweeps men about, when she comes and gathers them in the win-
nowing basket, to be thrown away to the winds. Her conveyance is a type of slow
motion, which means that she takes a long time to disappear. The picture thus re-
presents the destructiye power, exactly in the light of her manifestation as small-pox.
141. So far as I am aware, there is nothing to connect goddess worship
with the worship of Mother Earth. The earth is, of course, worshipped as A'dhdr
Shakti (the supporting force) in all ritual, but there is nothing to show that this
idea preceded the other conception of the Goddess. The personification of the
powers of the Creator, the Preserver and the Destroyer being once established, the
identification of one of these with all important, uncommon or uncontrollable
phenomena is a simple matter.
Hindu Sects.
142. To give an exhaustive list of Hindu sects or a correct classification
thereof, is a work which it is impossible for a person of my limited knowledge
to undertake, The following list of the different schools of Hindu thought
given by Madhavacharya * will show the range of the Indian Philosophy in com-
paratively recent times : — 1, Ghdrvdk (atheist) ; 2, Boudh (Buddhist) ; 3, Arliat
(Jain) ; 4, Rdmdnuj (Vaishnava) ; 5, Purnaprajnd ; 6, Hahulishpashupata ; 7,
Shaivd; 8, Pratyabhijna; 9, Baseshwar ; 10, Auluhya; 11, Ahhpdda; 12,
Jaimani (Pdrva Mimaosa) ; 18, Pdnini (the grammarians) ; 14, Sdnkhi/a; and 15,
Pdtanja''a (Yoga). For an exposition of the. various doctrines, Madhavachiirya's
book citt^d above should be read. The Chdrvdkds have not formed an important
sect. Tlie Buddhists and Jains are now treated as representing separate faiths.
Old
SECTS.
(»)
Religious orders—
Bairagi
. 7,126
Ddasi
2,031
Fakir
. 2,763
Sany^si
. 5,652
Jogi
. 7,339
Gorakhpanthi
2,415
(b)
Saint Worshippers
—
Didupanthi
. 1,324
Guga l-ir
.. 4,859
Kabirpanthi
. 89,254
Kalupanlhi
. 36,406
Nirriitbansi-
972
Pabuji
.. 6,226
Panjpiria
.. 77,685
l:ai Dasia
. 106,770
Rim Raya
. 2,001
Sewak Darya
.. 19,821
(c)
Orthodox Hindus—
Sanatin Uharm ..
.7,015,605
Sect Woksuipping Muhammadan
Saints in addition tothbir
OWN GODS —
Sarwaria
Shamsi
3. Sects op low castes —
B41miki
Lalbegi
Ramdisia
4. Refoemees —
Arya
Brahmo
Dev Dharm
Ninakpanthi
Radhaswimi
5. Miscellaneous —
(a) Miscellaneous sects
(6) Castes returned as sects 17,715
6. Unspecified ... 1,648
7. Sects analogous to other
Religions
230,988
1,425
315,674
466,172
199,465
100,783
700
3,094
21,756
3,862
10,126
The entries of sects
of Hindus actually made
at the Census are however
different. They are noted
in the margin and may be
grouped under seven heads,
viz. : (1) the old sects com-
prising of the rehgious
orders, the saint worshippers
and the orthodox, (2) sects
worshipping Muhammadan
saints in addition to their
own gods, (3) sects of low
11,964 castes, (4) the reformers, (5)
miscelhiueous sects, (6) unspecified and (7) sects analogous to other religions. The
less numerous and unimportant entries have been included under Miscellaneous.
1. Old sects-(a) Religious orders-
143. The Hindu religious orders may be divided broadly into :—Shaiva
[Sanyasi'^ who are worshippers of Shiva t and Jogis who worship Bhairon
(includintj Goiakhpanthis)] and Vaishnavas [ Bairagis who are attached to Ram
ChandrH, with all their branches and Gosains who are devotees of Krishna,
but not being a celibate order, do not appear as a
separate sect]. The tendency to enter religious orders
appears to be on the decline. Some of the figures of
1891 and 1911 are compared in the margin. Taking the
five orders enumerated, their strength has sunk to one-third.
Even allowing for the uncertainties of classification, J the
decrease appears to be real. The Jogis are at a con-
siderable discount. One seldom hears of additions to the
* Sarvadarshana Sangraha by Madhavfichirya, published with a Hindi translation by P. Udaya Narain Singh
of Muzaffarp'ir. Venkateshwar Press edition, Sambat 1S62.
+ There areal«o Vaishnava SanyasisCTrtdanJi*), but they are met with in Southern India and not in thia Province.
(The caste figures of Bair&gis and Jogis discussed in Chapter XI show a larger strength.
1^91.
1911.
Bairigi
Udisi...
SauyAsi
Jogi ...
Fakir
30,144
Iu51^
11 545
•U,598
7,126
2,031
5,652
7,339
2,763
Total ...
73 815
24,911
117
IV« HiNon SECTS. [Punjab, 1911.
order except at Bohar in Rohtak. The recruits to the Bairagi order are also few.
The Sanyasis were less nnmerous 20 years ago, bi;t have lost onlj half the
ground. Udasi initiates are becoming rare. The influence of modern times
militates very strongly against takinfj up religious orders. Begging is becoming
less profitable, compared with the lucrativeness of professions, for the charitable
disposition of tlie Hindus is now finding other outlets. The large institutions
supported mainly by private charity now find it difficult to maintain large num-
bers of Siidhus, owing partly to high prices and partly to the curtailment of pecu-
niary assistance. Bands fif Sadhiis goins; a-begging meet with scant satisfaction,
unless they happen to visit the houses of gentlemen or ladies of the right old type.
144. A detailed account of the Bairagi order is given in the Punjab Bairagi.
Census Reports of 1891 (p. 122) and 1881 (p. 286). A few notes regarding their
initiation and rules of practice are given here.
Bairagi being a celibate order, the person entering it, must give up his Dif^cipUneand
home, and if a bachelor, take the vow of celibacy. The Sliikhd and Yagyopavit^'"^''"'"''-
are not abandoned. Indeed, they are both essential. Bairagis can be jatalu (who
grow their hair and beard and never cut tbem) or mundlu (who shave their
head and face keeping only the Shikhd), but ordinarily ihey belong to the former
variety. When a person other than a Brahman is initiated, he is invested with
a sacred thread (YaQi/opavH), The apprentice receives 5 signs at the time of
initiation; 1, Tdak;2, Seal ; 3, Kanthi ; 4, Langot and t). Mantra. The tilah
of the order, whicli the initiate enters, has to be painted by him on his forehead
every morning and he is branded on the left bicep with the seal of the institution
at which he is initiated. The Kanthi (necklace) of Tuisi (ocymum sanctum)
is to be constantly worn and he is never to be witliout his langot (loin-
cloth). The mantra has to be committed to memory and repeated every day on
the rosary. The apprentice has to wash his Guru's feet, to drink a little of the
water in which the feet have been washed {charndmarit) and to eat tlie leavings
of tlie Guru's plate (called Sit Prasad, i.e., gift of cold food, but probably meaning
jS/ii,?/ii=leavii)g3 and Prasad = food. The ceremony of initiation is performed in
presence of all the Bairagis of the station, who assemble to witness it and a
Bhanddrd (feast) is given in honour of the occasion. Bairagis are cremated on
death but no kriyd (after-death rite) is performed. A Bhanddrd (feast) has,
however, to be given if there is a chela (disciple).
1 45. For an account of the JJddsi order, Punjab Census Report, 1 881 (p. 286), udasi-
1891 (p. 151) and 1901 (p. 134) should be read." The initiation is simple. The
apprentice has to wash the great toes of five Udasis assembled for the purpose and
drink the water so obtained. He is taught the Bdni (instructions) of Biiha iSiri
Chand, son of Guru Nanak. The Gm u changes the disciple's name and thenceforth
he is called by the new name. He has to wear bhagivdn (salmon coloured)
clothes. The dead body is cremated and the funeral rites {dasgdtras) are per-
formed for 10 days hke the ordinary Hindus.
1 46. Sanyfisi is an order oiitrinally presci-ibed for the Brahmans alone and is Sanyasi.
the only name given for ascetics in Manu or earlier works. Four classes of iSanytisis
are recognized by the Smritis,* viz., Kutichalc, Bahudak, llansa »j:d Parmuhansa.
The classification is bas^d upon the degree of Vairdgi/a (aversion) Avliich pre-
cedes the renunciation. Vairdgya is said to be of three kinds, (1) manda (dull) which
is only temporary and is caused by the loss of son, wife, home, etc. ; (2) Tibra
(acute) when the desire is not to have sons, wife, wealth, etc., in this or the
future life, and (3) Tibratar (intense) in which the person wishes never to be
reborn in any li>ka (world). Sanyiis must not be taken in Mand Vairdgya : Tibra
Voirdgya entitles a man to initiation as Ktdichak, Bahudak or Hansa. The
Parmahansa type of Sanyia can only be tak.n when the Vairdgya is Tihralar.
A person may enter this degree director after having entered one or the other of the
three lower degre»'S. Kutirkaks and Bakddak.i aro tndandi«, i.e., carry three staffs,
which represent the Vdlc-dand, Mano-dand, and Karma. dand, i.e., vows to control the
speech, mind and action. A llahudak is he who can travel. He is not supposed
to stick to one pluce, but a Tndandi who is unaole to undertake journeys be-
comes a Kutirhak, and is allowed to beg f i om the house of his son or relatives
• See Pdrdshar Sn.iriti and Udritu Smiriti.
118
Census Report. ] hindu sects. Chaptbb
without taking any interest in them. The Hansa and Parmahansa Sanydsis are
ekdandis (i.e., carry only one staff). The Hansa has only Tibra Vairdgya, but wishes
to obtain Gyin (knowledge of the Supreme) in Brahmaloka. Parmahansas are of
two kinds (1) Vioidusha, those who desire Gydn here, and (2) Gydnvdn, those who
have attained it. These kinds of Sdnyds are not now in vogue, at all events in the
Punjab. Shankraciiarya organized the Sanyasis into a regular religious order and
established four Mathas (central institutions) where alone a person could be initiat-
ed into the dshrama. He recognized the ten names {Dashandma) of Giri, Puri,
Bhdrati, Parvat, Sdgara, Van, Aranyu, Saraswaci, Tirtha and A.'ihrama for them,
and distributed the titles over the four Mathas. But he conferred tlie privilege
of bearing the staff {Danda) on only 3^ of the 10 classes, viz., on the Tirtha^
Ashrama, Suraswali and half of the fihdrati. The other Sanyasis are called Dasha-
ndmi or Goswami. The Dandi Sanyasis enjoy the highest esteem atnongst the Hin-
dus, for it is said that, Dandagrahana mdtrenanaro ndrdyanah bhavet. (By the
mere fact of holding the staff, i.e., by being initiated to the degree of Dandi, the
man becomes God). The four Mathas of Shankracharya were established at
the four ends of India,* one of his disci |)les being placed in charge of
eachf. The preceptor now presiding at each Matha is termed Shankracharya. An
explanation of each detail would take up too much space. The Kedar Matha is
not in existence, but the Shankracharyas of the other three Mathas are
trying to revive it. Only Brahmans are initiated at the Shdrada (Dwarka)
and Shringeri Mathas, while the Govardhana Matha will admit persons belonging
to the other Varnas as well. Full discipline of the order is enforced only at
the Mathas, but they have several branches where persons wishing to enter the
order are admitted into its folds.
Besides the Damlis or Dashandmis, there are three peculiar classes of
Sanyasis, viz., (1) Atu",- Sanyasi, who embraces Sanyas just before death,
(2) Md'ias Sanyasi, who renunciates the world inwardly but never adopts any
outward sign of the order, and (3) Ant Sanyasi, who on adopting Sanyas sits in one
place and determines to end his life in meditation by not taking any food or drink.
A number of minor groups of Sanyasis have been formed in consequence
of peculiar tendencies of individuals, not based upon the fundamental prin-
ciples of the order, e.g., 1. Avadhutal (Tantric) who are of four kinds: —
(a) Brahmdvadhdta, (6) Shaiudvadhuta, (c) BhaJddvadhuta and {d) Bansd-
vadhuta. Bhaktdvadhuta are divided into (1) P'irna called Parmdhansa and
(2) Apurna known as Parihrdjaka.% Some divide AvadhtUa Sanayasis into
Grih'i stha dnd Uddsin.\\ 2. Ndagas who go ab)ut naked. 3. H/i My a, called (a)
Bhairon Jholidhdri ; (b) Ganesh Jholidhdri ; (c) Kali Jholidhdri, according to
the names of their Jholis or begging bags. 4. Dangali who are regular traders
in Rudraksha rosaries and similar accessories of worship. 6. Aghori or Sarbliangi,
who will eat anything, are considered very degraded, and are not touched.
'I'hey are becoming rare now. 6. Ordkabdhu. who keep one arm up until it gets
atrophied and stiffens to that position. 7. Akdshmukhi, who always keep
looking upwards. 8. Nalchi, who grow their nails. 9. Sthadoshwari, who always
keep standing and n^ver sit or lie down. lO. Urdhamukhi, who tie them-
selves np to a tree by their legs at the time of their practice. 11. Panchadhiini
or Panchdgni, who practise austerities with four fires kindled around them and
• The peculiarities of the Mathaa are : -
Disbi.
Matha. Kbshetra. Acharya. Brabma-
ch4rya.
Instiiu- Locality. Ist Ordir of
Devta. Devi.
Tirtba.
Veda. Mahivikya. Gan.
N4m.
Direc-
God. Goddess.
Holy spot.
Subject of Aphorism.
Epithet.
Title.
tion.
lion. preceptor, celibacy.
study.
Bast
... Gover- Paraahot- Hanta- Prakishik.
Jasran- Vimali.
Mabodadbl
RiRveda. Prajninam
V4g»ar
Van anil
dhaa. lam. milak.
natb.
(Ocean).
Brthma.
Aranya.
Soalh
... Shringeri Rainesh. Suraahvrar. Chetaa.
A'tiva- Eamtiktayi
Tung
rajnrveda. Aham
V4rivar.
Pun
war.
rAha.
Bhadr4.
Brabmasmi.
Bbarati and
Sarnswati.
We(.t
.. Sbaradi. Dwarlka. Padmapid. Sariip.
Siddhesb- Bbadra
war. Kali.
Qomali.
Simreda. Tattwa-
raasi.
Kitvar.
Tirtba and
Ashram.
North
.. Jyotir. Sedsr. Sbr.^tak. Ananda.
Nira- PunyaKiri.
Alaknandi.
Atharra Ayamilm4.
Anand-
Giri,
yaoa.
veda.
var.
Parbsit and
Si|;ar.
t The disliaclioa ij similar to the assignment of the four Vedas to different regions, thus, the Rig Veda, with
its Chhanlas and Briknun aai ils tiol 4/ii is as^iigioi to the Earth, the Vajur Voda with its Gol Vdyafi. to the
uncarifcsiia Jirinitneat. , tha Simi VeJa, with Its Qod Sn'i/i to heivaa aai the Atharva Voda, with its Gols the fli»hi» to
the lu directions.
J See -Sirvana tmlra Chapter XI7 ; UilaairTaai tantra, Chapters Vin and XIV.
§ Pranlosbiai Ohrita Mahaairvana tantra.
II Mundamala tantra.
119
IV. HINDU SECTS. [ Ptuijal), l9ll-
the fifth fire of the sun shining above. 12. Tydcj Sanyasi, those who do not beg
but eat whatever is given to tliem without the asking. 13. Maunnbrati, who
maintain rigid silence. 14. Jalashayt, who practise austerities sitting in water.
15. Jaladhdrdsparshi, whose heads are continuously sprinliled with water, when
they are in meditation. 16. Kaddlingi, who engirdle their waiste with an
iron plate in place of the usual waistband and langnt. 17. Phaldhdri, who live
on fruits alone. 18. Dudhddhdri, who live on milk alone, and so on.
The last but not the least important class of Sanyasis are the Grihastis or
Gharbdria (the married ascetics) wbo are a contradiction in term. The class ia,
of course, much looked down upon and is not very numerous. At tlie same time
there are female Sanyasis called 4 ya(Z/tMi«?8. The number of real female ascetics
is very small, but quite a large number of female beggars go about in the
garb of Sddh7its and oftener than not, describe themselves as Sanyisans.
147. The ceremonies of initiation into /Sawi/iis have a deep sigaificaoce. Ceremonies
When a person has made up his mind to enter the order, he signifies bis intention °* ^''*''°°*
to the head of an institution of Sanyasis and having received the permission goes
through the following ceremonies: — (1) The first thing he has to do is to
perform the shrddha (obsequies) of all his pitras (ancestors, etc.). (2) If a
khshtdqni, i.e., one who practises agnihotra (fire sacrifice), he performs the
prdjdpalya ishti and if a niragni, i.e., non-agnihotr, then the birjd havan, accord-
ing to Vedic rites ; and gives away all that he possesses except a kopin (loin-
cloth), danda (staff) and jalpdtra (water vessel). (3). He then has his beard,
moustaches and head shaved, keeping only the shikhi (scalp lock). This is called
mundan. (4) The next stnp is to perform dtma shrddha, i.e., his own al'ter-
■death rites, presuming himself to be dead. (5) He then addresses himself to
the Sun and recites a mantra, purporting to give up the desire for sons, wealth
and higher life and resolving that no living being shall receive any injury from
him. (6) His shikhi is then cut off. He enters water (the sea or a river) with
his shikkd and yagyopavit in hand nnd throws both away, resolving: — "I
Am no body's and no one is mine." After that he recites the Prcsliamantra,
whereby he adopts /Sa?i2/*s in the presence and with the testimony of the three
lokds (regions) and renounces the world. (7) On emerging from the water, he
fitarts naked to the north for tapa (austerity). (8) The Ourii stops him, makes
him put on the kopin, gives him the danda and the jalpdtra, kept out of the
initiate's personal property and advises him to stay there and begin to learn what
he can. He is gradually persuaded to put on other covering as well.
148. The marks of a true Sanyasi are : — Kapilambrikisha milldni, huchai- Disdplim,
lam amhdyatd, samatd chaiva sarvasmin, etadmuktasya lakshanam.* (An earthen
pot (for drinking water), the roots of trees (for food), coarse vesture, total
solitude, equanimity towards ail, this is the sign of one freed). Some of the
rules of practice to be observed by a Sanyasi are : — (1) One cloth round the
waist above the knees and below the navel and another one over the shoulders ;
with these two coverings should a Sanyasi go out begging. (2) He shall eat
only one meal (in 24 hours). (3) He shall live outside inhabited quarters.
(4) He shall beg from seven and net more than seven houses (except m the
case of a Kutichak). (5) He shall not stay tuo long in one place {KuttchaJc
•excepted). (6) He shall sleep on the ground. (7) He shall not salute any one,
nor praise or speak ill of anybody. (8) He shall bow only to Sanyasis of a
higher order or of longer standing, and (9), He may not cover himself with a cloth
except of salmon colour. The Sanyasis are not cremated but the dead body is
carried out in a sitting posture with the face open and buried in the same position.
The shrddha having already been performed by the Sanyasi himself, no after-death
rites are necessary.
) 49. Jogi is a corruption of Yogi, a term applied originally to the Sanyasis Jogis.
well advanced in the practice of Yogdhhydf. They are really a branch of
Sanyasis, the order havintr been founded by Guru Machhandar (Matsyendra)
Nath and Gorakh Nath Sanyasis, wbo were devoted to the practice of Yoga
and possessed great supernatural power. Hatha Yoga is the special study of
the Sanyasis, and they are called Yogis when they attain a certain degree of
•Manu-VI, 41.
Census Report. ]
120
HINDU SECTS.
Chaptbb
eflBciency in the practice. The followers of Guru Qorakh Nath are absorbed more
in the Yoga practices than in the study of the Vedas and other religious literature,
but betwi-en a real good Jogi and a Yogi Sanyasi there is rot much difference,
except perhaps that the former wears the mudra (rings) in his ears. The Jogia
worship Bhniron, the most fearful form of Shiva. Like all other sub-divisions of
rehgious schools, however, the Jogis have stuck to the details more than to the
principles anci got sub-divided into numerous groups. The main divisions are : —
Darshani or Eanpdtd,\fho wear the mudra (and are known as Naths) and Aughar,
who do not. Then there are Gudar, Sukhar, liukhar, Bhukhar, Kukar and Ukhar,
as well as Thtkarndth who carry a broken clay pot for alms, the Kanipds (snake
charmers), Bhartriharis (followers of Bhartrihari), Shrivgihar, Dunhar, etc.
There are also Jogins or Joginis, i.e., females admitted into the Jogi order.*
Gorak- ] 50. Gorakhpanthis are Jogis who are the followers of G ui u Gorakh Nath.
panthi. Only 2,415 (agaiust 10,730 in 1891) have returned themselves under this
title, the others appearing under the name of Jogi. For an account of Gorakh
Nath, see page 129 of Mr. Rose's Census Report, 1901, and page 390 et seq. of
his Glossary of Tribes and Castes, Vol. II.
b.— Saint Worshippers.
Dadu- 151. A very interesting account of the Dadupanthi sect is given by Mr.
panthL Maclagan in his Census Report of the Punjab,! and reproduced with certain addi-
tions in Mr. Rose's Glossary of the Tribes and Castes, j Diidu is also known by the
name of Dyalji and is often mentioned as Dadu Dyalji. The teachings of this sect
are akin to those of Nanakpanthis, being based upon Nirgiin Updsand (worship
of the impersonal God). Nanakpanthis sometimes go in for murti pujd (idol
worship), but Dadupanthis are persistently opposed to it. The principal sacred book
of the sect is Dddu Dydlji ki Bdni or Dddu Bdni, as alluded to by Mr. Maclagan.
The more recent works containing a comprehensive account of the sect, and
of its teachings are Sundar Vilds, Vichdr Sdgar and Gydn Samuh, all in
Hindi. The sect is a decadent one, its strength having gone down from 8,842
in 1891 to 1,324 at the present Census. The figures of 1901 are not available.
Although an order of ascetics yet it includes
several married couples, the number of males and
females being 794 and 530, respectively. Dadd-
panthis ars most numerous in the districts named
in the margin. 'I hey are thus to be found mostly in
the southern and eastern I'unjab, with the solitary
exception of Multan, which is the favourite resort of
Sad bus of all kinds.
Cuga Pir. 152. Only 4,859 persons have now returned themselves as followers of Gugs
against 36,581 in 1891. Guga worshippers belong mostly to the low castes
of Chuhra, Chamar, Dhanak, Julalia, etc. But Bagris of all ranks believe
in Guga. For an account of Guga, Ibbetson's Census Report of 1881§
should be read. The only point requiring correction is, that Guga slew his
cousins and not nephews. He was pon of Baclihal Rani and her sister Kachhal
gave birth to twins who were slain in battle by Guga. The story goes that
Bachhfd used to worship Guru Gorakh Nath for being blessed with a son. After
twelve years' austerities Gorakh Nath came, but her sister, who was also childless,
heard his fame and borrowing the clothes of Biichhal, approached Gorakh Nath and
obtained from him two grains of barley on eating which she was to get two sons.
The next day Bachhal went for the grant of her prayer, but was turned away, as
the boon had already been given to her sister. She persisted in her austerities
and two years later. Guru Gorakh Nath gave her a piece of sugar (gur) on eating
which she got a son, named Guga for that reason. But on granting the boon, Guru
Gorakh Nath said this boy must kill, in the prime of their life, the two sons of her
sister, who had been obtained by fraud. This did not please Bachhal and wl)en
the event occurred and Guga slew the two cousins, she told him to follow them
where they had gone. Guga left his mother, but did not abandon his wife who wa»
• For a detniled account of Jogis see pages 388 et seq. of Rose's Gloseary of Castes and Tribes in th»
Punjab, Vol. II.
t Panjab CeLsus Report, 1891, p. U7.
t Vol. II. pp 215, 8ie,
§ Para. 223, Vol. L
District.
Males.
Fe-
males.
Total.
Hissar
91
30
121
Gurgaon
168
143
311
Ambala
41
44
85
Hoshiarpur ...
95
67
162
Ferozepore ...
88
62
15C
Multan
41
29
70
Patiala State ..
127
97
224
121
IV. HINDU SECTS. [ Punjab, 1911.
•devoted to him. He therefore spent years in hiding, probably underground, and
used to visit bis wife secretly every night. The mother eventually got scent, through
his -wife and wanted, one night, to intercept him. This led to his abandoning the
wife as well. After this he disappeared altogether. Some say he died fighting
Mahmud of Ghazni and others, that he destroyed himself. His worship is due to
the legend about his sucking the head of a snake, while in his cradle, and he is
regarded as an incarnation of the l^dg Raja (king of snakes). There is a wide-
spread belief that whenever a person vows an offering to Guga and does not fulfil
it, a snake appears in the house, within 24 hours, to demand tlie offering. Guga is
reverenced as a saint and not as the founder of a sect. His votaries (including,
many Mnhammadans) may, therefore, follow any faith or doctrines. It is only
necessary to make offerings to him at specified times. The attachment to faiths
•or doctrines is now getting so pronounced that the element of Guga worship is
becoming a secondary trait of one's religious life. The figures for 1911, stated'
above, do not, therefore, represent all who believe in the efificacy of prayers to Guga
or in his power to save people from snake-bite.
Guga has been wrongly mentioned as Zahir Pir (saint apparent). The
correct epithet is Zahria Pir (the poisonous saint) in consequence of his having
sucked the snake's head.
153. Accounts of Kablr, the founder of this sect, were given by Messrs. Kabir-
Maclagan* and Rosef and interesting facts concerning his identity, faith and panthL
teachings have been collected by Revd. WestcottJ of the S. P. G. Mission,
Cawnpore. Real Kabirpanthis are !r>}idhu3 but most weavers call themselves
by that name, without knowing much about the doctrines preached by Kabir.
The date of Kabir's birth given by the above authorities is 1440 A. D., but the
Janamsiikhi of Kabir puts it at baisdkh shudi ekddashi (11th of bright fortnight),
year 1015 of the Vikrama era, corresponding to A. D. 958. His Hindu birth§
appears to have exhibited itself from his earliest childhood in little incidents,
when he used to recite Ram Ram and objected to Hinsd (the taking of
animal life). He had a spiritual bent of mind and became the disciple of Rama-
nand, a Bairagi. His teachings and poetic compositions are most popular and are
largely quoted in the Adi-Granth of Guru Nanak. The lapse of time has shroud-
ed his birth in mystery ; but there can be little doubt about his being brought up
by Muhamraadan weavers. He preached the Adwxita philosopliy but did not
enter upon a crusade against Murti pujd (idol worship) or the worship of in-
carnations and had equal respect for all rehgions. Several miraculous acts are
attributed to him, such as the helplessness of the Kazi when he wanted to punish
Kabir for his defiance of the teachings of Islana and the anecdote about his spilling
water in the court of the king of Benares in order to save a cook who had fallen
into a heated oven. Kabir is said to have walked into the court of the king
of Benares in the company of a prostitute with a bottle in his hand. The
bottle contained Ganges water, but was taken to be one of liquor. The
king was infuriated at what appeared audacious conduct on part of Kabir.
Meanwhile Kabir spilt a little of the water from his bottle on the floor.
The king demanded the meaning of this act and was told that a cook had
fallen accidently into a heated oven and he (Kabir) simply threw water on the
oven so as to save the cook from being burnt. The king made immediate en-
quiries and found the statement to bo true — (Bhagat Mai). The following triplet
from Janamsakhi expresses Kabir's religious toleration in a nutshell : — " Bdm,
Bahim, Rartm, Keshah, Allah nam sack hoi; Bismilek, BUhamber eko, aur nd dujd
hoi. Dhoti, Ttkkd aur Jap Maid rJihand Gobind gun gdo, ftdm ndm rasnd te
simaro. Jam sirtdl bajdo. Kahat Kabir, dds fakir, apne rah chal hhdi, Hindu,
Turk duhdn men eko, Alakh na lakhed jai. [Ram, Rabim, Karim, Keshab,
Allah are the true names. Bismal and Bishamher are one and the same, nor is
there a second one. Dhoti, Tikka and the Maid (rosary) (may be worn), sing the
•Piinjab Census Keport, 1891, pp. U2— 4.
t Glossary of Tastes and Tribes, Vol. II, p. 4.17 ct eeq.
X Kabir and Kabirpanth, by Kevd. C. U. Weatcott, M. A., edition 1907, Christ Church Mission Press, Cawnpore.
§ Revd. Westcoit has tried to prove that Kabir was a Muhammadan by birth and SuG by persuasion, but
the arguments are not conclusive, and if born of Muhammadan parents, he must have developed Hindu proclivities
by intuition. As to his creed, his discipleship of Ramanand is not denied even by the author of Daliitan-i-Uamhab,
-written in the time of Akbar.
122
Census Report]
HINDU SECTS.
Chapteb
Kaln-
fantM.
ITama-
l>ansi.
District or State.
Males.
Fe.
males.
Total.
Hissar
1,937
1,622J 3,559
Rohtak
4,220
3,75l' 7,971
Gnrgion
12,328
11,908 24,236
DeM
8,113
7,280 15,393
KarnAl
1,J67
2,126 3,393
Gnrdaspur
1,741
1,423 3,164
Si&lkot
2,327
1,812
4,139
Gujrinwila
2,215
1,351
3,560
Jind State
4.648
4,174
8.822
praises Hn verse) of Gobind (God Krishna) with devotion. If you recite th&
name of Rama you can play over the head of Yama (be fearless of death). Says
Kabir, servant and fakir, follow your own path, brother, there is one (God) in
both Hindus and Muhammadans ; the unknowable cannot be known.]
1891 108,175 The sect does not appear to be losing much ground.
13' •• ''9,254 The figures of 1891 and 1911 are compared in the margin.
Its followers are found mainiy in the eastern Punjab. The districts and
states, which have returned the largest number
of Kabirpanthis are noted in the margin. The
majority of them lie in a continuous block at the
extreme south-east end of the Province, consisting
of the Districts of Gurgaon, Delhi and Rohtak and
the Native State of Jind. The number is largest
in Gurgaon (24,236), but they are also numerous
in Dehli (over 15,000). The Jind State has about
9,000 and Rohtak about 8,000. The strength in
the other districts is comparatively small.
154. Kalupanthis* are followers of Kalu Bhagat, an ascetic of the Jhuiwar
(Kahar) caste, and belong mainly to that caste of Hindus. Various supernatural
origins are ascribed to him. According to one version, he was a follower of the
Sikh Guru Arjan and according to another, he received supernatural powers from
an ascetic who gave him his Gutiri (cloak). Kalupanthis, however, worship the
Hindu gods and also respect the Granth Sahib. Their attachment to Baba Kalu
is more or less in the form of an ancestor of miraculous powers. His shrine is at
Panchraahal in the Garhshankar Tahsil (District Hoshiarpur). Offerings are
vowed to him for the fulfilment of worldly objects and made invariably at all
1891 128,651 ceremonials. The strength of the sect in 1891 is compared
1911 36,406 in -tjjQ margin with that now ascertained. Kalu Bhagat is
apparently slipping out of the memory of his followers, as the number has sunk to
about one-fourth during the past 20 years. The
Kalupanthis are confined practically to the Ambala
District. The only other units which have re-
turned this sect at all, are Patialaand Bahawalpur.
The figures are given in the margin.
155. Namabansi means descendant of Kama. Nama or Namdeo was a
Bhagat, Chhimba by caste, who preached among the lower classes. His sayings
are abundantly quoted in the Granth Sahib. Only 972 persons (427 males and
645 females), all Chhimbas, have returned themselves as Namabansis. The
entry of Namdeo which has been included in Sauatan Dharma shows 379 (281
males and 98 females) adherents of the sect. Altogether the number of persons
who have designated themselves after Namdeo or Nama is infinitesimal compared
with the total number of Chhimbas (Hindus and Sikhs), aggregating about 77,000
souls. An account of Namdeo is given in para. 82 of Mr. Machigan'a Punjab
Census Report, 1891. He hved long before Guru Nanak. The legend about
him is as follows : — His grandfather Bamdeo was an ardent worshipper of Sbri
Krishna. He had a daughter who used to sit by him, when he was engaged in
worshipping the Murti (image). When she grew up she wanted to start her
Piijd (worship) separately and her father having provided her with the requisite
matei ials, she devoted herself whole-heartedly to the worship of God. Pleased
with her devotion Shri Krishna appeared one day and asked her what she wanted.
The request was for a son and was granted. She was an unmarried virgin,
but conceived nevertheless and, in course of Lime, was delivered of a son,
who was called Namdeo. He grew up like his mother with marked devotion
to Shri Krishna and used to attend his grandfather's worship. Once upon
a time, when his maternal grandfather was going out, the latter asked
him to do the necessary Pujd (worship) in his absence and to offer Bhog
(food) to the Thdkurji (God). He did so and offered some boiled milk as Bhog.
Ambala
Patiala
Bahawalpur.
Males.
18,963
936
406
Females.
15,099
646
356
Total
34,062
1,582
762
Haviiig placed some water with it., he pulled a screen in front of the Thdhuyji to
• For an account of the sect and origin of Kalu, see P*unjab Census Report, 1891, pp. 159-160, and Rose's.
Glossary of Castes and Tribes, Vol. II, pp. 385-386.
123
IV, HiNDO SECTS. [ Punjab i9u
enable theBhog being eaten in private. On removing the screen, the milk was
found untouched, from which ho inferred that he had committed some serious siu
and that the God was not pleased accordingly at his offering. He repeated the
process unsuccpssfully the second day, but on the third day he thought life was not
worth living, if God was not pleased with his devotion. He accordingly
attempted to destroy himself with a knife. Shri Krishna appeared and lield his
hand, saying that to please him he would take the milk, which he began to drink
forthwith. When he had nearly finished, Namdeo caught hold of his hand saying
that he must leave a little behind for distribution as Ndived, after the fashion of
Bamdeo, and Shri Krishna did so. On his return, Bamdeo would not believe the
story, until Namdeo had repeated his ardent invitation of Bhaj^wau and succeeded
in having his Bliog (offering) accepted by Him in person. Thenceforward his life
was fall of devotion and he preached against the attractions of the world, enjoin-
ing good acts and Bhakti (devotion) with a view to unite the Self with the one
God. Several stories are told about his miraculous powers. At Apchalnagar he
entered the Shiva temple with shoes tied round his waist and in his intense
devotioti, began to ring them as if they were cymbals. The priest turned
him out for his impertinence. He weiit, sat at the back of tlie temple and began
to sing the praises of God there, when to the dismay of the priest tlie door of the
temple got turned towards its back, where Namdeo was sitting. Then a woman
met him in the way and fell at his feet. He uttered the usual prayer, ' may you
hve in wedlock,' to which she replied that her husband had just died and called
upon him to be true to his word. So he went and revived her dead husband.
Hearing of this miracle, the king asked Namdeo to revive his dead cow or to
embrace Islam. Namdeo by force of his devotion to Bhagwan was able to
perform the former act.
156. Pabiiji is said to be the name of a Guru of Ahirs and is greatly re-Pabuji.
epected by them and by Bagris. The followers of Pabiiji have been returned in
Hissar, Dujana, Patiala, Jind and Bahawalpur, where Ahirs and Bagris are in
abundance. Some adherents of Pabdji believe also in other saints and have
classed themselves as Panjpirias. In 1891, the strength of the sect was only 109.
The entries at the present Census aggregate 6,226.
157. The number of Panjpirias returned in 1891 is compared in the margin Panjpiria.
with the present figures. An account of Panj-
1801
1911
Hindus.
Sikhs.
23,348
77,685
703
10,911
Total, pirias was given by Mr. Maclagan in the Punjab
^^^ Census Report for 1891, para. 75. The largest
88|596 mimber of Panjpirias has been returned in Patiala
(72,211), where a combination of any five of the
following saints is respected by each individual : Shah Madar, Kara Shiih, Sayad
Bangiila, Pir Haji Rattan, Hassan Beg, Mall Shah, Miranhai, Kalapir, Solapir,
Gharib Shah, Puran Bhagat, Gopi Chand, Dyalpir, Pabiiji, Narartipir, Lathiapir,
Baksh Goa, Ghazipir. My enquiries in the eastern Punjab showed that a favourite
combination of five objects of worship was (1) Lakhdata (Sakhi Sarwar), (2)
Gugiipir, (3) Devi, (4) Devata and (5) Guru Nannk. In one place a purely Hindu
combination had been substituted, thus, (1) Bhairon, (2) Shiv, (3) Parbati, (4)
Gnga, and (5) Sitala. The gradual withdrawal of Muhainmadan votaries from
Guga worship and the tendency to remove Muhammadans from Hindu influence is
resulting in a corresponding elimination of Muhummadan saints from t!\o list of
Pirs worshipped by the Hindus. Nevertheless, the number of persons attached
to onf> combination or another of five holy persons has shown no decrease.
Indeed their strength has nearly quadru|)led in 20 years, but too much reliance
cannot be placed upon the relative value of these sect figures, as the srime person
might return himself as Sarwaria, PanjpiriYi, Guga worshipper, or Sanatan Dharmi
(in so far as he worships Devi or Bhairon).
158. Brief accounts of Riii Dasia sect will bo found in the Punjab Census Rai Dasia.
Reports of 1881* and 1891.1 Rai Diis, Rah Diis or Riivi Das, as he is variously
called, was a follower of Ramanand (Bairagi) and his followers are confined to
theCliamar caste. In origin, they do not differ much from Ham Diisias who aro
the followers of Guru Ram Das. But the doctrines of Guru Nanak preached by
• Pagu 306, para. 567.
t Pago 145, para, i'i.
Eamraia.
Sewak
Darya.
Sanatan
Oharma.
Census Report.]
124
HINOn SECTS.
Chaptee
District.
Persons.
Hissir
11,687
Rohtak
19,786
Ourgion
40,539
Delhi
14,573
Gurdaspur
4,467
PaUila
12,744
Guru Ram Das are not very different to those taught by Rai Das. Tho Ram Dasias
are both Hindus and Sikhs. Indeed the majority of them do not wear the Kps.
In practice, therefore, the Rai Dasias have got more or less mixed up with Ram
Dasias and 'the similarity of the two names in the Persian character has, as in'
1891 resulted in a confusion between the two sects. The figures given iu the
^^^ ' 27,093 margin compfire the strength of this sect in 1891 with that
isii '.".". .'.'. 106-770 now ascertained. Tho followers of Rai Das would appear
to have multiplied abont four times in 20 years, but this is far from being trae.
The loss of Ram Dasias appears partly as the gain of Rai Dasias. The Districts
==^=^=^== showing the largest number of this sect are noted in the
margin. Rai Dasias appear to be most numerous in the
Qurgaon District and are concentrated chiefly m the Delhi
Division and the Patiala State.
The conclusion regarding the deceptive nature of
the variation is supported by the coincidence that where
the number of one sect is large, that of the other is com-
para,tively small. The Gurgaon District which has 40,539 Rai Dasias has only 2,659
Ram Dasuis and Rohtak with about 20,000 of the former has only 79 of the latter.
Similarly, the figures of Patiala are lii,744 and 6,091, respectively. On the other
hand, Karnal with only 361 Rai Dasias has as many as 45,551 Ram Dasias.
159. An account of Guru Ram Rai, th*' founder of this sect, was gi ven by Mr.
Maclagan.* Ramraias come from all classes of society, but the sect is disappearing
gradually, as its adherents who differ little from
other Sikhs, are being absorbed into the Klidlsa
Panth. Only 2,001 persons (Hindus) have now
returned themselves in this sect against 52,317 in
1891. The number of Hindu and Sikh Kamraias
is compared in the margin with the figures of
1891. The decrease is phenomenal. In the margin
are also given the districts and states where
Ramraias are still in some strength. They are
con6nod to the three Doaba districts of
Hoshiarpur, Jullundur and Ludhiana.
160. River worship is common in the south-western Punjab and the priests
of this cult are known as Thakkars. They believe in Darya Sahab and pray to him
for all they want. In the matter of customs and ceremonies, they differ little from
other Hindus. The corresponding cult in the eastern Punjab is that of Khizar Pir,
who is worshipped equally by Hindus and Muhammadans, as the water spirit. On
the whole, there are 19,821 Hindu and 11 Sikh river worshippers according to
the present Census. They include 201 (males 95, females 106) followers of
Zind Kaliana. An account of Zinda and Kaliana who combined to create this
sect was given by Messrs. Maclagant and Rose.J The worship of Zinda
Kaliana is connected somehow or other with river worship. Some maintain that
Darya Sahab was a Chela of Zinda Kaliana. Others hold that Zindd Pir was a
personification of the river god, Darya Sahab. The largest number of river
worshippers is found in Multan (10,054), but the entries are scattered all over
the Province. The number returned in th« other Districts of the Multan Divi-
sion is comparatively small but many river worshippers have obviously passed as
followers of the Sanatan Dharma.
c— Orthodox Hindus.
16 1 . For want of a better name covering all the orthodox forms of worship,
the term Sanatan Dharma was used to designate the followers of the orthodox
Hindu schools other than the religious orders. In other words all orthodox Hindus,
not included in one of the sects enumerated above, have been
Persons ... ^-^j^'^Q^ classed as Sanatan Dharmis. The worshippers of Shiva,
Females ."." sliei'.aio Vishnu, the Dsvi or any combination thereof, are includ-
ed in the figures given in the margin. Sanatan Dharma is
defined as follows : — Shruti Smritt, purdnddi pratipdditah Sandtana dharmah. (That
Hindu.
Sikh.
Total.
1891
1911
52,317
2,001
30,396
26,576
82,713
28,577
District,
Hindu.
Sikh.
Total.
Hoshiirpur
Jullundur
Ludhiana
Patiila
894
156
813
173
1,164
12,54S
10,261
2,058
12,704
11,074
173
• Punjab Census Report, 1891, page 162, para. 102.
+ Punjab Census Rwport, 1891, para. 68.
J Punjab Census Keport, 1901, page 118.
125
IV. HINDU SKCT8. [ Punjab, 1911.
enjoined by the Vedas, the Smritis, the Puranas, etc., is the Sfmatan (fincient)
religion. But it must not be presumed that every one of the persons registered
as ISariatan Dharmi, is orthodox. The term includes all shades of belief from the
punctilious observance of Agnihotra (daily fire sacrifice), or worship of a parti-
cular god, down to the mere belief in the utility of adhering to the orthodox
section of the Hindu society, without observing any, or at least many, of the
restrictions essential to the carrying out of the orthodox observances. The
entries of saint worshippers attached to other than the recognized or important
saints and the worshippers of the Ganges, such as Ganga Bansi, Ganga Panthi,
Ganga Dasi, Ganga Nathi, Ganga Pir and the followers of certain Gurus, such as
Guru Sidh Lachhmi, Guru Punyakdl, Guru Pir Das, Gutu Shaka Das, Guru Sobha
Kam, Ramla Pir have all been included under this head. To give a description of
the hundreds of denominations included under the general term Sanatan Dharma
or to attempt an explanation of the various terms would cover enormous space.
1 62. With reference to a suggestion made by Sir George Grierson for Vaishnava
(1) Can it be said that all Hindus, whatever their sect, can be classified either as tnC ClaSSlIlCatlOn and Shaiva.
Vaishnavas or Shaivaa ? ^ ^ ^ ^. ^ . , , v , . , . of HinduS intO
(2) Are there any standarda which can be taken for the purpose of sach a classi- TT • L. A
fication ; and if so, conld they be applied by persons of the stamp of our Census VaiSnuavaS accl
Ennmerafors ? . S h a i V a S, the
(3) Is it correct to say that all Vaishnavas are at heart n.onotheiftic, or does this ^ o ■
atatement apply solely to the educated classes, and a small section Ouly of them ? LiCnSUS oUperin-
(41 Is it correct to say that the Vaishnavas believe in the continued separate tendcuts have
existence of the soul after mukti has been obtained ? U x j
(8) Do they reject the doctrine of Maya ? DeCll requested
(6) Is it correct to say that the effect of X^arma is merely to obtain an advantage ^q COnsider the
ons rebirth, and that emancipation from the cycle of rebirths is secured only by ihakti? .
(7) Is it true that the ordinary uneducated person merely looks on mukti as an (JUCStlOnS UOtcd
advantageous re-incarnation ? J^ ^q maroin.
Before discussing these, it is necessary to say a few words as to the distinction
between the two sects. Vaishnava, of course, means Vishnu fTpasa/c (worshipper of
Vishnu) and Shaiva implies Shiva Vpd.iak (worshipper of Shiva). The distinction
is more or less modern. The root of Vaishnavaism is supposed to be the Ghdtur-
vynha preached by Shandilya.* Bhagwan Vasudeva, the eternal omniscient and the
ultimate goal of all, is supposed to manifest Himself in 4 Vyiihas (forms) — viz., (I)
Vdsudeva, (2) SanJcarshan, (3) Pradyumna, and (4) Aniruddha. Vasudeva is the
Parmdtmd (God), Sanharshan is the Jiva (human spirit), Pradyumna is manas
(mind) and Aniruddha is Ahaiikdr (egotism). The first, i.e., Vdsudeva is the Pard-
jpraJcriti (higher nature) of the last three which are the effects of that higher nature.
The doctrine of Adwaita, which is known as Pantheism (or monism)
is expounded in the Upanisbads, but Was treated as a secret doctrine and did not
come into prominence until it was preached by Shankaracharya, who maintained
that the whole universe was the manifestation of Cine God, that it was Mdyd or
Upddhi (delusion) which made things look numerous and different from oue another
and from Him, but that as soon as the knowledge of self was gained and the
delusion removed, the idea of separateness disappeared. Ramanuj, who belongs
to a later date, was the father of modern Vaishnavaism, but having come iu
contact with the Adivaita doctrine of shankaracharya, established the Vishinht-
adwaita — i.e., qualified Monism, instead of Dwa^ta or Dualism pure and simple.
According to liim, the relation between tlie Jiva (human spirit) and Ishwara (God)
is that of Pujyob and Puja/c (the woi shipped and the worshipper), 4V/tir and
A'dheya (the support and the supporter), Sharir and Shnriri (the body and the in-
mate of the body). God is no more separate from the Jiva than is the Jiva from
the Skarir which it inhabits nor any more than the support from that which
supports ; and yet the two in each set are distinct from each other and the object
of the one is to get nearer the other and to be finally absorbed into it. Slraiikara-
charya and Ramanuj may be taken as the principal teachers of the two schools, but
there are other branches of Vaishnavaism and Shaivaism with slight differences of
detail.
163. As now understood, the two schools may be classified as follows : — rheir classis-
Vaishnavas are divided into (1) Vishishtadwaita preached by Ramanuj 5,witli"''''°'*'"^
their offshoots, viz., the Riimanandi, Nimanandi, etc., doctrines; (2) Shud-^
dhadwaiia, a school which believes in this world being a transformation of
God representing His Shakti (force). The follovTers of tliis doctrine look upon
• See Panchrdtra, a Vaishnava book.
126
Census Report] hindu sects. Chapter
Krishna under 9 years as the all in all. According to them Krishna after 9 years
became human and his career thereafter became part of his Shakti instead of i3eing'
himself. They do not believe in Mdiid (delusion) or the realization of it. Baba
Bharati who has written a book on Krishna, belonged to this school.
Shaivaism is of fourkinds(l) — Smarta, i.e., the Adwaita Vedanta of Shankara-
charya. (2) 7'antrih, in which black magic is practised with powers obtained by
the worship of Hhairava. (3) Pashupati. — This school believes in God as Pati
(Lord), Jii'a as Paslm (animal) entangled in a Pdsh (net). By devotion to the
Lord the net may be removed, liberatintj the Jiva, who without the net is nothing
more or less than the Pati himself. The only difference between the doctrine of
this school and that of Adwaita is the necessity of obtaining liberation from the
net before the realization of the unity of self with God. (4> Shdktik, which is
divided into — (a) Shiv Shdktik, worshipping ^hiva and 8hokti—i. e., iShakti
(Goddess) as a part and parcel of Shiva, and (b) Keval Shdktik, believing in
Shakti (force or Goddess) as the supreme deity on whom Shiva is dependent.*
^lii °^ -^^^ Vaishnavas worship Vishnu in one form or another, whether it be
FiVtrttt JaZas/t(X(/i, i^ama or iTns/iJta, and all Shaivas are connected in one way or
another with the worship oi Shiva. Space does not permit of a detailed description
of all these doctrines, but it may be noted that the final goal of both sects is Mnkti
(hberation) of which the Shdstras lay down five stages — viz., (1) Sdlokija, where
the liberated Jiva remains in some world, e.g., Manushyalok, Devlok, Suryalok
or tjolok, which by some is considered t) be the ideal place for liberated Jtvas;
(2) Sdrupya, where the liberated Jiva assumes the form of God (incarnate); (3)
Sdmipya, where in a form similar to that of God incarnate, the Jiva stays in close
proximity to God Himself ; (4) Sdyujya where the liberated J/ua becomes a part
cf God, nevertlieless maintaining its identity in the shapa of its Edrana Shorir
(kaimic body), although existing in unison with the impulses of the Deity, of whom
he forms a part, and (5) Edivalya, where the Jiva loses its identity aud nothing
remains but God. With these preliminary obseiTations, I proceed to deal with
the questions nbove enumerated,
ftuestioni. 164. The difference between Vaishnavas and Shaivas is not at all marked
Can all Hin.^^ *^i^ Province. Compared with the Vaishnavas of Southern India, it may,
du8 be cJassiy;. perhaps, not be far from the truth to assert that the bulk of the Hindus in the
nlvas ^'"*'" Punjab are Shaivas, for Goddess worship in one form or another is very prevalent;
Qhaivas ? but wit!i reference to the main forms of worship and usages, it may be equally
true to call the majority Vaishnavas. For this reason it was not found pra<:tic-
able to ask the Bmdus at the time of Enumeration, whether they belonged to one
or the other school of thought. It is, therefore, only possible to draw conclusions
from such facts as are known about the belief of sects returned at the Census.
For this purpose, the Hindus may be divided into, (1) followers of the Vaishuava or
Shaiva religious orders ; (2) the orthodox (yrthastis (house-holders) ; (3) the unedu-
cated masses who, though orthodox in their attachment to certain forms of worship,
are incapable of distinguishing between the subtle doctrines above allu^ied to;
(4) followers of reformers whose doctrines do nvit fall within one sclionl or the
otlier, and (5) saint worshippers whoso faith is too crude to fall within any of the
above-m<'ntioned categories. The sects analogous to other reUgions need not be
considered here. Groups 4 and 5 should be left out of account, as they are
neither Vaishnavas nor Shaivas.
Tlie religious orders array themselves in a pronounced form on one
side or tlie other. The orthodox Griliastis make very little distinction between
the two sets of doctrines, for they believe in Vishnu and Shiva as two of the
three manifestations of Ishwara (God) ; and while on the one hand tlie devotees of
one incaianr.tion of Vishnu will fight, in matters of detail, against those of another
incarnation of the same deity, for instance, Krishna worshippers and Rama
worshippers will go for each other's throats over the form of salutation, viz.,
Rddlia Krishna or Jai Sita Rdm, yet on the other, a Shaiva will worship Rama
on Dusselira and Krishna on Janamashtmi. He will make his offerings at a Thdkar-
dwdra dedicated to either of the two Avdidras of Vishnu, and a Vaishnava will go
to a Shiva temple with equal reverence. The Shaivas read Ramayan, because
• Besides Shakiikas belonging to the Shaiva group, there are Vishnu Shiktikas of the Vallabhl 3amprada.
127
iV. HINDU SECTS. [ Punjab, 191I.
the story is said to have been told by Shiva to Parbati (see Adhyatma Ramayana)
and the Vaishnavas "worship Shiva because Riixna himself prayed to iShiva
and established a Shiva temple at Rameshwar before crossing the sea. In 'i'ulsi
Ramayana, the worship of Shiva is inculcated repeatedly by Rama.* The
attachment to the Vaishnava or Shaiva class is, therefore, in most cases due
to parampara (i.e., the tradition of the family) or to the accident of a person
receiving his Diksha, (initiation) or Mantra from a Vaishnava or a Shaiva.
Separate forms of salutation are not used by the Vaishnavas and Shaivas
generally, nor is the formula recitt^d at funerals by either section different, in this
Province. The commonest form of salutation amongst non-Brahmans is Ram Rdm
or Jai Rdifn Ji ki. A non-Brahman addressing a Brahman in this Province will
say Pain paindn or Matfhd teJcndn which means I bow to you, and the Brahman
will in return say Asliirbdd (blessings) or Sakhi raho (be happy). A Brahman
addressing a Brahman will say Prandm which also means I bow to you. It
appears that tiiese forms of Salutation have not so much to do with the
persuasions of the people as with their class traditions. The Brahman, whether
a Vaishnava or Shaiva, does not say Rdm Rdm. On the other hand, all persons
supposed to belong to the warrior class had no better form of salutation than
that which reminded them of the warrior deity. The Vaishas and Shudras
seem to liave adopted the Kshatriya style in the natural desire to follow
the leaders of the countiy. Similarly, in this Province, all Hindus, irrespective
of the Sect to whicii tlaey may belong, recite at funerals, the formula Bolo
Mim (recite Ram), Rdm ndm sat hai, Gopdl ndm sat hai, sati/a bolo gata hai
* (the name of Rama alone is true, the name of Gopal (Krishna) alone is true, tell
the truth for that is the way to salvation).' This is obviously a Vaishnava
formula, for in a purely Shaiva country like Kashmir, the recitation m;ide at
funerals is, " Kshantavyome parddhdh, Shiva, Shiva, Shiva bho, Shri Mahddeva
Shamhhu" (Forgive my sins, oh Shiva, oh Shiva, oh Shiva, the blessed Mahadev
Shambliu). There is nothing to show whether the Shaivas ever had a separate
funeral formula in this Province, but the fact that even the Shaivas of Kashmir,
when in the Punjab, use the local aphorism during a funeral procession all the way
long, until ihey approach the crematorium, where they begin to recite their own
prayer to Shiva, shows that the Province has for a long time liad a majority of
Vaishnavas, some of whose customs have come to be adopted by the Shaivas as
well, even though Shaivaism as a sect is older than Vaishnavaism.
The uneducated make little distinction between the different gods and ciaesification.
of Census
figures iiiU
adherence to Vaishnava or Shaiva sects being due to the causes above described. Vaishnavas
— and Shaivas,
worship Rama, Krishna, Shiva, the goddesses, etc., an the occasion requires, their figures into
On the above principles a classification of Hindus is given in the margin. '
Although the distinction between Shaivas
•rt"-
Group 1 — Followers of religious orders: — i \t ■ \ • i
(a) Vaishnavas. (bi Shaivas. ^^d Vaishnavas is by no means clear,
Cdd^f' ■■■ s'osi j^'f'^P'""'" ■• ^'\ll yet m view of the difficulty to realize
Fakir ... ... 2'763 Sanyasi'.'.'. .'.'. 6^652 tho Adwaita philosophy of the shaivas
T . 1 T7^ T . 1 ,-.„.. and the general prevalence of the
Total ... 11,920 Total ... 15,40(5 -.t • , °, , i i -j.
Groups 2 ami 3.— (2) Orthodox Householders, and (3) VaiSnUHVa lUneral lOrmula, it maybe
The nnedacatedrn,,s,e»_:- ^.\ah^^ ^0 sav that all those falling uudcr
Didupautiii ... 1.32-1, Sanatandharrais, ' groups 2, 3 and •^, who do not Specifically
KaWrpanihi ... 89,254 Shaivas or profess to be Shaivas or Devi L'pdsaks,
K41upanthi ... 36,40h Shaktiks ... 4,235 \ i i , ^ , ^ tr • . p j_i
Nanakpanthi ... 21,756 Should be treated as Vaishnavas tur the
^^^fj^. if,^?7n ' purposes of this classification. People
Raidisi ••• 10<>,770 •!■ ■ , , 1 ,, '^
Sewakdarya ... i9,ts2i residing m tracts, where there are no
SaaAtandharmis temples, the Only religious ceremony
(other than \ ■ lu i- £ i. i." t j-U
Shaivas or being that 01 recitations trom the
ShAktikas) 7.011,370 Granth Sahib in a Ol.armsahi, but who
Total ... 7,292,927 Total ... 4,235 believe all the same in Hindu gods, will
• Shivadroki mama dcis kahivae. So nar Snpnehi, mohin nnpdwac.
Shankar vimukh bhakli ckdhe mori, 8o nar rniirh mand mati Ihori,
(A man who disrespects Shiva and calls himself ray devotee, cannot reach mo oven in a dream. He who
ignores Shiva and wishes to worship mo, is a fool and has a blunt and emaciated intellect). Tulsi Rimdyan — VI, 3, 7 and 8.
Again. Avaro ik yupta mata, Sabahin kiihaon kar jori,
Shankar bimjtin vinii nara, Bhakti na pdvc mori,
(There is another secret, which y m should all say wiih folded hands, without reciting the praises of Shiva no
«ne can attain devotion tome.)— Ibid, VI, 70, Venkateshwai Press, edition 1899,
Census Report- ]
128
HINDO SECTS.
Chapter
Group 4. — Follon'ers of rtformcrs (whose doctrines do
not fall within one school or the other) —
Aryas 100,783
Brahmos 700
Devdhaimis ... 3,094
Hfidhaswami 3,862
Total ... 108,439
Group 6. — Sain* worshippers (including faiths
of low castes, etc.) 1,328,730
Group 6. — Sects analogous to ether leligions 11,96-1
Figures of a
small portion
of the Lahore
City.
SHAIVA.
Devi worship
Shiva „
VAISHNAVA.
Krishna or Rama .
BanumUn
All gods
476
60
536
150
100
125
375
MISCELLANEOUS.
6.
RSdhaswami
6
7.
Arya
180
«,
Brahmo
1
9.
Theist
4
10.
Shamsi
1
11.
Atheist
1
Total
193
1,101
also fall in this category. The figures
show that persons falling in groups 1 to
3 number 7,324,488, i.e., 83-5 per cent,
of the total followers of the Hindu re-
ligion. Only "2 per cent, of the total
Hindu population are Shaivaa (includ-
ing Shaktiks), the rest 83*3 per cent,
being classed as Vaishnavas. The fact
must not, however, be overlooked that a large number of Hindus who pro-
fessedly worship Shiva or Shakti, have returned themselves in the Enumeration
books as merely Sanatandharmis and thiit the marginal figures do not, there-
fore, represent a correct computation of even the unmistakeable Shaivas.
With a view to ascertain the distribution of Hindus, according to their
actual belief, I had enquiries
made in three typical Hindu
mohaUas (streets) in the
Lahore City, with the result
that a total population of
1,104 Hindus was found to
be composed as noted in the
margin. Most of the persons
included in headings 1 — 5 had
returned themselves at the Census as Sanatandharmis. The figures show a
preponderance of Shaivas but the data are too limited to justify a general
conclusion. They nevertheless strengthen the theory that Shaivas are not so
few as the entries in the Enumeration books would lead one to believe.
165. My answer to question 2 would be that there are no distinguishing
standares ^^^^^^'^^' 1° the Way of anointing of the forehead (Tilak), which has practically
(if any) and disappeared, or in dress or in customs and manners, which could mark the followers
their appiica. of the Vaishnava from those of the Shaiva doctrines. The only possible way
of classification is to pick out sects which are known to be positively Shaiva
or Shdktik. As regards those whose beliefs and practices are mixed up, it is
not possible to determine by applying any number of tests, whether they belong
to one class or the other and the safest course is to relegate them en bloc to one
of the two classes.
166. As to question 3, both Vaishnavas and Shaivas are monotheistic in
so far as they consider Vishnu or Shiva to be the main object of their worship.
Monotheism implies duahsm, i.e., the separate existence of the human spirit and
God. Vaishnavaism is in its essence dualistic, in spite of the qualified Monism
{Vishishtadivaita) preached by Ramannja and the Shuddhadwaita of the Krishna
school. But Shaivaism is also dualistic, since it teaches devotion to Shiva (the
relation of the worshipper and the worshipped necessitates the conception of a
dual existence) until the devotee reaches the highly spiritual stage of i\trvikalpa
Samddhi. The realization of Monism inculcated by the Shaiva doctrines-—
Tat tvmmasi* (that thou art), ahaw Brama asmi t (I am Brahma) — only comes
in at that stage. The highest ideal of a Shaiva devotee is expressed in the
following verse, Janmdni Santu mam deva shatddhikdni, mdyd cha me vishatu
Chilian) ahodhahetn, kincha kshavdrdhnmapi te charandrabind at vapditu me hi'idaya-
mish namo nam,aste (Let me, O God, have over a hundred births, and let
Mdyd, the cause of delusion enter my mind, but let not my heart be away from
your lotus feet for even half a second, 0 Lord, obeisance to Thee). This is
surely monotheism on the basis of marked dualism. On the other hand, both
Vaishnavas and Shaivas are polytheistic, inasmuch as they worship various
other gods (and goddesses) whom they consider to be the manifestation of
the self or power of the one deity in whom they believe. And Vaishnavas are
no less pantheistic than the Shaivas, for botli consider God tc be all-pervading
and the universe to be a manifestation of God. J For all practical purposes,
therefore, there is not much difference between the two schools, in respect of
Qaestion 2.
tion
Qnestion 3.
Are Vaish.
^lavas ilono-
Vieistic ?
• Chhandogya Upanishad, VI, 8, 7 tf.
+ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, I, 4. 10.
X Pd( pdt vi\in Sahib mere (in every leaf is my Lord) — Kabir.
129
IV. HINDU SECTS. [Punjab, 1911.
monotheism, polytheism and pantheism. The subtle Adwaita philosophy, though
professed in name, is really Greek to even tlie Shaivas in the elementary stages of
spiritual development. But in so far aa the final goal of the Shaivas is the realiza-
tion of Monism, it may be said that the Vaishnavas are more markedly monotheistic.
167. Question 4 has already been answered. Of the five kinds of MuiKt Gnestion*.
enumerated above, the highest form — viz., Kaivalya — is preached only by the continued
Adwaita-vddi Shaivas. The Vaishnavas, therefore, believe in continued separate *'''"'™'*'"'*'-
existence of the human spirit after Mukti, in one form or another. tnceo/eou .
168. Question 5 must be answered in tbe affirmative. The Vaishnavas have ^^^^*i°Ji 5-
no faith in the doctrine of Mdyd. "'"'''■
169. As regards question 6, the Upanishads prescribe three paths f or ^^estion 6.
obtaining salvation, which involves liberation from rebirth and which, according to ESeu o/
the Vaishnavas, implies securing close proximity to the Supreme Spirit, and'^'"'""'-
according to the Shaivas, the realization of self which is none else but the Supreme
Spirit {Parmdtman). They are the Bhahti mdrga, Karm nidrga, and Gydn mdrga.
Bhagwat Gita, the utterance of Sri Krishna (au incarnation of Vishnu), contains
most exhaustive discourses on the threH paths. Individuals may begin by
treading any one of tbem, hnt Bhakti, Kanna and Gydn must combme before
the goal can be reached. Erich helps the other. Bhakti is the easiest to
begin with, but true devotion can only be reached when one has controlled his
actions, exhausted his store of Karma (results of good and bad acts in the past
lives) and ceased to perform any actions actuated by desire, so that he creates no
store for the future. Nor can the devotee realize the object of his devotion or begin
to perform Nishkdm (desireless) actions until he has obtained tbe knowledge of self.
Obtaining an advantageous rebirth is certainly the effect of good actions (Karma)
and the first kind of Muhti (Salokya) is obtained by actions performed with the
desire of freeing one's self from pain and rising to a sphere where there is more
pleasure than pain. But complete emancipation is possible only when the actions
(Kurmas) lose their vitality — i.e., cease to bear fruit.
1 70. It is only natural that the ambition of the crudest intellect should be Gnestion 7*
the lowest form of Mukti. But if the popular teachings can be an index of the mm as be-
ideals of the people at large, it wonld not be correct to say that the ordinary ^'<"""^ ''y ^^e
uneducated person looks upon Mukti merely as an advantageous re-incarnation. """""
Some of the everyday prayers of Vaishnavas are : — Yasya smaran mdtrena janma
sansdra bandhandt vimuchyate, namastasmai vishnave prahhavishnave* (Whose
remembrance alone liberates one from the shackles of rebirth and of the world, to
that all-powerfid Vishnu do I bow). Punarapi jananam punarapi maranam,
funarapi gathh nivdso, sorhumalam punarasmin mddhava, mdmuddhar najdddsam.
(Repeated birth, repeated death and repeated abode in the womb, is impossible
to bear again, 0 Krishna, lift me up, your own servant). Kahat Kahir suno
thai sddho aivdgawau mildun (Says Kabir, hear 0 good jieople, I want to get rid
of re-incarnation). Mite janam ki phdnsi (so that the noose of rebirth may
be effaced) is a very common saying. The formula recited when drinking
the ckarndmrit (water in which tbe feet of the Murii have been washed),
is : —Akdl mrilyi'. haranam sarvavyddlii nivdi-akam Vishnupd'iodakam pitwa
pvnar janma na vidyate. (Having dnink the water of Vishnu's feet, which
saves from untimely death and removes all diseases, rebirth does not take place).
These are the popular prayers. Then the epics, which are so largely read and heard
by the masses, are fnll of the idea of liberation from rebirth. In the Kamiiyana,
for instance, when about to die, Bdli asks for freedom from rebirth, Kavana wants
to see Kiima, so tlwt he may get the liberation which ho had been aspiring to, in
the past threo lives and could not attain; and so on. Again every Tirtha (place of
pilgrimage) has a legend explaining why Mukti — i.e., freedom from rebirth — can
be attained by the person bathing there, or by the pitris (deceased ancestors), if
their shrddh is performed, within certain limits and at certain times.
Bnt the fiiiKlua firmly believe that Mukli is a state of perfection, wh'ch it is
ordinarily impossible to reach in one life, and that a soul has to pass through
numerous incarnations on the onward course, before it can free itself from tbe
physical environments, for good. While, therefore, the goal is liberation from
* Vishnu Sabasrauima.
masses.
Censns Report.]
180
HINDU 8ECT3.
Chaptbb
Saiwaria.
Shamsis.
1891
19L1
Hindus.
689,772
230,988
Sikhs.
34,789
79,ti85t
Total.
724,561
310,073
re-incarnatiou, the immediate aim is to get a more advantageous rebirth,
which would place the soul nearer the goal. But a person, -whether educated
or uneduCHted commences to think in this manner only when he begins to realize
what desireless actions mean. Till then his actions are actuatid by a desire
for happiness in this life and in the birth to come hereafter, and although most
people pretend to say they desire Mukti — i.e., liberation from rebirth, the inner-
most wish of their hearts is a better life hereafter in which they should have all
pleasure and no pain. The reply to this question therefore is, that the people,
whether educated or uneducated, do understand what Mukti really means, but
that in most cases, they are actuated by a desire not to attain to Mukli but to
secure a happier rebirth or Swarga (paradise).
2- Sects Mfors'hipping Muhammadan Saints.
Influence j-j^ Besides actual conversion, Islam has had a considerable influence on
of Islam on ^]^f^ Hindu religion. The sects of reformers based on a revolt from the orthodoxy of
Hinduism. Yamdshrama Dharma were obviously the outcome of the knowledgrt that a differ-
ent religion could produce equally pious and right thinking men.. Laxity in social
restrictions also appeared simultaneously in various degrees and certain customs
were assimilated to those of theMuhammadans. On the other hand the miraculous
powers of Muhammadan saints wer-* enough to attract the saint worshipping
Hindus, to allegiance, if not to a total change of faith. The subject was discussed
at length in the Census Reports of 1881 and 1891 ,• and need nob be dealt with again.
1 72. A very elaborate account of the followers of Sakhi Sarwar, commonly
known as ' Sarwaria,' was given by Mr. Maclagan in
paragraphs 71-74 of the Punjab Census Report, 1891.
The sect is also known as Sultani and in some
places by other names, such as, Nigahia, Lakhdata,
Dhaunkalia, etc., but I have used the term which is
most common. The figures of 1B91 and 1911 are compared in the margin. The
total number of Sarwarias has fallen from about three quarters of a million to a
little over 300,000. The number of Sikh followers of Sakhi Sarwar (Kesdharis)
has increased from 35 to 53 thousands, while the other Sikhs and Hindus put to-
gether are less than half of the number of Hindu Sarwarias returned in 1891. This
considerable decrease in the Hindu followers of Sakhi Sarwar, is partly compensated
in the increase under Panjpirias, but nevertheless the falling off is marked and it is
due probably to the spread of the influence of the Arya Samaj. The only distingui-
shing features of the Sarwarias are (1) their abstinence from Jhatka (i.e., they will
not eat any meat except that prepared in the haldl method prescribed for Muham-
madans), and (2) the observance of Jiimerat (Thursdays), when charitable doles are
given in connection with vows made for the fulfilment of certain desires.
173. The Shamsis are believers in Shah Shamas Tabrez of Multan, and
follow the Imam, for the time being, of the Ismailia sect of Shias, their present
leader being H. H. the Aglia Khan of Bombay. They belong mostly to the Sunar
caste and their connection with the sect is kept a secret, like Freemasonry. They
pass as ordinary Hindus, but their devotion to the Imam is very stiong, and it is
said that it is based on an unspeakable faith in the eSicacy of the blessings of the
Imam l)y way of enhancing illicit gain in the customary practices of the goldsmith
guild. The goldsmith alloys his gold by night. The Sun is, therefore, supposed to
be the exposer of his misdeeds. Shah Shamas Tabrez is known to have had the Sun
under his control and the eagerness to please his successor may, therefore, be due
to the desire to be screened from the adverse attitude of the Sun to their professional
misconduct. The instructions of tlie creed are issued in a novel n]phabet (which is pro-
1891 ... 1,510 bably a secret code) by H. H. the Agha Khan, who is said to represent
1911 ... 1,425 an incarnation of the Hindu Trinity. The number of this sect is
about the same as it wa9 in 1891 (see rcarginV The Shamsis appear to be most
numerous in Sialkot. The districts and states
returning Shamsis are noted in the margin. The
followers of the sect are looked down upon by both
the orthodox and advanced Hindus, because it
is believed that their secret teachingrs aim at a
Lahore
Amritsar
Sialkot
Gujranwala .
Gujrat
Shahpur
Jbelum
. 12
. 11
.467
.157
, 31
205
261
Rawalpindi .
Attock
Lyallpur
Jbang
Multaa
MuzaHargarh
Bahuwalpur .
. 34
1
49
44
103
23
27
• Punjab Census Reports, 1881, para. 239 (p. 121), and 1891, para. 70, p. 131, et. seq.
+ Sabjdhari, 85,880 KesdMri 53,205.
Balmjki
... 315,674
Lalbegi
... 466,172
175.
Balmik I
Bilmiki
... 304,997
Bilrikh
186
B41a Pir
7
Bala sb a hi
... 10,076
Bhai Rakkha
62
V4U]
31
Chuhri
312
131
IV. HINDU SECTS. [Punjab, 1911.
gradual subversion of the very instincts of their original religion, and it is possible
that some of tlie Shamsis may have concealed their connection with the sect.
3. Sects of low castes.
174. The faith professed by Chuhras lias been returned under various Balmiki,
names, chief amongst them beiug Balmiki, Ltilbegi and Balashahi. Balashahis Lalbegi, and
have been included in Balmikis, and Lalbegis are shown separately in Table Balashahi.
VI-A. The number of per.sons returned under each main
sect of Balmikis is given in the margin.
Balmik being known by the abbreviated name of Bal, has been Balmiki.
termed variously as Balrikhi {Bdl young and Bikh or
Rikhi = smnt), Bala Pir, Bala Shah, a more recent corrup-
tion of Bal Rikh being Bhai Rakkha. The names under
which the Balmikis have returned their sect are cited in
tlie margin. Vatal is a Kashmiri word meaning sca-
venger. The Chuhra entries relate to Hiudu Districts
Total .. 315,67-t ^^^ jj^^Q j^ggjj classed under Balmiki.
Balmiki means the follower of Balmik. Various stories have been put origin.
forward regarding the identity of Balmik.* Some believe that the Balmik followed
and worshipped by the Chuhras is the same as the author of the Ramayana, while
others hold that there were more Balmiks than one, and that the confusion has
arisen from the identity of names. The author of the Ramayana was a Brahman
who lived on the banks of the Tamasaf river, which was not far from the Ganges,
somewhere between Ayodhya and Mathura — i.e., about Cawnpore (in the United
Provinces). There is a Balmik Ashram still maintained at a place called Bithur,
near Cawnpore, on the banks of the Ganges reputed as the residence of the last
Pesh\va, the Nana Sahib. This is the place where the sons (Lava and Kusha) of
Rama are said to have been born and where the sage Balmik or Valmiki is stated
to have composed the Ramayana and taught it to them. This occurrence is
placed by the Hindus in Treta — i.e., over 869,000 years ago ; but in any case
the events referred to are very ancient. According to one version, Valmiki was
son of god Varuna. The Rishis Agastya and Valmiki are called Maitra Faruni
in the Puninas, and the latter is mentioned in the Ramayana as the son of
' Prachetas ' (Varuna). This would fit in with the account of his birth from a
Brahman maiden who went one day, by chance, to do her obeisance to a saint,
to whom her brother's wife used to pray regularly for the blessing of a son.
The naint mistaking her for the married woman who wanted a son, granted the
boon, that day, unasked. The maiden was, in due course, delivered of a son,
whom she secretly disposed of, in order to hide her shame. The child was
taken by a robber who brought him up. J
Another story about Balmik's birth is that his father, a Brahman who was
the reciter of sacred books, received one day, an offering of some Khi-hri (a
mixture of rice and pulse) from a sweeper, and took it home. His wife cooked
the grain and ate it. She conceived shortly after and gave birth, in duo course,
to a iiiiy who was jet black in complexion, to the utter discomfiture of her hus-
band. In spite of the explanation that the black colour of the boy was duo to
the effect of the food brought by low caste men, the father preferred to do with-
out the boy, and he was placed in the jungle where the chief of a band of robbers
took him and brought him up. From this stage the different stories merge into
the following account : —
He soon became an adept in the art and eked out his living, for several years,
by plundering and (if necessary) killing travellers. One day he saw a
great sage,§ whom he asked, on pain of death, to deliver up his possessions.
But the sage told him to go home and ask his wife and children if they were
ready to become his partners in the iimumerable iniquities that he had com-
mitted. He accordingly went home, but returned, disgusted at their unwillingness.
• See ''unjab Census Report, 1891, p. 201, and Rose's Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab, etc.,
Vol. II., p 188.
t Sn muhurtnm gale t'lsmin devalokam rimnistada, Jagdm Tamasd tire, Jdhnvyd tienvidiiratah (after his dopar-
tnre for Devalok the Muni went to the banks of Tamafi river which is not far removed from the Ganges). — BAlmiki
Ramiyina. Utlarakand CX. 10. The Tauns stream between Allahabad and Moghalsarai (0. P.) is probably identical
with Tamasa.
t Vaman Shiva Ram Apte's Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 962.
§ Said to bo Narada.
182
CensTiB Report.] hindu sects. Chaptee
The sage then told him to repeat the word Mara * (which is Kama inverted)
and disappeared. The robber continued to repeat it for years together without
moving from the place, so that his body got covered over with earth which
formed a huge ant-hill. After some time, the same sage re-appeared and got him
out of the ' Vdhnika ' (ant-hole). He was consequently called ' Valmiki ' and
became afterwards an eminent sage. One day, while he was performing his
ablutions, he saw one of a pair of Kraunrlias t being killed by a fowler, at which he
cursed the wretch in words which unconsciously took the form of a verse in the
Anushtubh metre (this was a new mode of composition) and at the command
of Brahmii he composed the Ramayana in that metre.
Another place of origin ascribed to Biilmik is the Nardak of Karnal where
he is said to have been a low caste himter. But the fact that Valmiki is sup-
posed to have lived at AvaniJ (Mysore) Champaran,§ Tarpanghat || (Dinajpur),
and Valaha ^ (Fuoua), and in every one of the cases is stated to have been the
author of the Ramayana, seems to point to the conclusion that there were either
several Balmikis who lived at different places at different periods, and were, by
lapse of time, identified with the great author of the Ramayana, or that the
author Valmiki was a great traveller and while he frequented the Nardak of
Karnal as a highway robber, he settled down at Bithur on the bank of the Tamasa
and travelled over Southern India as a sage.
According to the latter theory, the attachment of the Chuhras to this saint
would be ascribable to the fact that the lower castes are enjoined to listen to the
Itihdses (Ramayana and Maliiibharata) as their scriptures, because they are not
entitled to read or listen to the Vedas. The Mahabharata has not been in vogue and
so the Chuhras and other low castes now revere the Ramayana and the Ramayana
alone. His deification by the scavengers or his establishment as a saint belong-
ing to their fraternity would be nothing unnatural and the alleged association of
his birth with the food supplied by a low caste man would afford a good excuse
for the Chuhras to call him the scavenger of Bhagwan. The legend about Ba'lmik
being a scavenger who lived at the time of the Mahabharata and was invited to
Yudhisthira's Yagya, because the spontaneous blowing of a conch which had been
pi'edicted as a sign of acceptance of the sacrifice by the gods, did not come
off, and whose arrival made the conch resound,** would also appear to be
based on the same idea. No such incident is, however, related in the
Mahabharata.
The theory of the supernatural birth of Balmiki given in Adbyatma Rama-
yana (which is a more recent compilation than that of Balmiki) complicates
matters and tends to preclude the idea that the saintly author of the Rama-
yana was a rol)ber. The conclusion that might be drawn from this jumble
of unconnected and apparently inconsistent information seems to be, that
there were two Balmikis, one the author of the Ramayana, a Brahman saint of
high status, and the other a highway robber, who was converted into a religious
preacher by the impressive advice of some passing sage. The Balmiki Ramayana
makes no mention of the low birth or antecedents of its author, and judging
from the book itself and the account given in Adhyatma Ramayana about the epic
being composed in advance, i.e., before the events of Rama's life took })lace, there
seems to be nothing eventful in the history of this Balmiki except that, the wail
of the kraunchd birds, led him to curse in the anushtubh metre, which is con-
sidered to be the first metre in which classic poetry was composed, and it is on
this account that Balmiki is called the father of poetry. The descent from
Varuna probably refers to this Balmiki. The story of birth from a maiden
or from a Brahman woman who had eaten the khichri presented by some low
caste people, seems to refer to the other Balmiki of the Karnal Nardak, who was
brought up as a robber, but on conversion to the right path began to preach
among the lower classes. This is perhaps the Balmiki worshipped by the
sweepers. These are, however, surmises which remain to be justified. Further
research may yet clear the point.
• MeuiinK ' I am dead ' in Hiadi. I § Ibid, X -139,
t Heron. II .. XI-349
1 Imperial Gazetteer. VL 152. IT ,. XXIV-287.
•♦ Bhagat Mala.
IV.
133
HINDU SECTS.
[ Punjab, 1911.
Jai Chuhra
..
.. 9
UlPlr
•
.. 80
Chuhra
*
. 5
Lai Panthi ...
..
. 29
Makhdum Jah^m^n Chuhra .
. 5
Mnlt4ni chuhra
. ..
. 6
Pahiri Chuhra
..
. 51
Pindi „
. 27
Teji
.
. 2
L41 D4si, L41sh4hi .
. 75
Lilbegi
. 465,883
177.
Total 466,172
Ram-
d&sias.
1891.
1911.
Difl.
Hindu...
fiikh ...
377,457
74,731
199,465
10,312
-177,992
- 64,419
176. Various accounts of the origin of Lalbeg are given.* Most people ^^l^Bffis
connect Lalbeg with Balmik. Enquiries made in the eastern Punjab show that
Lalbeg is widely known as Lalguru, which confirms the theory that Lalbog is a
corruption of Lalbhek {Ldl red and hhek attire) who was a red-coated disciple
of Biilmfk. The conversion of the Hindi name into a Persian one and the in-
vention of a foreign origin would he a natural result of Muhammadan influence.
The distinction between Lalbegis and Balmikis is a purely arbitrary one.
Chuhrag residing in Muhammadan districts call themselves Lalbegis, those
belonging to or coming from Hindu districts give tbeir faith as Balmiki. The
two sects will usually not intermarry, but their articles of faith which are de-
scribed by Mr, Rosef differ little. The different denominations under which
Lalbegis havn returned themselves, are noted in the
margin. Lai Pir, Lai Panthi, Lai Shahi and Lai Dasi
are synonyms of Lalbegi. The other entries have
been classed as Lalbegis, as they have been returned
from Muhammadun districts. Teji is the name of a
si)b-easte. A few Chuhras residing at the shrine of
Makhdum-i-Jalianian in the Muzaffargarh District
have dediciited themselves to that shrine. Multani,
Ramda'sia means a follower of Guru Ramdas, the fourth Sikh Guru. Kamdasias.
An account of the sect is given in the Census Reports of
1881 (para. 606, p. 322) and 1891 (para. 98, p.l58). Most
of the followers of this sect are Chamars. The strength
now ascertained is compared in the margin with that in
1891. The large decrease is due partly to a confusion
of the name with Raidasias (the appearance of the two
names is identical in Urdu) and largely to the fact that the tract where the followers
of this sect abound, has suffered heavily from epidemics. It is also stated that
a large number of Ramdasias are going over to the tenets of Guru Gobind Singh
and joining the ranks of the Khalsa Panth. The sect
is strongest in the eastern Punjab, where the Cha-
mar weavers are in abundance, as the figures in the
margin will show. Karnal has the largest number of
Ramdasias (15,556), Hissar comes next with over
32,000, and Jind (22,525), Delhi (16,224) and Ambala
(13,412) are also important. The presence of as
many as 20,269 of them in Lyallpur, a district in
the western Punjab, might appear strange, but it is
due mainly to migration.
4.— Reformers.
178. A very exhaustive and interesting account of the Arya Samaj move- Aryas.
ment, of its founder Swami Dayanand Saraswati, its religions doctrines, and of its
social and political aims was given by Mr. Maclagan in the Census Report
of 1891. The following remarks will supplement the information given therein.
Swami Dayanand was the disciple of Swiimi Virjiinand of Muthra and received
from him the impulse for the spread of the Vedic religion. The motto of the
teacher was " Back to the Vedas and original Shastras " and he held that the
systematic and independent study of the Vedas and the Angas — viz., the Vedic
grammar, the Dpanisbads and Darshanas, without the assistance of the traditional
commentaries written upon them in comparatively recent times, was essential
for a true comprehension of the real meaning of the Vedas, and it was on these
lines that his discip'o built his creed. The ten Niyams, whose adoption
was laid down as essential, were so general, that with very few limitations, they
left perfect freedom of thought and groat latitude for relaxation of restric-
tions, without prescribing their absolute abolition. Considerable changes have,
however, taken place since 1891. Mr. Maclagan said that the creed retained
the sacred thread for the three superior castes and by implication debarred
the Shudras, from some of the privileges of the twice-born. The sacred
• Soe Punjab Census Report for 1891, p. 20o.
t Glossary of Castes and Tribes in the Punjab, Vol II, pp, 183, 204.208.
District.
Hindu.
Sikh.
Total.
Hissar
31.781
312
32,093
Delhi
16,224
..•
16,224
Karnal
45,551
5
45,556
Ambala
l2,9o()
452
13,412
Jullundur ...
5,657
336
5,993
Ludhiana ...
6,715
2,937
9,652
Lyallpur ...
18,724
1,545
20,269
Jind
22,443
82
22,525
Census Report.]
134
niNDO SECTS.
Chapter
Strength of
tho Sect.
restriction
of eating
originally
protectors
thread is still worn by the Aryas, but the Shuddhi Sabhas bow use it as
an emblem of conversion from other religions, or the reclamation of low
castes, and in token of such purification, they merely hand the purified
person, without any ceremony, a sacred thread, to be worn by him. In 1891,
no Arya would many or eat with anotlier caste. Intermarriage without
of caste is now becoming a rule among them and the restrictions
and drinking are dying out completely. The Aryas who did not
regard the cow as a sacred animal, are now among the staunchest
of that animal. Owing to lapse of time, the opposition of the
Sanataiiists to the Arya Samaj has become feeble and with the marked change
in the ideas of the majority of the educatf'd Hindus, a great many of the
Arya Samaj propaganda have been accepted by the Hindu community, while,
on the other hand, the Arya Samaj h.we moderated their tone of criticism and
begun to show more respect to some of the orthodox Hindu institutions. The
result is, that greater harmony now prevails between the Arya Samajists and the
orthodox Hindus, particularly the more advanced section of the latter ; and the
two communities now woi'k together in several lines, such as the revival of
ancient festivals, the promotion of the study of Sanskrit and Hindi, the spread
of female education and the introduction of social reform. In the doctrines
of the Arya Samaj, there is no material change, but a schism has appeared be-
tween the members on certain questions and the whole body has been divided
into two sections, the vegetarians and the meat-eaters. The vegetarian party
is running the Gurukulas, while the meat-eatei's have the control of the Daya-
nand Anglo- Vedic College and most of the Arya Schools in the Province.
The chief bone of contention, at the time, was the Dayanand Anglo- Vedic
College. The difference of opinion as regards vegetarianism and meat-eating
was made the excuse for the split and the party opposed to those who had the
management of the Dayanand Anglo- Vedic College in their hands promptly
started to establish tho Gurukulas. The two parties now work quite separately,
but apparently there are no differences of principle between them. A third
party lias now come into existence under the leadership of a gentleman named
Dharampal who born and brought up as a Muhammadan, embraced the Dev
Dharam faith and after belonging for a considerable time to that society, got
converted to the Arya Dharma, assuming his present name. His party is called
the real Arya Samaj and works independently of the other two sections.
The number of Aryas increased rapidly from 1877, when the Arya Samaj
was founded, till the death of Swami Dayanand in 1883, after which the
movement received a check. In 1891 the number of persons, who returned
themselves as Aryas, was 14,030 (8,103 males and 5,927 females). In 1901 the
statistics for Aryas were not given separately, but the number of adult male
Arytis {i.e., over 15 years of age) were compared with the similar figures of 1891
in paragraph 9, at page 1 1 6 of Mr. Eose'a Report, and the number was found
to be somewhat less. It may, therefore, be assumed that for all practical
purposes there wern no accretions to the Arya Samaj from 1891 to 1901.
The total number of persons, who have returned themselves as Aryas,
under one or tlie other of the following denominations: — Arya Samaj, Arya,
Aryas returned
as
Persona.
Hales.
Females.
Boot of Hmdng...
Sect of Sikhs ..
100,TR3
63
57,928
28
42,855
35
Total
100,846
57,956
42,890
and Arya Vedic Dhrirma, is
margin. The present number of
who have returned
following denon
Vedic Dharma
given in the
Aryas in the Punjab is more than 7 times that
of the Arya Samajists in both* Provinces in
)891. Members of the Arya Samaj are now
to be found in every District and Native State
of the Province, except the following : —
Loharu, Dujana, Jubbal, Baghal, Bilaspur, Mandi and Suket. The largest figures
are returned by the districts named in the margm. Tho
abnormally largo number of Aryas in the Sialkot District
is due to tho conversion of a very large body of Meghs to
the faith, an account of which is given further on in
paragraph 212. Lahore naturally has a large population,
being the centre of the movement and the seat of the
• The Punjab and the North-West Frontier Province.
Sialkot
. 27.910
Lahore
. f!,.'555
Mnltan
. 6,547
Delhi
. 4.765
Gurdaspnr
. 3,774
Gnjranwala
3,524
Hissar
.. 3,5U6
Karnal
3,470
135
IV. HINDU SECTS. [Punjab. 1911.
Dayanand Anglo- Vedic College. The majority of the Hindu students of all
Colleges as well as a large number of clerks, in short, a large portion of the edu-
cated Hindu community, go to swell the ranks of the Samaj. Multan has always
been a strong centre, because Muhammadan influence had left the Hindus of that
locality very far from orthodoxy and so in a condition most suited to the con-
venient tenets of the Arya Samaj.
The policy of the Arya Samaj, regarding the propagation of their tenets ^'^''^jj'y "^i^-
by vigorous preaching and violently assailing the doctrines of other faiths, appears decade. ^"^^
to have changed. Individuals excepted, the Aryas as a community, now devote
their attention, in the religious line, to the teaching and exposition of Swami Daya-
nand's iuterpi-etation of the Vedas, among the members of the Samaj. The activity
is now directed mainly to educational, social and philanthropic work.
The fundamental principle underlying the educational programme of the ^'^"''''*''^^
Arya Samaj is the attempt to combine Eastern and Westei'n culture, as far as
possible, by Eastern methods. Both the University and non-University svstems
of education are being tried. The Dayanand Anglo- Vedic College represents the
former and the Gurukulas illustrate the latter. The Arya Samaj owns one first
grade College, 3 Gurukulas, 16 High schools and a large number of Middle and
Primary schools.* A great deal has been done towards the spread of female
education. One Female college and more than 50 Girls' schools are under the
direct management of the Samaj. A large number of elementary books in
Hindi have been printed for the benefit of female students.
Much attention has been paid to the uplifting of the depressed classes, Sfociai.
during the past decade. The permanent centres of this reclamation work are
Sialkot, Hoshiarpur, Jullundur, Kangra and Muzaffargarh. A start has been
made in purifying some of the untouchable classes by a process called Shuddhi
(purification), thus removing their disability to touch good Hindus without
causing pollution, and entitling them to interdine with the members of the Ai'ya
Samaj. They have also succeeded in reconverting some Hindus who had embraced
Islam or Christianity in recent years. The subject is discussed more fully in para-
graph 212. The Arya Samaj has done a good deal towards the fusion of sub-
castes on the principle of reverting to the four varnas and towards encouraging
widow remarriage and discouraging child marriage. It is perhaps, due to the
influence of the Arya Samaj and other similar reform societies that the ideas above
mentioned have permeated the Hindu society at large, with the exception of the
more orthodox.
The Arya Samaj maintains two well equipped orphanages, one at Feroze-^'"'^'"^'"''**'*
pore and another atBhiwani. The number of inmates is 175 and 33 respectively.
It haa co-operated with the other sections of the Hindu community in supporting
orphanages at some other places. Much good work, which received recognition
from Government, was done in connection with the eai'thquake in Kangra. In
times of famine, the Samaj has come forward promptly to the relief of sufferers and
has taken charge of large numbers of orphans, who were sent to their orplianages.
The Arya Samiij is thus engaged now chiefly on social work. As how- ^'^ '■•'o movo
ever, a large proportion of the educated Hindus, particularly the young men Po'ii'ii'oai°or
coming out of the Colleges, are members of the Arya Samaj, the participation of the Religious ?
abler and more gifted of these in political movements, for a time, identified
this body with political discussions and agitation. But this phase appears to have
passed off and the movement, which was originally started as a purely religious
one, has found an opening for its enthusiasm in spheres of social economy. The
comparative atrophy of the religions side may be ascribed to certain cii'cum-
stances related by a distinguished member of the Moderatef party.
" v;\v^mi Dny.'lnand originally tried to confine himself to a revival of Sanskrit ami to
work on purely EH^fc'•I•a methods, bnt failed. Ho thoti came to Lahore and found the
educated classes to be tcssinor about on tlio sea of ignorance and not knowing how to arrive
at the truth. Some had, in the absence of anything better, joined tho Brahmo SHma], others
the l*at SHbha and others still had cultivated a liking for Christianity. The eloquence
and accommodating tenets then adopted by Daydnand with a view to combine the in«
• In every town of importance, tho Arya Saraiij haa opened a school for boys. It has, however, not been
possible to ascertain the exact number of such schools.
t The Aryus aro divideil now into those with rigid and those with moderate views. Men of both sides are
found in tho vegetarian as well us the meat-eating party.
136
Census Report- ] hindu sects. Chapter
fluence of East and West drew all such wavering figures towards him. But in founding
the Arya Saniaj, he had to combine the pure East in him with the Westerniaed Bast
in those educated Hindus who were his chief disciples and who shared with him the
privilege of founding the institution. He says " For a time the Westernised East has had
its way. The outside h&s received a good deal of attention, but the inside has been
neglected." What has come to an end or is dying out is not the spiritual East in the
founder, but the materialistic West in the co-founders who had come too much under the
influence of purely Western ideas before they were attracted by Swdmi Day^nand. A
reaction has, therefore, set in, and if it continues the religious side of the movement should
grow strong again."
te^atrre ^° ^^® Census Report of 18S1,* Mr. Maclagan said that " The stricter
ligion. Aryas have a prejudice against being classed as Hindus." But this objection was
and still is, based upon the contemptuous meaning which the foreign term Hindu
acquired during the Muhammadan period. The movement started by Swami
Dayanand aims at a revival of the original faith of the Aryans as interpreted by
him from the Vedas, accepting tlie Brahmanas, Upanishads and Darshanas as
authority, only so far as they do not contradict the Vedas. This is exactly the
basis of the Hindu rehgion,t the only difference being that the orthodox Hindus
regard the Brahmanas and Upanishads as part of the Vedas (Shruti). Besides,
the monotheism preached by Swami Dayanand is not unknown to the Hindu
religion. For example, it is said in the Rigveda,t
" hidram mitratn varuvam agnimnhu ratho divyah sasvparno garutmdn,
eTcamsndviprd tiahudha vadantyagnini yamam mdtai-ishwdnamdhuh." [They called
Bim Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni ; then he is the heavenly Garutmat, of pretty
"wings ; that which is one, the wise call it many ways ; they call it Agni, Yama,
Matarishwan.] Again Manu says § " Etameke vadantyagnini manumanye prajd'
fatini, Indramekyapare prdnnm, apare Brahm shdshvatam," (Be is called Agni
by some, Mauu by others, Prajapati, Indra, Prana and also the eternal Brahma).
In the Nirukta some monotheistic interpretations of terms are given and ascribed
to a school of thought called the aikavadis. The monotheistic rendering of the
Vedas is, therefore, not altogether a novel feature.
The only difference is that the orthodox Hindus have absolute faith in the
Pnranas, epics, etc., and regard the truths and principles enunciated therein as
based upon the Vedas; while Swarai Dayanand did not. But here again, in cases
of difference between the Shruti and the Smriti, the authority of the former cannot
be challanged by the orthodox, || although they mamtain that where there is no
difference the Smriti must be presumed as correct and based on the Shruti.^
One section of the present Arya Samajists has begun to See a number of truths
contained in the Puninas, etc, which are not irreconcilable with Swami Dayanand's
interpretation of the Vedas. The Arya Samaj recognises the division of society
into 4 varnas, although it considers them interchangeable by merit instead
of being hereditary. On the other hand, they lay great stress on the Ashram
Dharma, which the orthodox Hindus believe in, but do not, as a rule, practise.
With regard, therefore, to religious principles, the difference between the
orthodox Hindus and the Arya Samiijists is a matter of detail, although it is a
radical one. It is something like the difference between the Roman Catholics and
the Protet^tants of the most reformed order.
Fiom the social standpoint, too, the Aryas have not adopted any distinctly
separate line. They still marry, largely within their own caste and observe, in
practice, a certain amount of restraint in eating and drinking. The tendency is to
break the restrictions against intercaste marriages and interdining ; but this
tendency, which is due to the influence of Western education, is found amongst the
other Hindus just as much as among the Aryas, although the latter were probably
the pioneeis of advancement in transgressing the established customs. Widow-
* Para 118, p. 178, Vol. I.
t Veda fratipadito dharmah, " the Vedas are the source of the sacred law " (" Sacred Laws of Gautam "
Chapter I— 1).
I Rigveda I, 1C4, 46.
§ Manu (Chapter XII-123).
II "Of those who would know Dharma, the Veda is the supreme authority "—Manu, II, 13 Shruti Smriti
virodhe tu Shrutireva gartyasi. " But when there is a difference between the Shiuti and the Smiiti, the former is of
course Weightier "— Jabila. (See Kulluka's Commpntary on Manu, II, 13>.
% Virodhe tuanapekshyam sydt, asati hyaiiumdnam. (In case of difference (the Smriti) is to bo ignored, but
•when there is none, (its accuracy is) to be inferred). — Mimfinsa Darshana I, 3, 4.
IT.
137
HIKDC SECTS.
[Punjab, 1911.
marriage
introduced by the Aryas already existed in certain strata of the
Hiodu society. The prohibited degrees for marriage are duly observed by the
Aryaa and in matters of inheritance and other social relationship, their practice is
identical with that of other Hindus. Under the circumstances, they can only be
considered a body of reformers within the Bindu society. Bearing in mind the wide
significance which attaches to the term Hindu as now used, it is impossible to
■consider them as non- Hindus ; although, owing to their objection to the alien
term ' Hindu ' they prefer to call themselves by various names such as Arya,
Vedic Dharam, etc. To quote the words of a distiuguished and one of the oldest
members of the Arya Samaj contained in a lecture delivered by him in 1893
*'He (Swiimi Dajanand) has not given them (the Hindus) any new religion. He
lias drawn their attention to what was old and latent in the Hindu mind."
At the time of issuing instructions to Enumerators, the chief authori-
ties at the headquarters of the Arya Samaj were consulted as to
whether they should be returned as professing a separate religion or
not. Although taking exception to the term ' Hindu,' they did not, yet wish to
be treated as separate from the Hindu society, and consequently decided that
the Aryas should return themselves as Hindu by religion and Arya
or Veiio Dharm by sect. Of course, the Aryas do not regard their
faith as a sect, but consider it to consist of doctrines of which the present
form of Hinduism is a corruption. A part can, however, not be larger than the
whole, and considering that the term ' Hindu ' has come to be universally accept-
ed as representing the religious and social practices of the people known as
Hindus, no course was open but to treat the Arya Samaj as a sect.
The castes from which members of the Arya Samaj are chiefly drawn are Composition
noted in the margin, for districts* where the sect of Arya?.
is most numerous. The figures are not complete,
and aggregate 82,488 only against the Provincial
total of 100,763 for the Arya sect. It will be seen
that the Meghs now form the most numerous class
among the Aryas, and the Ods who are also
a recent acquisition by Shuddhi, are not an insig-
nificHnt factor either. The most important con-
stituents of the society are, however, Khatrig,
Aroras, Jats and Brahmans who stand '2ud, 3rd,
4th and 5th in numerical strength. The classifi-
cation of castss made in the margin shows that 63
per cent, of the Aryas belong to higher or mid-
dling castes, 3 per cent, of them come from
menials and about 34 per cent, are recruited from
the low (or untouchable) castes. The efforts of
the Arya Samaj in elevating the depressed classes,
are apparent from the high proportion of the
Sigh and middling
caste$.
Khatri ...17,237
Arora ... 10,517
Jat
Brahman ...
Rijpiat
Aggarw4l ...
Sunar
Bitlii
Eayaslli ...
Ealal
Sud
Saini
Kamboh ...
U4U
Hahijan ...
Ahfr
Gajar
Bbatia
Banii (an-
speci&ed)
Mahton ...
Jogi
Bairigi
Mdia
Bhat
9,203
7,240
2,403
1,983
1,009
589
337
319
306
301
122
116
108
»6
69
64
45
29
21
19
19
11
Menial castes.
Juldhft ... (
Tarkhan ... i
Jhinwar ••• '
Kamhir ... I
Ror ... i
Nai
Chhimba ...
Lohii'
Ghirath ...
Dhobi
Gadarii ...
Rij
Total
Low castes.
2,533
Mf>gh
Od
Chamir .
t>unina
Dagi-Koli.
Total .
Others
,22,115
. 5,102
. 311
94
67
, 27,689
73
Total ..
included
52,193
in
Grand Total. 82,488 last mentioned group, and the fact that the
percentage of the total
strength
of the castes
that group, on the total Hindu population is 14, compared
with 34 among the Aryas, shows that the attention o£ the preachers of the faith
has of late been directed very largely to the lower classes.
179. The Brahmos are the eclectic Theists. Mr. Maclagan gave a f ull Brahmo
account of the movement.! A very detailed history of the Brahmo Sam;ij and its Samaj.
divisions is being printed (in three volumes) by Pundit Shiva Nsith Shastri, M. A.,
of Calcutta. Although the total strength of Brahmos is not large in this Pi'ovince,
jet it contains the adherents of all the three branches of the sect, viz., 1, Adi-
Brahmo Samaj ; 2, Xavabidhan, and 3, Sadharan.J The cardinal principles of
the Society are : — belief in one God, the universal brotherhood of mankind, the
•equal rights of both sexes, the disregard of all social restrictions in the matter of
interdining and intermarriage, the cultivation of a high standard of morality
* The districts for which figures tiave beoQ abstracted are : — Hissar. Delhi, Kariial, Hoshinrpur, JuUundur
Kingra, tahore, Amritsar, (Jurdaspur, SiAlkot, (iujranw41a, Gujrat, Shahpur, Lyallpur, Multan, Muzaffargarh- '
tP.igas 172-174 of the Punjab Census Report for 1891.
i For distinction between the three branches see Beugal Cenaoa Beoort, 1901, pp. 159-160, paras 286 and 287.
138
Census Report.] hindu sects. Chapter
and respect for sacred books and holy men as aids to spiritual development
(but not as instrumental in attaining salvation). Divine worship and treading
the path of righteousness according to the dictates of one's conscience are
considered to be tantamount to salvation,
strength of The movement has been confined to the educated classes, and while the
the Beet. opposition of the orthodox Hindus was strong iu the beginning, owing to the incul-
cation of a wholesale social reform, the Arya Samaj is now drawing most of the
young men who might have come within the folds of this society. The movement
suffered by the separation of the Dev Samaj, of which an account has been given
separately ; and it has to be remembered that, although inculcating such radically
different social ideals, the members of the Brahmo Samaj are yet not marked as
outcastes from the Hindu society and therefore find no diffculty in stepping
back to the folds of orthodoxy, thus counteracting the progress made from time
to time in the numerical strength of the body. The adherents of this faith were
not separately registered in ]y 01. The only figures available for past Censuses
are those of 1891, when tbey mustered 115 strong in the whole Province.
The number of Brahmos now is 700 (males 396, females 304), that is to say, the
accretions to the faith for the 28 years, from 18C3 to 1S91, amounted to only 115
and an addition of 685 has been secured during the past 20 years. The progress
can hardly be called rapid. It is a pity that for want of statistics of 1901 the
growth or decline during the last 10 years cannot be examined. But it is claimed
that during the past decade the movement has been considerably strengthened
by the establishment of a missionary organization called the Sadhanashram, at
Lahore. It sends out missionaries to different parts of the Province and has
been able to produce a good deal of literiiture in Urdu and Hindi. It has a fort-
nightly Urdu journal mainly devoted to religious, social and moral topics.
Brahmos are most numerous in the districts named in the margin. They
are confined mainly to the headquarter towns of the districts.
The figures of Gurdaspur are open to doubt, as enquiries show
that the number of Brahmos is not so large there. The likely
explanation is that the Enumerators wrongly entered Brah-
man in the sect column in respect of persons who were Brah-
man by caste and Sanatandharmis by persuasion and that these
entries were copied as Brahmos. Lahore, being the Provincial
centre of the society, has most adherents of the faith.
Keiigions, Besides the central Samaj at Liahore, Samajes have now been established
t°o'iiai.'rnr*' in the towns of Simla, Rawalpindi, Sialkot, Ferozepore, Mianwiili, Isakhel, Bhera,
PbUanthropio ^u^ritsar and Delhi. The activity of the Samaj is directed chiefly towards
^°'^^' education and social reform. By the generosity of the late Sardar Dayal Singh
Majithia, who was an ardent sympathiser of the Brahmo Samaj, and left the whole
of his property as an endowment for the promotion of education according to
Brahmo ideals, a first class College and a High School, both named after the
donor, have been established at Lahore. The College was opened in May
1910 and has already established itself in public estimation. Under the
auspices of the Samaj, several intermarriages have been celebrated between
Panjabis and natives of other Provinces, belonging to different castes.
As regards female education, the members of the Samaj started the first
trirls' school at Lahore in 1885. A free night school for labonringf classes
has been in existence for the last four years and is doing good work under
the guidance and supervision of the Sadhanashram. The Samaj has not been
backward in philanthropic work. Its members distingnished themselves at
the earthqvTake of Kangi-a, the plague epidemic of Lahore, the famines of the U. P,
and Bikaner and similar occasions of pubhc distress, by offering pecuniary
assistance and voluntary services for the relief of the sufferers.
Co'npoBition r|>|^Q castes whicli Constitute the bulk of the Brahmo Samaj are noted
mo8.* ' AgearwAl 20 in the margin. Enquiries show that there are not more than 2
Arora ... 126 or 3 Brahman Brahmos in the Province. The entries relating
Ka^iT"" " ^22 to Brahmans are, as already explained, due to a mistake in
Khatri .'." 171 interpreting the entry " Brahman " made by the Enumerators in
sS' '" 23 t.he column for sect. The mistake also appears to have been made
Tarkhin ... 9 in other places besides Gurdaspur. It is, however, interesting
6
<D
•3
Fi
s
Lahore
122
90
Gurdaspur ...
67
51
Shahpur
44
29
Amritsar ...
3U
21
Rawalpindi.. ■
21
21
139
IV. HINDU SECTS. [Panjab, 1911.
to note that the members of the Samaj, in spite of their claim of ignoring
caste distinctions in toto, are still under the influence of the institution in
so far as they have professed to belong, or at all events have been reckoned
as belonging to, one caste or another. Making allowance for the error pointed
out above, the total strength of Brahmos must be well under 500 ; and this
figure is in accordance with the information obtained from members of the Samaj.
180. The origin of the Dev Dhai ra was described in Mr. Maclagan's Census Dev Samaj.
Eeport.* In its infancy, the faith differed little from the monotheistic Brahmo
doctrines, and obviously came into existence because the intensely emotional in-
clinations of Pandit Satyanand Agnihotri were not tolerated by the Brahmo Samaj
in general. The following, however, grew day by day owing to the zeal and
sincerity of the founder and spiritual meetings for communion with the Supreme
God occupied whole nights. But gradufilly, notions regarding the practical divinity
of the human soul, to which Mr. Maclagan alluded towards the end of his account
of the sect, and which were then in the course of evolution, re?ulted in the
deification of the founder. And now, the Dev Dharm, which is also called Vigydn
Alulak Dharm or the religion founded on science, admits of no Creator. The
President-founder, Pandit Satyanand Agtiihotri, who is referred to in the litera-
ture of tlie society as Shri Dev Guru Bhagwan is said to have attained to a complete
love of all that is true and good, and complete hatred of all that is wrong and evil,
infuses among others his higher life, find is looked upon as the personification of
the highest ideal. The ideal of the society has thus undergone a complete change.
According to their present teachings, the universe is regarded as eternal Teachings.
and its constituents — matter and force — are said to exist eternally, undergoing
changes and producing, in combination with each other, all animate and inanimate
forms. The human soul is considered to be a form of life evolved from
the lower ones, subject to the laws of change, like all other objects in
the universe, and consequently apt to degenerate and lose its independent
individuality or to develop into the highest goal of man's life, which is to
obtain Dev Dharma (divine life ) by spiritual union with the Dev Guru Bhagwan
in a spirit of reverence and love. The object of the followers of Dev Dharm
is salvation from falling into the doAvnvyard course on the one band, and the
pursuit of Spiritual progress on the other. The degeneration is the result
of ignorance regarding one's own self, slavery of lower passions, and undue
attachment to worldly objects; while adherence to truth, leading an unselfish
life, service to others, self-sacrifice and the right adjustment of relations
with human beings, animals, vegetables and inorganic substances are the
means of rising high. The killing of animals and eating meat are strictly pro-
hibited. The centi'al office at Lahore is under the guidance of the President-
founder. The Dev Samaj is an academy for the evolution of higher life in fit
persons. The disciples are divided into various grades of membership, according
to the stages of development in the attainment of higher life and the degree
of their sacrifices for, and usefulness to, mankind. A vow to bo free frcim
the following 10 vices is essential even for members of the lowest order : — (1)
professional misconduct including bribe-taking, (2) theft, (3) suppression of debts
or deposits, (4) illegitimate acquisition of money or property belonging to
others, (o) indolence, (6) gambling, (7) adultery, unnatural crime and bigamy,
(8) use, offer, manufacture, sale or purchase of any intoxicant for intoxication, (9)
flesh-eating and inducing or advising others to eat flesh, and (10) killing. Tho
advanced members set an example of kindness, reverence, gratitude, obedience to
constituted authority, punctuality, fulfilment of right engagements, etc., in their
lives, and the highest standard of honesty and uprightness of character is
demanded from every member. Tho society now embraces several graduates,
magistrates, doctors, pleaders, money-lenders, landholders and Government
servants. Several members are said to have returned money, in some cases
amounting to thousands of rupees, which they had obtained illegally before
coming under the influence of the society.
The small body has done a good deal of work in the advancement of Educational,
education and claims to maintain at Ferozoporo, tho only Hindu Girls' High
♦ Ponjab Census Report, 1891, para. 120, pp. 179 and 180.
Census Report.]
140
HINDU SECTS.
Chapter
School in tlie Punjab, wliicli actually prepares and sends girls up for the
Matriculation Examination of the Punjab University. They also have at Moga,
a High School for Boys, which has a wide reputation not only for secular
but also for moral education and is popular even with Hindus who are not among
the sympathisers of the Samaj. They also maintain several institutions for
the education and moral training of grown up men, married women and widows,
and minor schools for girls and boys, where primary education is imparted free.
The educational work of this body has, from time to time, been appreciated
by successive Lieutenant-Governors of the Province and also received
recognition at the hands of the late Viceroy of India, Lord Minto. The society
a Smdhi monthly called ' The Sindh Upkar ' are issued regularly.
Bociai. The activities of the society are not limited to moral and educational
work, but tliey also preach social reform. 'I'hey are opposed to the Purdah
system and child marriage (the minimum marriageable age is laid down as
20 years for boys and 16 years for girls). Caste restrictions are discarded.
Interdining and intermarriage among all castes of Hindus are encouraged.
Widow marriage is allowed and efforts have been made to curtail marriage
expenses. The objectionable system of mourning followed by women (called
siipd) has been given up in the families of the members. The Samaj is
open to followers of all religions, but is recruited practically only from the
ranks of the Hindus, and although the faith is said to be entirely differ-
ent to Hinduism, yet the members have chosen to call themselves Hindus
by religion, in the sense of nationality. It was remarked by Mr. Rose*
in 1901, that the society had no longer any hostility towards the Arya
Samaj as had been noticed by Mr. Maclagan in 1891. Unfortunately, however,
the strife appears to have been resumed not in verbal discussions but in the
papers. A long controversy between Dharmpal {alias Abdul Ghafur), a convert
from Dev Dharm to Arya Samaj and Sarmukh Singh of Moga, a Dev Samajist,
which led eventually to a criminal case in the Ferozepore courts, probably shook
the faith of people in the doctrines of the Dev Samaj ; but since the settlement
of the case, the cloud appears to have passed off.
strength. The followers of Dev Dharm number 3,094, according to the sect
returns. But there is reason to believe that most of the 818 members
shown in Hoshiarpur are orthodox Hindus, who gave their sect as Devi Dliarma
(goddess worship) which, however, was wrongly entered by the Enumerators as
Dev Dharma. Local enquiries made in respect of 681 Dev Dharma entries
proved that the persons in question were not members of the Dev Samaj
but that most of them were enumerated on their way to the shrines of
goddesses Ghintpurni and Jwdldji, whose votaries they profess to be. Dis-
carding the greater part of the figures of this District, the correct strength
of the Dev Dharra sect would probably be close on 2,300. Inspite of Lahore being
the headquarters of the movement, the stronghold of Dev Dharm is Ferozepore.
The districts showing the largest strength of Dev
Dharmis are noted in the margin. Only two followers
of Dev Dharma were registered in 1891. But
including members not returned as such, they were not
supposed to number more than 12, all told. The figui'es
of 1901 are not available. The increase from 12
to 2,800 in 20 years is quite remarkable. It is, how-
ever, feared that the vitality of tbe movement depends
on tbe impressive eloquence of the President-
founder and that it may not survive him.
jTauak- 1^1. The followers of Guru Nanak are called Nanakpanthis and persons
panthis. designating themselves as such are found among both the Hindus and Sikhs, la
one way all Sikhs are Nanakpanthis, as the religion originated with Guru Nilnak,
but those who have attached themselves particularly to the tenets of Guru
District.
Males.
Females
Eoshi4rpur ...
487
331
Ferozepore
274
247
Simla
102
55
Delhi
197
173
Ambala
64
41
Lahore
93
40
Lyallpur
142
106
Eapurlhala. ...
119
84
•Punjab Census Report, 1901, page 117, para. 10, Chapter III,
IV.
141
HINDU SECTS,
[ Punjab, 1911.
NdTiakpanthis.
1911.
1891.
Hindu
21,75«
176,036 ■)
!19,60l j
542,621
438,653
Gobind Sinpfh, call themselves Gobind Singhi, Khalsa, Tatkhalsa or the like
while the adherents of the other Sikh Gurus or their descendants (who are
dealt with under saint worshippers) or the followers of certain religious
orders among the Sikhs, hayo adopted specific titles. The number of persons
registered as Nanakpanthis at the recent Census is compared in the margin
with that ascertained iu 1891. Most of the
Hindus, following the teachings of Guru Nanak
who, as noted by Mr. Maclagan (on page 148
of his Census Report of the Punjab for 1891),
are known roughly as Sikhs other than Singhs,
have nnw classed themselves as Sikhs, and
consequpntly, the number of Nanakpanthis who have preferred to give Hinduism
as their religion, has fallen to about one-twenty-fifth of the figures of 1891. At
the same time, the term has come into disfavour among the Kesdhari Sikhs
who have appeared under other titles, reducing the strength of Nanakpanthi
Sikhs from 438,653 to 99,601. But for the purpose of comparison with the
figures of Hindu Nanakpanthis of 1891, we should add to the present
figures, the 176,036 Sikh .Sahjdhari Nanakpanthis and perhaps all the 233,712
unspecified Sahjdhari Sikhs, bringing the total of non-Kesdhari Nanakpanthis
to 431,544, against 542,621 in 1891.
182. A full account of the tenets of the Radhaswami faith, obtained from Eadha-
the then leader of the sect was printed at pages 131-132 of the Punjab Census swaini.
Report of 1901. The teachings are esoteric and three planes Pind, Brahmdnd and
Vydldes (also called Nirmal Chetunva Dhdma) are recognised instead of five
in tlie Hmdu philosophy. The school derives all knowledge in the astral
and higlier planes through the highly developed sense of hearing instead of
tbrou(j;h tlie sixth sense — gyinendriya (mind) of the Hindus. The attempt of the
school is to justify all its teachings on a scientific basis. They consequently reject
all revealed books and profess that the doctrines and practices taught by them
are completely new and not contained in any other faith. They believe in re-
incarnation and hence in Karm(X. Exaltation to the abode of the supreme spirit
(Radhaswami) is salvation, which implies separate existence of the liberj|ted spirit
on that highest plane. The goal would, therefore, appear to be similar to mono-
theism of the Vaishnava type. The practices taught are called the surat shabd
yoga or sahaj yoga, which seems to be a variety of rdj yoga, in which the
elevation of the spirit is achieved purely by meditation (and not sddhan yoga,
wliich irt really a part of hath yoga and is sometimes erroneously called rdj yoga),
while the training of the subtle sense of hearing, seems to be based on prmciples
similar to that of hath yoga.
The sect was founded by Seth Shiv Dyal Singh, known as Swdmiji Malidrdj
in 1861. He was succeeded in 1878, by Riii Bahadur Salig Ram, alias (lurmukh
Sdhib (the name given to him by his preceptor) and called Tlazoor Sahib by his
devotees. It was under the latter's leadership that the sect came into prominence.
He died in lb98 (not in 1895 as stated by Mr. Rose), after guiding the faith for
20 years, and was succeeded by Pandit Bralima Shankra Misra, M.A., initiated as
Premanand, and known among his followers as Mahdrdj SdHh. The present
leader, wlio succeeded to the Gaddi in October 1907 and was acknowledged as
the leader in October 1908, is Babu Kiimta Pershad Sintjh, LL.B., Vakil,
Ghazipur. He was named Swdmi AiUdrsaran by his preceptor and is called
Sarkdr Sdhib by his disciples. He appears to have been recognised as the
leader {Sant Sat Ouru) by pracitically all the satsangit (meinbcrs^; in this
Province, but certain difPerences of opinion are said to have resulted in some
satsangis at Agra, Henares, and Allahabad not owning allegiance to him.
The strength of the sect was not ascertained in 1901. The figures of strength.
1891 are compared in the margin with the
results of the recent Census. I'ho following of
the sect has risen in 20 years from 37 to 4,293
and is still growing. The fascinations of the
Yoga practices coupled with the assurance
that all the teachings are based on rational grounds and not on mere hearsay,
probably form a great attraction to the educated classes, who find the formalities
1891.
Hiiidna.
33
3,862
Sikhs.
Mabam-
madaoB.
Total.
1891
1911
4
421
7
37
4,293
Census Beport.]
142
HINDU SECTS.
Chapter
Eaba Isa.
Vam
Uargis.
Baododa-
Atheist.
Males
Females
Total
28
16
44
of the old Yoga school rather hard nuts to crack. The inclusion of 7 Muham-
madans appeared curious, but enquiries from the local Secretary of the sect
showed that the society did include a few Muhammadans, while on the other
hand a reference to the Gurdaspur District proved that seven Muhammadans
had actually returned Riidhaswami as their sect. The Secretary of the Riidha-
swami satsang (society) thinks that the number of followers of this faith, as
ascertained at the recent Census, is much below their real strength. It is possible
that some of the adherents of the Radhaswami faith may not have cared to name
the esoteric school to which they belonged.
5. -Miscellaneous, a— Miscellaneous sects-
The less numerous and unimportant sects have been grouped under the
head Miscellaneous and aggregate 10,126 persons (males 5,514, females 4,612).
A brief account of the more noticeable ones is given below.
183. Baba Isa is a sect which from its name appeared to be connected with
Christianity. But enquiries have shown that the sect is known
after the name of a Hindu Rajput of Datarpur in the Hoshiarpur
District, named Ishar Das, commonly called Ishar or Isa (which is
an abbreviation of Ishar). On account of his high spirituality and
miraculous powers, he was known as Baba Isa, and his disciples to this day
call themselves his followers. The sect is of recent origin, although it has not
been possible to ascertain the exact date of Ishar Das's birth or death. His
followers do not differ from the ordinary Hindus in any marked degree.
184. Vam Margi is a branch of Shaktiks, (i. e., Devi Upisaks) who offer
animal sacrifice to Kali and use both meat and liquor in their rituals. They worship
the female creative principle, but keep their methods of worship absolutely secret.
The path, which is Vam=left* or beautiful, is open to great temptation, and
while persons with a high degree of self-control are said to have attained to great
supernatui'al power (in the direction of black magic), the novices fall as easily into
abuse, as stated by Mr. Maclagan.f The sect is, however, losing its popularity and
the number of its adherents has dropped from 703 to 172 within the past 20 years.
Males .. 95 The SOX detail of the present figures is given in the margin. Very
Females ...77 interesting stories are told of the doings of eminent Vam Margis.
One of them is said to have released 18 prisoners from a well-guarded jail in a Native
State, one man disappearing every evening, in spite of all the extra precautions
taken. For this purpose he is said to have lived for 40 days solely on spirits,
spending day and night in meditation of the object of his worship. In anotiier case,
on the house of a Vam Margi being searched on Buspicion of his possessing illicit
spirits, pitchers full of liquor are said to have got converted into milk, and so on.
Within the last half century, cases are said to have occurred, in which human
sacrifice was practised, and a man who had tried to pry into the secrets of the
worship of a group of Vam Msirgis was seized, sacrificed at the altar of the Goddess,
cut to pieces, cooked, and eaten up, without anybody being the wiser for it.
Suspicion subsequently led to the arrest of some of the members and the search
of the house, but no evidence could be procured by the Police.
185.
Males
Females
.. 31
.. 25
186.
Dahria
Freethinker
N&stik
.. 15
Hem Raji.
Baododa is a Bhairoii temple in Rewari, where girls used to be
married to the God. J The votaries of Bhairun in this vicinity still
call themselves after the name of the temple.
Only 11 persons have returned themselves as Dahrids, It is a Per-
il sian term used to denote atheism. Freethinker is a somewhat
^ similar term adopted by 5 men, who do not practically believe
in any religious doctrines whatever. Ndstik is the Sanskrit
equivalent of atheist and fifteen persons have appeared under this designation.
187. Hem Raj, an Arora and a retired Government servant (Superintend-
ent, Deputy Commissioner's vernacular office) in the Muzaffargarh District, became
a preacher of Vedant on his own lines and gathered a decent following. His
disciples are ordinary Sanatan Dharmis with a Vedantic bent of mind, but 6 of
them (2 males and 4 females) have returned themselves as Hem Rajis. Hem
Raj died early in 1910. His son Daulat Ram ascended the Gaddi after him ajud
has published several treatises on Vedant.
T he right hand path is that of occultism and the left band one of black magic,
t Punjab Census Report, 1891, para. 50.
t See Punjab Census Report, 1891, p. 108.
143
IV. HINDU SKCTg. [ p^injalj, 1911.
1891
188. An account of tbe Gulab D;isi sect -was given by Mr. Maclagan.* Gulab Dasi.
1891 763 "^^^^ ^'"^ ^ section of Udasis. Their strength is decreasing as the
1911 ].'. ... 163 fif^ures in the margin will show. I came across a snake charmer
{Sapera) who was a Guliib Dasi, although the snake charmers are
usually Jogis — mostly Kanipas. He described his ritual as consisting of prayer
to Bhagwiin, morning and evening, and Horn, for which he prepared a little
Chauka, where he lit a small fire and on this placed a little sugar or some other
sweets, at the same time burning incense and blowing the Shankh (conch).
He offered Churma (pounded sweet cakes) on Dusehra. He also worshipped Sitala
and Guga Pir. This was a curious mixture of Udasi and Jogi forms of worship,
with a shade of 6re worship.
189. Gharib Dasis are a branch of Dadupanthis, Gharib Das being one Gharib
iggi 1,357 of the important disciples of Dadu.f The sect is, however, on Dasi.
191.1 398 the decline as its strength has come down in 20 years from 1,357
to 398 (see margin). ^
190. Jambhaji was a saint, contemporary of Guru Nanak, who lived inJambhaji-
Bikaner and has a large following amongst the Bishuois. An account of the sect
is given at pages 110 ei seq. of Rose's Glossary of Castes and Tribes, Vol. II. Only
200 persons have returned themselves as followers of this sect (162 from Hissar
and 3S from Bahawalpur).
191. Babii Jowahir Singh, a Sikh saint, has numerous followers in the north- Jowahir
= eastern Punjab, amongst both Hindus and Sikhs. TheSinghi.
Sikhs. number now registered is, however, much smaller than that
""s^ returned in 1891 (as shown in the margin). Babi Jowahir
1911 '.. 'isa J,877 Singh was the grandson of Ganga Das, one of the disciples of
Amur Das, the 3rd Sikh Guru. There is a temple at
Khatkar Kalan in the JuHundur District, dedicated to his name and a
pond in the Ajmergarh Parganah of the Patiala State is held sacred to his
memory. This pond known as .Johdrji is said to be of great sanctity and the
story related by the followers of Baba Jowahir Singh at this place is somewhat
different to that noted by Mr. Maclagan in paragraph 97 of the Punjab
Census Report, 1891. This place is supposed to be associated with the death of
Sarwan at the hands of Dasharatha, fathar of Rama. The particular spot where
the tragedy is believed to have been enacted is marked to the south-east of the
Joharji. The pond lies in the centre, encircled by two streams, one named
Kaushalya (after Riima's mother) which flows in the natural course from north
to south, and the other called Kekai (name of Rama's step-mother) following
an abnormal course from south to north. The unnatural course of the latter
stream is ascribed to the perverse attitude taken up by Kekai, the queen of
Dasliaratha, in connection with tbe e.^ile of Rama. King Dasharatha, they say,
had a palace on the ridge wit'n abodes for the Ranis. Tiie pond was subsequontly
possessed by a man-eating R ikshasa (demon) named Miihiya. Biiba Jowahir Singh
killed him by his Yoga power and rid the place of his oppression. The Phatiri
(wooden instrument for removing litter) with which he struck the demon is
preserved in the temple built by the late Maharaja Narendra Singh of Patiala.
But Msihiya is said to have prayed to the Babii Sahib for a blessing, and this
was granted, the Baba assuring him that all the pilgrims would worship him
(the demon) as well. All pilgrims, therefore, after making their obeisance at the
temple of Btibii Jowahir Singh, offer a goat in the name of Mahiya. The place
where Miihiya died is also marked.
192. The Nirankaris are believers in one God. They are nothing more or Nirankari.
less than staunch followers of Guru Nanak. The figures
o"
Sikha. for 1891 and 1911 are compared in the margin. The
Hindu Nirankiiris have apparently returned themselves
1891 14,001 46,610 3S Sikhs and the Sikhs hH,ve designated themselves
1911 -41 1,569 by other sect names. A full account of tho sect is
^= given in paragraph 95 of Mr. Maclagan's Census
Report of 1891.
* Punjab Census Report, 1891, para. 91.
t See f unjab Census Kep6rt, 1891, para. 87.
Census Report.]
144
HINDU SECTS.
Chapter
Bamanan-
di.
Charandasi
Ghisa-
panthi.
Disfrictg.
Hinsar
Eohtak
Delhi
Karnal
Ambala
Jiud...
Persons.
1
212
393
34
83
3
EalacUiari.
193. Ramanandis are a branch of Bairagis (see paragraph 163). Their
number has decreased from 6,829 in 1891 to 811 at the present Census. Some
of them have probably appeared under the main head ' Bairagi.'
194. A full account of the Charandasis, who are worshippers of Shri
1891 1,261 Krishna in the eastern Punjab, was given by Mr. Maclagan in
1911 ... 924 paragraph 60 of his Census Report (1891). Their strength in
1891 and 1911 is compared in the margin. Unlike other small sects, the
Charandasis have not declined much in number.
195. Ghisapanthis, numbering 726 in all (males 411, females 315), are fol-
lowers of a holy peison named Ghisa, who preached theism and
was opposed to Murti puja, (idol worship). They are found in
the districts and states named in the marp:in and come from
the Brahmin, Bauia, Jat, Lobar, Tar khan and Chamar castes,
without distinction. The majority of them are inhnbitants of
Delhi and Kohtak. Ghisa was a weaver by caste, and a
resident of village Khekhra (Meerut District). He is said to have died in
Sambat 1924 or about 45 years ago. He was a follower of Kablr, but
having advanced spiritually, he himself came to be respected as a saint
and his followers began to call themselves Ghisapanthis instead of Rabirpanthis.
His teachings do not differ much from those of Kabir. His followers recite
' Sat Sdhil ' and read the hdm (teachings reduced to writing) of Ghisa saint.
Har Chand Das and Nanoo were two famous followers of Ghisd and most of the
Ghisapanthis are attached to the former. Guru Nanak, Kabir and Gbarib Das
are respected by all followers of Ghisa. Although like Kabir panthis, the majority
of Ghisapanthis are Chamars and Julaluis, yet recruits from the higher castes are-
not unknown, and it is curious that when they join the sect, they do not
take umbrage at being touched by an untouchable member and do not
consider themselves polluted, even if by mistake they drink water or eat food
carried (or in the latter case even cooked) by a Ghisdpanthi ; and yet they are
supposed to observe the caste restriction with full rigour.
196. Kaladharis are the followers of the Bairagi Mahants of that designa-
1891 ... 5,192 tion belonging to the Hoshiarpur District (see page 126 of Mr.
1911 ... 1,084 Maclagan's Census Report of 1891). Their strength has diminish-
ed to about one-fifth of that in 1891.
Jaikishnis. 197. Jaikishnis are the devotees of Sri Krishna, who realize in Him the
incarnate as well as the impersonal God. An account of the sect is given on page
120 of the Punjab Census Report of 1891. The name is obviously derived from
the form of salutation adopted by the followers of this sect. They worship none but
Him, and consider the whole universe to be a manifestation of Krishna, who
is the fountain head and object of all love. Tiiey have apparently nothing to do
with Vam Margis as stated by Mr. Maclagan in his Census Report cited above, but
seem to belong to the Vasishtadwaita Scliool of Vaishnavas. The Janam Ashtami
(birthday of Sri Krishna) is celebrated by the Jaikishnis as a great festival. In
their customs, they do not differ from other Hindus, except in the detail that they
disti'ibute sweets [Ealwa) after the death of a member of their community. The
number of Jaikishnis now is 826 (males 448, females 378). In 1891 they num-
bered 1,692.
The Par- 198. The number of Parnamis or Chhajjupanthis has decreased from 1,551
namisor ,^91 __ 1551 to 1,059 during the pat^t 20 years (see margin). In paragraph
Chhajju- 1911 ••■ i^osa 76 (page 138) of tiie Census Report of the Punjab, 1891, Mr.
panthis. Maclagan has briefly mentioned this sect. 'I'he existence of traditions of a local
saint called Chhajju Bhagat and the similarity of his name to the term Chhajju-
panthi, coupled with the facts as generally known in the past, led him to believe
that the sect had been founded by Clihajju Bhagat of Lahore. The accounts of
the sect since published and enquiries recently made have, however, shown, that
there is no connection whatever between this sect and the Chhajju Bhagat of
Lahore who was a Dadupanthi, The foutider of this sect is said to be one Dhani
Dev Chandra, who was a Kayasth by birth aud was a native of Amarkot in Marwar.
He was born some three hundred years ago and his attention was directed towards
the realization of Self at a very early stage of his life. He left his home in
search of truth and after the study of Sanskrit literature for 14 years at Jamnagar
145
IV. HINDU SECTS. [ Punjab, 1911.
(Katbiawiir), tie appears to have set his heai't on Vedantic views or what amongst
the Muhara Ilia dan is known as Sa6sm. At the age of 40, he attained comiimnioa
with the reahty of his soul which he termed Krishna, the lord of Parmadhama,
who solved his difficulties by communicating to him the secret mantra of the
Parnamis called the Nijnam. He appears to have preached universal broiherbood
in order to include both Hindus and Muhammadaus within his creed and presented
the doctrines inculcated by the Sliastras and Puninas in such a manner as to make
them acceptable to the followers of both religious. With this object in view, he
had to discard the restrictions of caste and the details of both relio'ions He
preached tiie worship of Lord Aksharatit (beyond words, i.e., indescribable), but
the devotional part of his creed created the necessity of a personal God and for
this purpose his disciple Pran Nath bad to declare himself to be that personified
God whom the Shastras and the Koran expected in the form of Nishkalank
Avatar and the M fhdi- Messiah respectively. Dhani Dev Chandra died on the 14th
Bhadon, Sambat 1712, and was succeeded by Pran Nath who belonged to a very
respectable Khatri family. He collected the teachings of his Guru in a compila-
tion called the Kuljama Sdhib, wliich is the Gospel of the creed and consists of the
following 14 books: — (1) Rds, descriptive of the Lila of Lord Krishna with the
Gopis at Briudaban. At that time Krishna was 11 years and fifty-two days old.
(2) Prakdxh, dealing with the cause of the creation of the world and givmg the
reason of Sri Pran Nath's manifestation as Aksharatit. (3) Khatndi,
describing the six seasons during which Pran Nath wept spiritually over
his separation fi'om the real god Aksharatit or Puran pdra Brihma of Par-
madhdma,. (4) Kalas (pinnacle), relating to the search made by Sri Dhani
Dev Chandra for God, and containing discourses on various other subjects. (5)
Sanandha, explaining the real truths underlymg the passae^es in the Koran about
the manifestation of the Imdm Mehdi and Isd (6) Kirantan, treatmg of the
various religions of the world. In this book, all the forms and ceremonies of the
different relijjions are condemned. Empliasis is laid only on internal spiritual re-
alities. (7) Khnlisa. — In this summary a comparison is made between the books
of the different religions. A parallelism is found between Hinduism and JMuham-
madanism, the dates of the manifestation of the Imam Mehdi Messiah and Biiddh
Nisltka'anic are given, and the chronology of the creation of the world, etc., is
discussed. (8) Khihvat. — On this treatise depends the whole theory of this faith.
It also explains the reasons for the creation of the world. This book is
a sort of dialogue between Aksharatit and Brahma Srisht. It is the real basis
of the whole Kuljama Sdhtb. (9) PaHkuramd, giving an account of the Parama-
dhfiina and Dhiima, thw abodes of Aksharatit and Akshar, respectively. {lO)Sdgar,
descriptive of Parmadhdma and of the different oceans of God's love, mercy,
knowledge, etc. (11) Svingdr^ portraying the beauty and appearance of
Akshardtit. Shydmdji and the Brahmapnyds (12,000 souls). (12) Sindin, written
in th'- Sindhi lanijuage, is a sort of dialou;ue between Sri Pnin Nath and Aksliaiiitit.
(13) M'anfat, discusses divine knowledge and matters pertaining especially to
Christ and Muhammad. (14) Qiydmatnamd, discusses the day of judgment.
The Guru had entrusted Pnin Nath with the conversion of Aurangzeb and the
Raja of Panna. He preached round the country and made several Muh imraadan
converts at Delhi, but was not successful in approaching Aurangzeb. He return-
ed, leaving behind him bis disciples who were imprisoned for two years. At
Panna he converted the Raja and spent the rest of his life there. In Sambat
1751, a temple was built by the Raja \o his memory and forms an attiactiin to
the followers of the sect. The Parnarai Gos|)el teaches a thre. fold manifesta-
tion, as Sat, Ghrt and Anand, of God as Akshardtit, Shydmdji, and Akshar.
Aksharatit is tlie Supreme (iod and his spiritual love is dii'Octed towards
the soul of the universe, Sltyimdji, with 12,000 associates (Gopi^) ; Akshar
the real creator of this universe is subject to the control of Aksharatit.
Lord Knshna is said to have appeared in a threefold capacity. Up to 11
years and 52 days he was i[» the first stage of spirit uality and was the
manifestation of Aksharatit. In the second stage he represented Akshar. In
the third si age he was quite a different Krishna, being the author of the Gita
and the ra)viag spirit of Mabibharta. These tenets boar a strong resemblance
iio those of the Shuddhadwaita doctrine (see paragraph lt52). The creation is
Census Keport- ]
146
HINDU SECTS.
Chapter
divided into : — (o) Brahm Srishti (Arwah-i-Khas-nl-Khas) i.e., tlie highest souls,
(their number is 12,000) ; (b) Ishwar Srishti (Malaik or Arwah-i-Khas) i e., the
special or angelic souls (their number is 24,000); (r) Jiv Srisliti (Arwah-i-am or am
khalaq, (their number is unhmited). The sect is called Parnami obviously be-
cause it purported to create a revolution [Parindm) in religious views. In this
Province it is also kno'W'n as Chliaijupanthi, because Chhajju, a native of Mont-
gomery who was a Parnami by faith, went to Bundhelkhand and acquired the
inner light there. On his return he revived the tenets of his sect with such enthu-
siasm that the followers of the doctrin< s came to be associated with his name.
ChetRamis. 399. The Chet Ramis are a small sect numerically ; but its importance
lies in the curious indigenous development resulting from a crude conception
of the ideas underlying Christianity, influenced by the fundamental truths of the
local religions. An account of the sect has been given by Mr. Rose on page 117
of the Punjab Census Eeport, 1901, and a very full description is contained
in a paper read at the Mussoorie Conference of Rehgions, 1904, by the Reverend
Hnssaiu
Bhagat.
General
Dr. U. D. Griswold. The teachings are based upon implicit confidence in
Christ as the Saviour, but various, apparently conflicting, ideas have been
expressed. For instance, one disciple of Chet Ram said : " There is a God if Chet
Earn says so, there is no God if Chet Ram says no." Then Chet Ram has said
that there is no God but Christ, and thirdly, his followers consider Chet Ram to
be the incarnation of Christ and maintain that theie is no Christ other than Chet
Ram. Indeed Chet Ram is regarded by some as God himself. The first does not
imply a denial of God but only shows slavish adherence to the teachings of Chet
Ram, somewhat after the old Persian saving : Bamai sajjddah ravgin kun garat pir-i-
mnglidn goyad, Id Sdlikbehhabar natairad zi rdh-o-rasm-i-viandllid. (Colour your
prayer carpet with wine if the preceptor tells you so, for the guide cannot be
unaware of the customs of the various stages). The second is an identification
of Christ with God which is not very different to the Chj'istian doctrine. The
third — i.e., exaltation of Chet Ram to the rank of Christ and later on to God
Himself, is an expression of the local tradition of deifying men. The Trinity
that the Chet Ramis beheve in, consists of Allah, Parmeshwar and Khuda the
Creator, Preserver and Destroyer after the Hindu Trinity, but combining the
divinenamesof the Hindu, Muhamniadan and Christian religions. The Chet Ramis
are recruited mostly from low class Rhihammadans and from Chuhras. The correct
strength of their sect cannot be ascertained, as most Chet Ramis have returned
their religion as Mussalman Sunni or Hindu Chuhra, and their caste as Chet Rami.
The number of persons who have returned themselves as Chet Rami by sect is
Hindu
jUnhanimadaQ
1
17
given in the margin. The number of Chet Ramis was not ascer-
tained in 1901 and only 6 were returned as such in 1891, although
in the Ludhiana Mission Report of ISSi-i, the followers of the sect were said to have
numbered about 200, The probabilities are that the total number of adherents is
not much less now, but one thing appears to be certain — vh. that it is not attracting
Hindus now, except the Chuhras. For all practical purposes, the sect ought to be
treated as an offshoot of Christianity, for although its followers differ from the
doctrines of that religion in certain respects, e.g., in baptism, in the observance of
caste restrictions, as also in their fa tli in charms, yet their Holy Book is the Bible,
they worship the Cross and consider Christ to be their Saviour.
200. For an account of the sect known as Hussain Bhagat or Sain Bhagat,
paragraph 83 of the Punjab Censr.s Report cf 1891 should be read. The number of
followers of Sain Bhagat has fallen in the past 20 years from about 3,866 to 151.
b-— Castes returned as sects.
201. Some of the lower castes, who have no specific name for the faith they
pursue, have returned their caste-name as their sect. At the same time, many
members of these castes have appealed as followers of Sanatan Dharma. A few
persons belonging to higher castes also did the same for similar reasons or from
ignorance, and were included under the head
Miscellaneous. The more important figures are
given in the margin. Bishnois are followers of
Jambhaji (see paragraph 190) and Barars worship Guga and also Balmik or Lalbeg.*
Sinsi
Ods
Biwaiia .
15.701
2,011
201
Bishnoi
Barar
422
166
* See Rose's Glossary of Tribes and Castes, Vol. II, p. 64.
147
IV. HiNDD SECTS. [ Punjab, 1911.
A few remarks about the Sansia, Ods and Bawarias will be interesting. In the
face of customs prevailing among them it is impossible to call them non-Hindus.
202. The worship of Sansis as ascertained in the eastern Punjab is as Sansi.
follows : — They say Ram Ram morning an(i evening, and worship Guga Pir. They
cook rice in honour of Jivdldji or some other goddess (OZ/rct) on the 2nd of
Mxgh Sudi, aad iJTomise o^er'mgs to EdIM, Jivdla or Sttald for the fulfilment
of their desires. At the birth of a child, they remain in a state of impurity for '^"^'""s of
10 days. On the 10th day the Dasu/han ceremony is peiformed, which consists and mauiage.
of a general cleaning up of the house, tlie performance of Hnvan by the priest,
for the purification of the child and mother. The girls of the same i]ot are fed
on the 3rd or 10th day and black sugar is distributed on the birth of a son.
For 1 5- month (40 days) the mother of a baby is not allowed to cook, es she ia
not considered altogether clean. Aft^r ]|- month, a feast is held and the daught-
ers and sisters with their sons, who are treated like Brahmans, are fed on sweet
rice. The houseliold is then considered to be free of all impurity. The head of
a boy is shaved when he is 2| months old. As regards the death ceremonies,
the dead body is carried on an Arthi — wooden bier — or a chdrjjoy and ia cremated.
The Kapdl Kriijd {i.e., the ceremony of breaking the skull; is duly performed.
The PUul (burnt bones) are picked up on the 3rd day and the persons who
carried the dead body are fed on sweet rice. The mourning lasts only three
days. Kiryd Karum {ahev-death rite) is sometimes performed like other Hindus,
although the Achiiraj is not invited and the ordinary Brahman officiates.
Earthen pitchers full of water are placed on Dasa Oatm, and Qauddn is performed
if possible (i.«?., a cow is given away to some Sadhii). Virgins are also fed. The
bones are thrown into the Ganges or in some river or pond which may be within
reach. The son has his head shaved. Cliildren up to 6 years are buried. On
the anniversary of a person's death, the brotherhood is fed on puldn and meat.
The betrothal ceremony consists of a visit from the boy's fatlier to the girl's
house and the presentation of a rupee with some rice to the girl and the distribution
of sweets, and a corresponding visit from the girl's father to the boy's house and the
presentation of a rupee and a little rice to th>' boy. The date of the marriage is fixed
in consultation with the priest (Brahman). The marriage procession consists of the
bridegroom and some four or five men, who are entertained by the bride's father.
The marriage ceremonies are simple though in conformity with Brahmanical rites.
Seven Pkeras (rounds) are taken round the fire and Mantrds from the Vedas are
recited. The father gives such clothing and utensils to his daughter in dowry,
as he can afford-
203. The Bawarias* are pronounced Devi worshippers. They vow offerings Bawaria.
to the goddess, mainly Kah, and distribute Kardhi (Halwd) on Ashtami (the 8th
of the moon). They also worship Gugii Pir and minor local deities such as Birs.
At the birth of a child, Sutak is duly observed — i.e., the whole family of
the baby is supposed to be in a state of impurity for 10 or 15 days, after which
the motlier sets her foot on the Ghulha (cooking stove), the house is cleaned and the
purifying ceremonies are performed. t!ie deity worshipped being tlie goddess.
Eavan is performed and a goat sacrificed. Rice is cooked and distributed in the
brotheihood. A party keeps up the whole night singing praises of the goddess,
the sweeper beats the dauru (double drum) the whole night and Kardhi (IJulwd)
cooked in oil is distributed in the brotherhood. On the expiry of \\ month (i.e.,
40 days) girls are fed on cooked rice and the Brahman is paid a rupee with a
bronze cup. The barber receives 8 annas and 5 seers of grain, and the other
menials such as Chamar and Kumhar get 5 seers of grain eacb. The mother of
the baby worships the well on that day.f ,
The dead are cremated and Kirija Karamis performed. Burnt bones (Phul)^
are picked upon the third day. The Sikhs liave the Qranth Sahib recited. A cow
is given away. The persons who cari'ied the bier are fed on Chiirma (pounded
sweet cakes) on the third day. Shrddh is performed for 11 days. An earthen
pitcher is tied up to a Pipal tree and filled with water every morning for 1 1 days.
On the twelvth (lay the pitcher is broken and a feast is given to the brotherhood.
Brahmans are fed and then a turban is tied on the head of tlie deceased's
• For an account of Bawaria beliefs, seo Hose's Glossary of Castes and Tribes, Vol. Tl., pago 70, et seq.
t Also see page 77 of Rose's Glossary of Castes and Tribes, Vol. II.
148
Census Report ] ehdddhi. Chapter
son. For 12 days the family is supposed to remain impure and no one eats from
their hands.
Od. 203a. The Ods worship Baksh Gawa and Ghiizi Mian who are two of the
saints respected by the Panjpirias, but they observe the ordinary Hindu customs.
6. — Unspecifiett.
Unspecified. 204. Only 1,648 Hindus (detailed in tlie margin) have failed to specify their
p r s 1648 sect. They consist of two classes, (1) those ignorant villagers who
Wales .". 887 are unable to assign any name to their particular creed and (2) some
Fen ales ... 761 p£ j|^g educated towusmen who are attached to none of the modern
sects and yet profess Hinduism only in name.
7.- Sects Analogous to other Religions.
General.
Buddhist ... 555
Jain ... 185
Sunni ... 137
Sikh ... 5,727
, ,, . ■ ,,(, 205. Persons who gave themselves as Hindus
Mazhabi Sikli 309 by religion, but mentioned their sects in terms in-
SahajdhSri ...4,671 dicating other religions, are uoted in the margin.
They aggregate 11,964 in the whole Province.
Buddhist. 206. The Buddhist entries have been i eturned from districts where there are
few or no Buddliists, which shows that such Buddhists as had found their way into
the plains passed as Hindus and mentioned tlieir real faith only when questioned
in detail about the-ir creed. Seven females in Simla and two in Kangra returned
themselves as Buddhist by sect. These were obviously Buddhist females, who had
married Hindu husbands hnd although for all practical purposes, tliey called them-
selves Hindus, yet in describing their sect, they mentioned the religion of their
birth. With the exception of these 9 females, the other sect entries under
Buddhist (546) should properly speaking be treated as belonging to that rehgion.
Jains. 207. As many as 135 person gave their religion as Hindu and their per-
suasion as Jain. These were in addition to the 1,290 persons who returned
themselves as .Iain-Hindu and were classed as Jnins. They are mostly Bishni
Jains, who conform to Hindu customs at marriage, death, etc., and are very diffi-
cult to distinguish from other Hindus.
Snnnis. 208. Many of the 137 Sunnis have on enquiry been found to be
Bobdbis, who are really Muhammadans, but call themselves Hindus or
Sikhs with regard to their attachment to Guru Ndnalc and to the fact that they
earn their livelihood by singing at the Hindu or Sikh places of worship.
Kesdhari, 209. The Keshdharis (880) and Mazhabi Sikhs (309) are Sikhs proper. They
Sahajdhari, are other than the 43,613 per.^ons who chose to call themselves, Sikh Hindu
Sikh, Maz- by religion. These went a step further and professed to belong to the Hindu
habi. religion, although they clearly believe in Sikh tenets, as is evident from the sect
entries. Tlie Sahajdharis 4,671 and Sikhs 5,727 are the Sikhs or Sewaks (dis-
ciples) of Sikh holy people or Hindu Mahants. Most of these respect the Granth
Sahib and read it regularly and according to the present definition of Sikh, the
1 1,000 odd persons dealt with in this paragraph should also be regarded as Sikhs.
Shuddhi.
Descriptive. 210. Shuddlii is a Sanskrit word which means purification. In religious
terminology it is now applied to (1) conversion to Hinduism of persons
belonging to foreign rehgions, (2) reconversion of those who h;ive recently or at
a remote period adopted one of the foreign religions, and (3) reclnmation — i.e.,
raising the status of the so-called De[)ressed classes. Hinduism is not
sup|iosed to be a proselytizing religion and for a considerable time its doors
have been closed, at all events in this Province, to persons not born as Hindus,
or to those who, voluntarily ur uniier compulsion, had tlirown off its yoke and
embraced a faith based on a totally different .set of doctrines. But under the
influence of English education, a large number of educated Hindus have become
alive to the necessity of preventing the disintegration of the religious body and
of making up for the past losses by taking back some of their kith and kin
who have, for various reasons, had to separate themselves. The greatest interest
is beint' taken in keeping within the folds of Hinduism the nntouchal)le castes,
who in view of the social advantages to be gained, are getting converted in
large numbers, to other religions. The whole subject has, therefore, assumed
such importance, of late, that it is worthwhile examining the attitude of the
scriptures and the ancient Hindu law-givers towards the question.
Ancient 211 . I nstances of the grant of the status of a Brahman to individuals brought
usage. up in a lower Varna are found in the Vedas themselves and the Itihases, e.g.y
149
aV. SHODDHi. [ Panjab, l9ll.
Vishwamitra a Ksliattriya was recognized as a Brahma Rislii ;* Vasishta born of a
Ganika (harlot) ■was regarded a Brahman ;t Vyasa, the compiler of the Mahabharat
was born of a fishen,voman and Panishar of a Shvapdki (chandala) mother J and
yet both were tieated as Brahmans. Instances, therefore, exist of the elevation of
individuals, but it was due to austerities of an exceptional nature and not merely
to the exigencies of the time. The explanation usually given is that these persons
wereBralimans in past incarnations and had to experience temporary degradation
as the result of certain actions in their past lives, or that they were really born as
Brahmans and that their bringing up by a low caste mother was due to superna-
tural causes.
But according to all Hindu law-givers, the degradation cansed by mixture
of castes can be washed out in a certain number of generations. According
to Manu, if a male begotten of a Brahman by a Shudra female begets
children by a noble woman, the inferior caste attains the highest caste,
within seven ,<reneratious. § Some interpiet this to mean that if the
descendant of a Brahman from a Shudra, i. e., a Parasava, marries a fetnale of the
same caste possessing excellent moral character and virtues, the offspring attains
to the status of Brahman in seven generations. Others hold that if the daughter
of a Brahman from a Shudra woman marries a Brahman and her daughter again
marries a Brahman and so on for seven generations, the offspring is elevated to the
Brahman status. In the same way the offspring of a Brahman from a Vaishya
wonian regains the status in five generations, and that of a Brahman from a
Kshattriya in tliree. Yiigyavalka also says that the elevation of caste occurs in
the fifth or seventh generation. [| There is thus a provision for the elevation of
caste in the codes of Hindu law under certain limitations.
In his interesting article^f on " Fcireign elements in the Hindu population"
Mr. 1). R. Bhandarkar cites numerous authorities to show tliat persons of foreign
extraction wore acimitted into Hinduism and either founded dynasties which were
regarded as good as Hindus or distinguished themselves in the Hindu society
in some other ways. But obviously, these foreigners, adopted the Hindu faith
and Hmdu names, although their families did not merge into the Hindu society
for some generations. Tiie process of assimilation of foreign elements into
Hinduism was therefore apparently gradual. But with the decline of the Hindu
power and its replacement by Muharamadan conquerors, the occasion for exten-
sion of tlie folds of Hinduism disappeared; and no one would seem to have
thouglit of conversion or reconversion to Hinduism until the establishment of
perfect religious liberty, under the impartial British rule.
212. The modern movement, however, consists not in bringing people, by The new
degrees, under the influence of Hinduism, but in actual immediate conversiov, and movement-
the methods adopted are rough and ready. Shuddhi is now carried on under the
auspices of a Slmddhi Sabha consisting mostly of members of the Arya Samaj.
Their efforts are directed mainly towards tlie raising of the status of the depressed
classes. Reconversions of recent converts from Hinduism to Islam or Christian-
ity are less numerous, and instances of conversions of persons born in other
religions are rare. Reliable statistics are not available, but tlie following note
written by Chaudhri Rambhaj Datt, B.A., President of the All-India Shuddi Sabha,
gives a history of the movement and an idea of the magnitude of the work : —
"The total number of persons purified or raised socinlly during the year 1901-1910 in
the Province of the I'unjab isatiout sisty to seventy thousand as per details below: — (1) The
Rahtias, 3,000 to 4,000. (2) The R^mdflsins about '200. (3) The Odw about 2,000 to 3,000.
(4) The Meghe ab.iut 30,000. (5) The Jats about 30,000. (G) Certain lower classes of
Hmdus have been raised in Kangra, Dalhousie, Hoshiarpur and Auibala Districts. Their
number, is unknown. (7) The number ot those who have been reconverted from 1 si dm and
Christianity is not very large. It is going down year by year as conversion of thf> higher
classes to these faiths Iihs very much decreased. To give a rough idea (and this is a
pure eufss work) thi^ converts from ChriBtiauity must be about 2,000** and from Islam aboot
double t!io number, i.e., 4,000.**
• MahabhKral Anushasan Parva.
+ Bliavishya Puran, Brahma Parva, AdhyAya XLIII, 23,29.
t Ibid, 22,
§ Manu, Chapter X — G4.
II Yagyavalka Smriti, Chapter IV.
i Indian Antiquary, Januarj* lull, pp. H ct acq.
*• These figures appear lo be somewliat, if not largely, exaggerated.
150
Census Report.J bhoddhi. Chaptbb
The reconversion of those who tarn Christians or Muhammadans is a very ordinary
> thinfT and they are taken back not only by the Arya Sam^j but at many places by the
iirddris, by Singh Sabhas and even by Sanatan Dharm Sabha, or other Hindu social bodies.
The major portion of the Rahtids were purified in the Districts of Ludhidna, Jullundur,
Hoshid.rpur, Ambala, Ferozepur and in the Kapurthala, Patiala, Jind and Ndbha States.
The Riimddsias were elevated in the Districts of Jullundur and Hoshidrpur, and in parts of
Patiala. The Ods were puriBed in the Districts of Multd.n, Lyallpur^ Montgomery, Jhang
and Muzaffargarh. The Meghs have been raised chiefly in the Districts of SiSlkot, Gurdd.8-
pnr, Gujranwila and in the Jamma State. They have also been raised in Lahcre, Ambala,
Ludhiana, Jullundur and Hoshid,rpur. The largest number (about 24,000) belonged to the
District of Sialkot. The Jats have been raised to the status of Dvija in the Districts of
Karnill, Gurgdon, Rohtak, Delhi, Hissdr, Ambala and in the Patidla, N^bha and Jind States.
I have left several smaller class conversions for want of particulars. Efforts have been
made in the Simla, Kasauli, Chamba, Kullu and Kdngra hills to raise the untouchable "Gole"
or "Bhitte."* Hindns. But the attempt has had to be given up for want of funds. Another
tribe whose reconversion has been attempted though in a balf-hearted manner are the
Muhammadanized Rajputs and I should say that about 1,000 such people have been
re-admitted without much agitation.
As to the process of puri6cation and the ceremonies observed at the Shuddhi, it has
a very interesting history. The first organized effort towards the Shuddhi or reconversion
of the converts to IsMm or Christianity was made by the Amritsar Arya Samdj. It must,
however, be acknowledged that much of its success was due to the help and co-operation of
one Pandit Tulsi Rdm, the most orthodox of the orthodox and one cf the most learned, revered
and renowned Brahmans of Amritsar. The Arya Samaj used to make the repentant go
through the ceremony of tonsure, Horn, Yagyopavit (investiture with the sacred thread)
and the Gayatri (initiation ioto the Vedic Dharni) and thus admitted him in their fold.
Thereupon Pandit Tulsi Ram used to send the purified to Hardwdr tvith his letter called'
Shuddhi Patra, where he was duly purified once more by a dip in the Ganges. This went
on for years. From all parts of the Province, people were sent to Amritsar. By this time
the Lahore Arya Samaj and the Arya Samdj movement in general grew into power and
influence. The Shuddhi ceremony of the Arya Samdj alone came to be recognized as
BuflBcient even by men of the old school and Pandit Tulsi Ram's kind help was dispensed with.
I may say here once more to the credit of the said Pandit Tulsi Rdlm that none was more pleased
than he, on our dispensing with the additional ceremony of sending the purified to Hardwdr.
The first and the most important step was taken by the Lahore Arja Samdj when it
purified and re-admitted a number of Rahtids (untouchable Sikhs),t who had been pressing their
claims and imploring the Singh Sabhas of the Province for over ten years and whose Shuddhi
was being put off by the -Jullundur Arya Samdj for more than a year. ITie Arya Pritinidhi
Sabha, Punjab, of which I was then the President, soon decided that the matter was provincial
and took it in hand. The Shuddhi of the Rahtids was undertaken in right earnest all over
the Province. We soon found that Ods were pressing their claims, which could not be
ignored and I had soon to take part, in 1901-1902, in the first great Shuddhi of several
hundred families of Ods, at Multdn. The work was taken up by other Arya Samdjes and
has ever since been going on with more or less zeal. We had not done with the Shuddhi
of the first batch of Ods when another problem of greater magnitude (the Shuddhi of the
Meghsi almost forced itself upon the attention of the Arya Samdj.
The raising of the Jats was taken in hand by the Karnal and other adjoining Arya
Samdjes. The ceremony is everywhere the same. In all cases the person to be reclaimed has
to keep Brat (fast) before the ceremony. In some cases where the fall was due to passion, the
number of Brats is increased by the persons who are to perform the ceremony. The very act
of their being raised in social status makes them feel a curious sense of responsibility. They
feel that they should live and behave better and that they should act as Dvijas. It has thus,
in the majority of cases, a very wholesome effect on their moral, social, relijjious and spiritual
being. As to treatment, the Arya Samdj treat the elevated on terms of equality. They dine
in their utensils, things cooked by their wives or daughters, they feed them in their o>vn
Chauka a.'id they are given the status of Dvijas. They raise in their minds, hopes of being
raised even to the position of a Brahman or to any social or Samdjic position if they prove
by self-exertion and by merit, fit for the same.
The Hindus (orthodox) as a inle assume the attitude of toleration and let the purified or
reclaimed people step into their fold without any protest. The educated Hindu dees it and
professes that he does so. The Hindus of the old school, illiterate and conservative, at times
and in places have opposed the movement bitterly and put the Arya Samdjists to great
trouble, but in the majority of cases, they have yielded in the end. It would be a sheer act
of ingratitude if I were not to acknowledge that much of our success is due to the help and
co-operation of the enlightened Hindu public both literate and illiterate. The places where
we received the greatest opposition were Rupar, Hoshidrpur and some villages of the Rohtak
District. At Karndl, while the Orthodox did not oppose our raising the Jat and the Ahir, etc.,.
they have only lately excommunicated us on our taking back a Christian fa rrdly."
* Untouchable,
t Cbamar by caste.
IV.
151
BBDDDHI.
[ Punjab, 191L
The reclamation of lower classes is thus taking two distinct lines,
(1) the raising of the status of castes not entitled to wear the sacred thread (these
are not depressed classes, so to speak) and (2) the admission of the untouchable
castes to the rank of touchables. The former is a purely Arya Samaj movement
and is not supported, so far, by the orthodox or other non-Arya Bindus. The
latter has a much wider sympathy. The strength of members of the
untouchable CHStes is put down (in paragraph 132) as 2,268,831. About half
of them do not pollute by mere toucli, but the other half do. The move-
ment is for the present directed towards elevating the former class and as
matters now stand, it is doubtful, whether the latter class, i.e., the untouchables
proper, wlio follow unclean professions, will ever be admitted to commensal
equality. Degradation to the untouchable limit seems always to liave been
caused by some sort of unclean work. But others who did not actually pursue
an unclean occupation sank to the same level by associating with the untouch-
ables. It is the latter class which is beine^ gradually reclaimed to a higher status.
An abstract of the Conversion
a n and reconver-
tigures ot conver- gjon.
sion and reconver-
sion from Islam and
Christianity receiv-
ed from certain dis-
tricts is given in the
margin, t^ome of
the Deputy Com-
missioners have
given interesting
accounts of conver-
sions, etc., and their
remarks are quoted
below : —
District or State.
CONTBETBD.
Eeconvbrted.
Muhammadan.
Christian.
Muhammadan.
Christian.
Hissar
Delhi
Ambala
Simla
Ferozepore
Ourdaspur
Oujranwala
Shahpur
Eawalpindi
Lyallpur
Jhang
Muzaffargarh
Nahan
UaUrhotla
1
5
51
1
...
• ■•
1
26
2
1
7
5
3
6
1
27
4
4
3
2
3
1
1
1
1
...
Total
67
1
90
3
Mr. J. Addison, I. C. S., Sub-Divisional Officer, Sirsa, says: —
" But there is one case in which a Musalman by birth, named Karim Bakhsli, was
admitted into the fold under interesting circumstances. He was the servant of B. Sant Ram,
the manager of a theatrical company whicli came on tour to Sirsa. There happened to be a
meeting of the Samaj and Sant Kam, who was »n Arya, took his servant to the meeting,
where he was admitted as a member. All the assembled people then ate sweetmeats dis-
tributed by him. This occurred on the I4th February 1910. They left Sirsa when the per^
formances cnme to an end."
Mr. C. A. H. Townsend, I. C S. (Hissar District), remarks: —
" The Hissar Arya Samaj reclaimed «r purified only one Mahajan (named Chuni Lai
who had become a Muhammdan) during the I'ist ten years. The facts are briefly these : —
Cliuni Lai, Mahajan used to live in Delhi. Through some family dissentions he left
Delhi and went to Kalanaur, district Kohtak. There he became a Muhammadan because the
Mubammadans served him faithfully and had to eat and drink from their hands during
his illness. During the course of his illness, he came to the Hissar Arya Samaj last year and
expresseil his wishes to be taken back into the fold of the Samaj. He lived in the Arya
Samaj Mandir (Hall) f(ir some time and he was taken care of by tlie members of the Arya
Samaj. When he became quite all right he was reclaimed. The process adopted for the
reclamation was : — (a). He was made to fast for three days. (b). He had absolutely
nothing to do with Mubammadans during the period of one month or so he was at Hissar
before the reclamation. After fasting and keeping aloof from the Muhammadaus, he
expressed his wishes to join his old community again.
Thus the Samaj reclaimed him and the 8 Samajists as well as other Hindus took food
and eatables from his hands. After a {nrthiT residence of two or three months at Hissar,
he left the place and we do not know where he wont.
This reclamation took place only last year in the month of August."
Mr. F, W. Skemp, I. C. S., Deputy Commissioner, Muzaffargarh, observes:—
"A Hindu of Dera Ghazi Khan District had fallen in love with a Muhammadan woman
and professed Islam for six years. On the denth of his paramour he again adopted Aryan
views and was purified by the Arya Samaj at Alipur on 24th of March 1907 aftar the
Dharam Shastras of Mann. For this purification the man had to fast for 30 days continu-
ously (cliandrain fast). On the first day of these fasts he was given only one morsel and
these morsels went on increasing up to 15 till thu 15th day and thus reverted to one morsel
on the 30th day of fast. Eventually the purification concluded by giving bath and tellinc
Census Report ]
152
BIKBS.
Chaptib
prayers by beads and burning ghee with scents after reciting hymns. Thns after undergo-
ing all these rites lie was made to distribute Halwa — a preparation of sugar, ghee, etc., which
was accepted by the reclaimers and their community. But unfortunately he again enticed
away a Muhammadan woman and disappeared from Allpur. "
Diwan Tek Ohand, B. A., I. C. S., Deputy Commissioner, Gujranwala,
■writes : —
" One of them was a Hindu before conversion to Islam. It is not known for how long
he professed Islam but was reclaimed by the Arya Samaj on 22nd November 19] I. The
method employed was Parayaschit — i.e., keeping fnst for a certain period, taking a bath
daily and saying prayers before the Shuddhi day, on which Havan was performed. The
other remained Muhammadan for about 3 yrars and was reclaimed by tha Arya Sainaj on
2nd September ltiP4. Method employed as above."
Inforriiafion received from the Hoshiarpur district shows that 722 persons
of the Kabirpniithi sect (Chamar by caste) have been elevated by the Arya Samaj
in 49 villages of the Hoshiarpur and Kangra Districts within the last four years.
'Attitude of ^^^* "^^^ persons raised or converted are admitted to terms of equality
Hindus to- ^^ matters of interdining, by the advanced meraljers of the Arya Srtmaj and by the
ward the majority of the educated Hindus, who have lost all faith in restrictions of eating
and drinking and do not mind mixing with them. The attitude of the mass of the
Hindus is one of apathy. They do not meet them half way, but on the contrary
do not, as a rule, boycott them. What is therefore happening is that the converts,
etc., Hre merging gradually into the Hindu community. Most of those converted
or reconverted from other religions stick to the Arya Samaj, but many of the
members of depressed classes prefer to adhere to their designation of old-fashioned
Hindus, after they have been raised to the level of other castes, by the Arya
Samaj. The more orthodox alone resent the innovation, but can only keep aloof
by confining themselves within a narrow circle of persons holding similar views,
and some have to go to the length of becoming Swoyampakis (i.e., cooking their-
own food and not eating from any one else's hands).
i
converts .
Local dis-
tribution.
SIKHS.
214. The map printed in the margin shows the local distribution of Sikhs.
'I' he Ludhiana
District and
the Faridkot
State have the
highest propor-
tion of Sikhs,
i.e.,400and425
per mille of the
total population
respe c t i v ely.
Ludhiana with
the Phulkian
and Faridkot
States, forms
the principal
Sikh tract, and
has been the
Centre of much
activity in the
matter of ad-
mi n i s t e ri n g
Pahol to the
uninitiated be-
lievers in the
"Grauth Sahib. Faridkot being a Sikh State has a large percentage of the
followers of that faith. The Patiala and Nabha States stand next in importance
with a proportion of 300 to 400 Sikhs per mille. Amritsar, which is the centre
of the Sikh religion, has only 283 Sikhs to every 1,000 of population. The Fero;5e-
rY.
153
SIKBS.
L Punjab, 1911.
1881
1891
1901
1911
Males.
964,436
1,036,525
1,182,296
1,651.595
Females.
7*1,729
812.840
920.600
1,232,134
Total.
1,706,165
1,849,371
2,102,896
2,883,729
pore and Julhindur Districts (including Kapurthala), having a large Sikh
(Jat) population, rank next. The population of Sikhs in the districts and states
falling under class IV (100 to 200 per mille) ranges from 171 in Lyallpnr to 112
in the Kalsia State. The smallest proportion of Sikhs is found in the Mandi State
(1 per 10,000) and the Loharu, Diijana and Pataudi States have no Sikhs at all.
Of the British Districts, Rohtak and Gurgaon have only 3 and 5 Sikhs per 10,000
of the population, respectively.
215. The figures given in the margin indicate the variation in the number variations.
of Sikhs from one Census to another. The in-
crease in the past ten years is quite abnonnal,
particularly in view of the fact that there has
been a general decline in population, in conse-
quence of the excess of death-rate over birth-
rate. But, as already e.\plained, a considerable portion of the difference is due to
a more extensive scope of the term Sikh, at the recent Census. For the purpose of
comparison with the figures of previous Censuses, we should deal separately with
Kesdharis and Sahjdharis, the former figures corresponding to the statistics of 1901
and the latter representing the section of Sikhs which was, in the Census of 1901,
included in Hindus. The Kesdharis aggregate 2,415,478 and the Sahjdharis num-
ber 468,251. So the increase compared with tha figures of 1901 is, Kesdhans 15
per cent., total Siklis 37 per cent. There is not much room for error in the re-
gistration of Kesdharis. Separate vital statistics are not forthcoming for the
Sikhs, as for the purpose of registration of births and deaths, Sikhs have so far
been recorded as Hindus. But only 54 per mille of the Sikhs reside in towns, the
rest living in rural tracts (see paragraph 20 of Chapter I) and so they must na-
turally have a somewhat higher birth-rate, and their out-door life must enable
their sturdy constitutions to resist epidemics better. Nevertheless the rate of in-
crease is much too high for the natural development of population, under the
hygienic conditions which prevailed during the decade. The gain seems to have
occurred mainly by accretions from the Hindus. It has not been possible to
ascertain the number of people who have taken the pahol during the last ten years,
but the Singh Sabhas have been very active in enforcing the tenets of Guru
Gobind Singh on all followers of Guru Nanak, whether Sikhs or Hindus, and they
have been assisted greatly in their efforts by the fact that only Kesdhari Sikhs are
enlisted in the army. The separatist movement has also succeeded to a con-
siderable extent in dictating the observance of Guru Gobind Singh's tenets. The
statn of affairs has raised the status of Kesdhari Sikhs, so much so that while
formerly Kesdharis and
District
or
Btato.
Ambala
Eoshiarpur
Jullundar
Ltidhiaoa
Ferozepur
Qurdaspur
filalkot
Qnjranwala
Qujrat
Increase or decrease
in Sikh population
over 1901.
Kesdhari.
+ 24,260
42
4.14,228
20
+7,901
6
+24,601
15
+ 17,970
8
+ 19,62
21
+ 14,079
28
+ 38,266
74
+7,268
29
Total
Sikhs.
+ 36,398
68
+63,020
89
+50,410
40
+42,123
26
+ 34,156
15
+ 29,322
32
+ 30,779
60
+ 6G,H1
109
+ 19,8(10
80
District
or
State.
Shahpur
Jbelum.Ranal-
picdi and
Attock.
Montgomery...
Ly all pur
Jhang
Multan
Patiala
ilalerkotla ..,
Kapurthala ...
Increase or decrease
in Sikh population
over 1901.
Kesdhari.
1
Total
Sikhs.
+ 10,418
82
+ 3,864
f 8
+7,000
40
+ 33,227
38
+2,03«
58
+ 1,511
32
+ 109,470
31
+ 6,792
65
—342
1
NoTB.— The figures in antique show variation per cent, as compared with
the Sikh population of 19ni
Sahjdiiaris of the same
caste intermarried with-
out distinction, a Kes-
dhari will usually not
give his daughter to a
''~^°'l62 Sahjdhari now unless
he takes the pahol,
although he does not
mind marrying the
daughter of a Sahj-
dhari. In other words,
the Kesdharis are begin-
ning to establish them-
selves as a hypergamous
class. In the margin
are given the figures for
the districts and states
which have shown the
largest increases in the
strength of Sikhs. The
+ 35,885
76
+49,083
257
+58,621
67
+ 15,901
451
+15,219
326
+ 176,643
50
+ 10,523
100
+ 12,174
highest gains in Kesdharis have been registered in districts where the number of
Sahjdhari Sikhs was large, e.g., Ambala, Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana, Ferozepore, Patiala
, , -^ w - .. - - I , -, Ferozepc.^, ^c-
^nd the Colonies. On the other hand, the centres of the separatist movement.
I.e.
154
Census Keport] fikhs. Cbaptek
Amritsar and Nabha bad already a large number of Kesdharis and have shown no
improvement. The Chenab Colony is an excelleat example of the activity of the
Sikh rehgion. Almost every village belonging to the Hindus or Sikhs possesses
a Dharmsala, where the Granth is regularly read and, in places with a strong
Sikh influence, adherence to the tenets of Guru Gobind Siiigli is insisted on.
To quote the remarks of the Colonization Officer, Chenab Colony* —
" The cult of the tenth high priest of the Sikh religion is attracting numerous con-
▼ erts, as evinced by the number of Hindu grantees, who having been initiated after obtain-
ing their grants, now apply for the necessary alteration of their names to be recorded. I
understand that this tendency is not confini'd to the colony, but here raen more readily
depart from the ways of their forefathers, and the Sikh pensioners of the native army form
a large and ardent body of proselytisers."
The Singh Sabhas and their preachers have also been doing a great deal
towards the reclamation of the depressed classes. The Mazhabis are of course a
class of some standing now, but members of other untouchable classes are being
freely admitted to the folds of Sikhism.
Keaning 216. It is by no means easy to define ' Sikh.' The word is derived
of the term from ' Skishya,' meaning disciple. No definition of the term was attempted
Sikh. in 1881. The definition adopted in 1891 was as follows: — "Male — one who
■wears the hair long (Kes) and refrains from smoking." This deBnition was retained
in 1901 with the addition that the religion of the women should be entered as
stated. The following quotation from Mr. Rose's Reportf will show the diffi-
culties experienced in the practical application of the definition.
"In the present Census this rule was, I have little doubt, almost universally ignor-
ed, and in 1891 it whs not carefully observed, the result being that the Sikh Bgures for
that year exceeded by 30 per cent, according to Mr. Maclagan's estimate the numbers
which should have been returned as those of the ' true Sikhs.' The results seem the reverse
of satisfactory. Jf a rule is laid down and then only partially followed, the returns obtain-
ed mast be of uncertain v»lue. We cannot say with accuracy that in so many cases the-
rale was followed and in so many disobeyed. The question then arises whether such a-
rule can be enforced, as, if not, it should be amended or revoked. I am inclined to think that
at a future Census this attempt at definition should be abandoned. In the first place it is
clear that strict observance of the rule would have excluded a certain number of the com-
munity from our return of Sikhs. In the next place the rule was objected to in nearly
every District in which Sikhs exist in any number and I was frequently asked how the
muna Sikh (or those who cut the hair) should be recorded. Obviously it would have been
a little difEcult to SMy that they should be recorded as by rtjligion Hindus, seeing that they
strenuously deny that they are Hindus, and direct that they should be returned as Sikhs by
sect, for that would merely vitiate our sect returns. If we had such entries as ' Hindu (by
religion), Sikh (by sect),' we should not be much wiser than before, for in a sense all Sikhs
are Hindus and are so called in common parlance. As Mr. Maolagan observes the line
between Sikhs and Hindus is vague in the extreme, and the best course, therefore, would
sfem to be to record those who return themselves «s Sikhs as such, and trust to the entry
of sect, if any, to enable us to classify the followers of Guru Govind apart from those of
BdwA Ndnak as has been attempted on this occasion."
The instructions issued at the present Census, viz. : — that the entry of
religion in respect of eacli person should be as he wishes, — have thrown into the
statistics of Sikhs, a large number of persons who worship the Hindu Gods and
follow strict Hindu ordinances besides beinu; Sikhs, i.e., followers, of Guru Nanak,
and who at the last Censuf", were as reluctant to be excluded from the body of
Hindus, as they were chary of being denied the privilege of reckoning themselves
as disciples of the great Guru Nanak. The present procedure has simplified
matters so far as their forcible relegation to a particular faith was concerned.
But the question whether or not, all the persons now returned as Sikhs are other
than Hindus, still remains to be solved. The relations of Sikhs, whether
Kesdharis or Sahjdharis, with Hindus pure and simple are so thick that it is
impossible to draw a clear lino of distinction. Even amongst the Kesdharis
who are the followers of Guru Gobind Singh, a large number — e.g., the
Majha Jats in the Lahore and Amritsar Districts— allow boys to have their
hair cut, up to about 15 years, when they take Pahol (receive the initiation) and
begin to wear the Kes, but all the time tha boys are cs good Sikhs as the
* Acsual Reports of the Chenab, Jhelum and Chunian Colonies for the year 1903, p. 12.
t Punjab Census Report 1901, para. 19. page 124.
(
155
IV. BUHfl. [ Punjab, l9ll.
parents. Theu in one and tlie same family, one brother ma.v be a Keadhari,
another a Sahjdliari Hud the thiid while wearinij the Kes may be a
Sarwaria who smokes the hukJca. In numerous cases, the father is a Kesdhari,
the son does not wear the Kes and the grandson is again initiated and becomes a
follower of the precepts of Guru Gobind Singh. In the office of the Examiner
of Accounts, N.-W- Hailway, there is an Arora calling himself a Kesdhari Sikh,
"who wears the Kes but shaves his beard. His brothers are Sahjdharis. There
are several instances in which the wife of a Sahjdhari Sikh vows to make her
first son Kesdhari. The younger sons remain Sahjdharis. A Kesdhari marries
the daughter of a Sahjdhari and the daughters of Kesdharis marry Sahjdharis.
Indeed intenuarriages between Kesdhari or Sahjdhari Sikha and ordinary
Hindus are still matters of every day occurrence, although the modern movement
has succeeded to a considerable extent in confining the followers of Guru Gobind
Singh in a water tight compartment, restricting intermarriage with non-
Kesdharis and enforcing the initiation on all male descendants of Kesdharis. But
to this day, instances of Sahjdhari sons of Kesdhdri fathers, particularly in
the educated community are fairly numerous.
In an interesting book written in Urdu by Bakhshi Ram Singh, retired
Executive Engineer, on the principles of the Sikh Gurus, he has collected refer-
ences from the Adi Granth, to show how the belief in Hindu incarnations and in
Hindu mythology pervades the utterances of Guru Nanak, Guru Tegh Bahadur,
Namdev and Kabir, of which the book is full. References to all shades of belief
from the trinity (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva) to the deeds of the Avataras, th&
appearance of Bhagwan in response to prayers of devotees (see the story about
the drinking of milk offered by Namdev,* the restoration of the life of the king'a
cow,t and the injunction to recite the name of Rama are found in abundance.
References to the great Hindu saints and heroes as well as to the Vedas, Itihdses,
etc., are not wanting. The Japji Sahib is full of Hindu ideas and the Chandi
path, composed by Guru Gobind Singh, shows how staunch a devotee of the Goddess
Durga he was. Guru Nanak is said to have received his first instruction {Guru
Mantra) from Bhagwdn Jalshai (God pervading the waters, i e., Vishnu). { The
illustrations used in the Adi Granth are drawn from the Mahabbarata, the
Ramayana and the Puranas.
I have quoted the above facts to show why it is so difficult to differen-
tiate Sikhism from Hinduism, In considering the question, the fact must not
be ignored that in the religious hfe of a Hindu (and perhaps also of a Muham-
madan), there are two fundamental principles, namely, (1) the belief in a set of
doctrines and (2) the adherence to the instructions of a Guru (preceptor). The
Guru need not be alive. If he has left a set of instructions and rules of conduct
as a legacy, the followers of those become the disciples of that Guru. Baba
NtSnak is very strong in vindicating the greatness of the Gwu and identifying
him with God,§ for his Guru was Bhigivdn Himself. To the Sikhs, the words
of the Satguru (true Guru) are the scriptures. But so is the case with the Hindus
who maintain "Guru Brahmd, Guru Vixhnu, Gtiru ScCkshdt Maheshwarah, Gurureva
Jagat sarvam tasmai Shrt durave vamah." (The Guru is Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva
manifested, he is the whole universe. Homage to that exalted Guru). This explains
the apparently double rehgious adherence of Hindus who also profess to be Sikhs.
The crux of the Sikh religion is apparently contained in the following
saying of Gnm Nnnak : — " Kko simro ydnokd j6 jal thai rthd samdi, dujd hdhe
simirye jo jomme te marjdi." He preached monotheism of the Dwait philosophy,
strongly permeated by Bhaktimdrga (the devotional method). And in the words
of a Sikh scholar: — " From Dualism (Uwait) he lifted the people to Monism
{Ad^vaita) through the intermediate grades of qualified non-Dualism (Visliisht-
adwaita)." A firm belief in tho transmigration of soul, tlie Law of Karma, the
three modes of attaining union with the Supreme, viz., Bhakti, Karma and
Oydn Yogas, pervades his writings. The teachings of Guru Gobind Singh were cal-
* Adi Granth, Bhairo, Bnni Namdev ji kj, Obar II, Shabad 3.
t /hid, (Iharll, Shabiid 10.
j (See S4khi Parman).
§ See Japji Hihib, Panri 7.
Census Beport. ]
ir)6
SIKH 8RCT8.
CilAPTEB
Diitriba-
tion.
<Jobind
SinghL
d
■d
•d
•c
Secti.
•o
Sects.
J3
1
Gobind Singhi
107,827
lUm Kii or Rim
20,686
5,890
Hazuri
287,548
6,044
Raia.
Kuki Nimdhari
4,706
Sarwaria
53,205
25,880
Mazhabi
726
Tat Khilsa (in-
344,058
Nihang
4,270
cluding Khil-
Ninakpanthi ..
99,601,
176,036
Ba).
Panjpirja
10.372
539
Dd4si
879
591
Rim Dasi
8,106
2,206
Dnepecified
Radha Swimi
1,466,030
233,752
424
ctilated to convert the followers of Guru Nanak into a militant body without affect-
ing their relationship with the Hindus whom it was intended to protect. It is,
for this reason, that until the development of the recent movement of Sikh separa-
tism, the Hindus did not look upon Sikhism aa an alien religion or social group.
Not only has the significance of the term Sikh expanded at the present
Census, but a certain amount of canvassing and compulsion were also exercised
in returning as Sikhs, those who did not actually profesfe to be so. In a
Boarding House, for instance, all Hindus were required to return themselves
as Sikhs on pain of expulsion from the institution. The following remarks of
Mr. Miles Irving, Deputy Commissioner, Montgomery, are relevant : —
" In column 4 (o) where the Supervisors or Enumerators were Sikhs, they tried to
enter as many persons as they could, by any stretch of meaning of the definition of the word
Sikh, as "Sikhs." .... In filling up column 4 (6) (sect of religion) some difficul-
ties have been experienced as some illiterate persons could not, through ignorance, tell tbeif
Beet or sub-caste mostly in the cases of Hindus. All persons who revere the Sikh Granth and
the Sikh Gurus, although they do not wear the Ees, and revere the gods or godesses of the
orthodox Hindus, have been shown as Sikk, and of this clas^ there are many in the District."
Sects of Sikhs-
217. The sects of Sikhs returned in Table VI A (other than 'Miscel-
laneous' and those analogous
to other religions, which are
dealt with further on) are enu-
merated in the margin. The
Mazhabi, Nanakpanthi,
Panjpiria, Ramdasi, Ram Rai,
Sarwaria, Udasi, Baba Jaw^-
hir Singh, Bab^ Kalu, Niran-
kari, Radh4swami, Jogi, Kal-
adhari and Ndmdev have
been mentioned under Hindus.
218. By Gobind Singhi are meant the followers of Guru Gobind Singh. All
Sikhs wearing the Kes and observing the other restrictions enjoined by Guru
Gobind Singh, who do not belong to any other specified sect, describe themselves
as Gobind Singhis. In 1891 their strength was 839,138, but in 1901 only 396,056*
returned theraeselves as such, and at the recent Census their number has fallen
further to 107,827. This decrease is accounted for by the large number of un-
specified Kesdhari Sikhs, and the Tat Khalsa or Khalsa.
Hazuri. 219. At the same time many of the followers of Guru Gobind Singh have
put themselves down as Hazuris, the number being 287,548 Kesdharis and 6,044
Sahjdharis. Hazuris are those Sikhs who have paid a visit to Hazur Sahib in
Hyderabad Deccan (where Gum Gobind Singh breathed his last) and have been
initiated there. It is really a title of religious merit similar to that of Haji amongst
the Muhammadans {i.e., those who have made a pilgrimage to Mecca), but the
initiation at the Hazur Sahib is supposed to confer great religious sanctity, at the
same time imposing certain restrictions. The orthodox Hazuris are supposed to
go about in yellow or blue garments and very often cook their own food, eating
trom nobody else's hands. The orthodox type is, however, on the wane.
Tat Khalsa 220. The term Tat Khalsa dates back to the time of Baba Banda, one of
and Khalsa, the trusted disciples of Guru Gobind Singh, who, after the latter's death
proclaimed himself as the eleventh Guru. Those who accepted his pretensions
came to be known Bandai-Khalsa but others who adhered to the command of
Guru Gobind Singh that the Granth was thereafter to be their Guru gave them-
selves the name Tat (pure) Khalsa. "With the fall of Banda Bahadur, his follow-
ing gradually melted away and the term Tat Khalsa also fell into disuse. It
has been revived recently, by the class known as the Neo-Sikht party (a ternfl
dishked by the Sikhs, of that class) who are wholly and solely devoted to the
tenets of the 10 Gurus and do not like vheir religion to be corrupted by associ-
• These figures were for British Territory only, including a few persooB in the North- Weat Frontier Province.
t In the words of Mr. P. J. Rust, l.o.s.. Secretary, Municipal Oommitlee, Amritsar, " the name Neo-Sikh has
been hit upon by those who in the absence of any better term bad to find (me to denote the reformed Section of tbo
Sikh Community."
Ambala ...
... 1,882
1,802
Jullundur
910
669
Ludhiana ...
... 46,910
34,577
Ferozepore
... 5,885
4,617
Amritsar ...
... 125,304
90,817
Gojranwala
... 4,313
2,933
Gujrat
736
659
Rawalpindi
... 1,275
892
Lyallpor
2,019
1,727
Kalsia
... 1,445
1,064
Eapurthala
... 2,6J5
2,410
Jind
4,404
2,734
157
IV. SIKH SECTS. [ Punjab, 1911.
ation with any non-Sikh belief. They are trying to restore the faith, to what
they consider, its pristine purity. The term Tat Khalsa appears to have been
taken up by the Hindus who are opposed to the separatist movement of the Sikhs as
a nickname and is now resented by the followers of this new reform movement.
The members of this group who number 344,058 disregard caste and
restrictions of eating and drinking, and aim at establishing a universal brother-
hood amongst the Sikhs, vrith views, liberal in some respects and orthodox in
Males. Females, othcrs, bascd mainly upon convenience. The move-
ment is more or less reactionary and although averse
to fanaticisim it enjoins a very strong esprit de
corps. The chief centre of the movement is Amrit-
sar, and the districts and states which have returned
most adherents of this sect are given in the
margin. Khalsa means the pick and implies the true
followers of Guru Gobind Singh. The term is applied
generally to all Kesdharis, but has recently acquired
a special signi6cance similar to that of Tat Khalsa.
The principal institution of this new movement is the Chief Khalsa Diwan The Chief
which i.'i a body registered under Act XXI of 1860 and consists of :— (a) a Khalsa Di-
General, and (l>) an E.Kecutive Committee. Membership of the General Committee wan.
is open to (1) Gurdwaras and Takhats (thrones) such as those at Patna Sahib,
Kanded (Hydrabad Daccan), Anandpore Sahib, the Darbar Sahib (flolden Temple)
and the Akal Bmiga Sahib at Amritsar and other places ; (2) the various Singh
Sabhas, Khalsa Diwans and Sikh associations which are affiliated to the Chief
Khalsa Diwan ; (3) the Sikh Sirdars, Eaises, Sikh Military Officers, gentlemen of
the Sikh States and well wishers of the Khalsa Panth; and (4) the Sikh graduates
and the educated portion of the community.
The proportion in which each of these groups can be represented has been
fixed by rule. The term of membership is 6 years, the retiring members
being eligible for re-election. The present strength of the members is 90.
The general committee elects its oflBce bearers, viz., the President, Vice-President.
Secretary, Assistant Secretary, etc. As a rule, it holds two ordinary meetings
in the year, on the occasions of Baisakhi and Dewali, and attendance at these
meetings is confined to the members only.
The Executive Committee consists of 21 members, of whom at least 16
are elected from amongst the members of the General Committee. This election
takes place every third year. The actual transaction of the work cf the Chief
Khalsa Diwan is entrusted to this body, subject to the control of the General
Committee. 'J"he objects of the Chief Khalsa Diwan are : —
" (1) to strive for the spiritual, intellectual, moral, social and material betterment of
the Khalsa Panth ; (2) to propagate and disseminate the teachings of Siri Guru Garanth
Sahib ; (3) to provide for the preaching of Gur Bdni (the Ten Gurus' teachings), liistory of
the Guru Sahibs and teachings in consonance with Gur Bdni {e.g., those of Bhai Gurdas and
Bhai Nand Lai); (4) to represent the claims of the Khalsa Panth to the benign Government
and to approacli with prayers for their grant ; and (5) to endeavor as far as possible for
the achievement of the above objects".
The Chief Khalsa Diwan has no connection with the management of the
Golden Temple, except that the manager of the latter is, ex-o^lcio, a member
of the Chief Khalsa Diwan, and that this body in its independent capacity, is
entitled to criticise the work of management of the Golden Temple which is
considered to be their Sanctum Sancti>rum.
The first Khalsa Diwan was that started at Lahore more than a decade Khalea Di
ago, as the representative body of the Sikhs, and it had the privilege of being ^^Qg ^^^
the originator of the Khalsa College movement. The institution, however, be- gineh
came stagnant and to all intents and purposes has already become defunct, gathas
There are repieseutntive bodies of the Sikhs at all important Sikh centres,
called the Khals^i Diwans, and minor Sikh associations in the villages and smaller
towns known as Singh Sabhas. All these Sikh societies are affiliated to the
Chief Khalsa Diwan of Amritsar and elect representatives to serve on that body.
The Chief Khalsa Diwan has its offshoots not only in all the districts or most of
the Native States of the Punjab but also in Burma, Straits Settlements, Africa,
America and England. The scope of the work of these local bodies is religious,
Census Report ]
158
8IKH SECTS.
Chaptkb
Enka or
Namdharis
NihaJig.
Miscella-
neous sects,
Seels ana-
logous to
other reli-
gions.
The Sikh
Hindus.
Conver-
sions to
Sikhism.
educational and philanthropic, the representation of the claims of the Khalsa
Panth, to Government, being reserved for the central institution.
221. 'I'he Kuka movement appears to be on the decline owing obviously to
the disfavour with which the followers of this sect ai*e looked npon in political
circles, and the opening created by the Tat Khalsa movement for religious zeal.
The number has decreased from 13,788* in 1901 to 4,70(5. For an account of
Kiikas the Census Reports of 1901t and 1891 J should be read.
222. An account of Nihangshas been given in all the three previous Census
Reports.§ As many as 1,595 Nihangs were retnrnedin 1891, butonly 567 persons
called themselves by that name in 1901. The present strength is 4,270. It must
not be inferred from this that the number of Nihangs is growing. The case is
probably just the reverse. At the previous Censuses, the Nihangs apparently
returned themselves as Gobind Singhis.
223. A detail of the Miscellaneous Sikh sects is given in the margin. An
account of the followers of
Baba Gurditta, Baba Barbhag
Singh, of Nirmalas and of
Niranjauis has been given
in the previous Census
Reports. [| Basant Sahib is the
same as Sat Sahib of which
an account was given by Mr.
Rose.^ Mahadev means Shiv
UpdCsaJi, i.e. worshipper of
Shiva. In 1901 there were
772 Kesdhari Sikhs who still adhered to the worship of Shiva, besides following
Guru Gobind Singh's faith. The number has now declined to 251. This sect
should also be regarded as one of those analogous to the Hindu religion.
224. The sects analogous to other religions are noted in the margin.
The
the
•d
VD
Sect.
13
Sect.
t3
T3
J3
O
•s
i^
03
M
CO
B4b/» Gurditta
1,741
206
Nirankari ...
574
995
Bnba Jawahir
1,437
440
Mahadev
251
...
Singh.
Bar bh4g Singh
...
6.383
Nirmala
378
...
Jogi
833
Baba Kalu ...
966
...
Kiiladhari ...
187
Basant Sihib
055
Nimdev
...
434
Niranjani ...
778
...
Sects analogouH to other ■
religions.
Arya
... 63
Balmikf
...1,12U
LAlbegi
...1595
Sanatan Dharm
.. 4,425
Dev Dharm
... 25
Devi (Jpipak
... 94
Sewak Darya
... 11
Thei e is nothing inconsistent in a Sikh bemg an Arya.
Balniiki .ind Lalbegi Sikhs are Chuhras, who also read
Granth Sahib or respect the teachings of Guru Nanak, in
consequence of residence in Sikh villages. The Sikh Sana-
tandharmisi are those who, although true Sikhs, still observe
the Hindu customs and at times (particularly of marriage
and death) worship the Hindu gods and follow Hindu cere-
monies. Some of the staunchest Devdharrais are Sikhs and have returned their
faith as a sect of Sikhism rather than that of Hinduism. The number of Devi
Upiisak Siklis (that is Sikhs who worship the Goddess as well) lias fallen from 524
in 1901 to 94. Some River worshippers who belong to the followers of Sikh pre-
ceptors have described themselves as attached to the Sikh religion.
225. In view of the controversy which arose before the Enumeration, as
to whether Sikhs were or were not Hindus and the strongl}i expressed opinions of
certain people who did not wish to be returned exclusively as Sikhs or Hindus,
the Census Commissioner permitted the dual entry of Sikh-Hindu or Hindu-Sikh
in such cases, and the 43,G13 persons who returned themselves in this way were
included in Sikhs, as they did not stand on a footing different to that of Sahjdhari
Sikhs. The persons, who have at this ('ensus, signified their adherence, in one
way or another, to both Hinduism and Sikhism, aggregate 476,598, thus : — Sahj-
dharis, including Hindu Sikhs 460,918, Sikh Sanatandharmis 4,425, Sikh Devi
Upasak 94, Sikh Sewak Darya 11, Sikh Aryan 63, and Hindus who returned their
sect as Mazhabi, 309, Sikh 5',727, Kesdharis 380, or Sahjdhari Sikhs 4,671.
226. Reliable statistics of conversions to Sikhism are not available, but
besides a marked activity in the administration of Fahol to Sahjdhari Sikhs, the
doors of Sikhism have been open to born ]\Iuhammadans and Christians, as well as
to members of the depre.ssed classes. The most notable instances of conversions
of Christians are the admission of some European ladies to the folds of Sikhism
• These figures were for British territory only, including a few persons in the N.-\V. F. Province.
t Punjab Census Report, 1901, page 136, para 83. t Punjab Census Report, 1891, para. lOS , p. 168.
§ Punjab Census Report, 1881, p 28ii ; ls91, p, 166, and 19lH, p. I36,
II Puiijab Census Report, 1881, pp. 137, 138 and 173 et seq. ; 1891, p. 164 et. seq. and 1901, p. 134 et. eeq.
t Page 135 of hia Census Report (1901).
159
IV. JAIN. [ Punjab, 1911.
prior to their marriage with Siklis. The other cases are of the usual reconver-
sion type, i. e., persons who were converted to Islam or Christianity have been
re-admitted. The instances of conversions of persons born in other religions (except
Gajranwala 3 Hmduism) are very few. The cases
^"'^I'i'"'^ ? ' born Mubammadans convert- ^^'ch have oome to hand are given m
Eaiai'a li ed loSikhism. the margin. The Only mterestmg case
Total ... ... 7 ' of a reconversion is that of a woman
Bav.alpindi.-One born Christian converted to Sikbism, belonging to Gujranwala who remain-
fid a Christian for a year and a ha If, but was reclaimed by the Singh Sabha.
The procedure adopted at the conversion is as follows : — Amrit (water and
sugar) is sprinkled on the candi(iate and the Pakol is administered with the usual
ceremony, after which Kardh Farshdd (a confection of flour, sugar and butter)
stirred about with a knife is distributed to all present.
JAINS.
227. 'I*he strength of Jains at the recent Census is compared in the margin Variation.
Variation -^yith that at each of the three previous Censuses. The growth of and local
1881 ... 42,572 ^^'^ "^"' the religion followed the general growth of population in the two distribu-
1891 ... 46,575 + 7 decades preceding 1901. During the past iO years, however, tion.
1911 '.". 46,775 - 6 the strength of the followers of this religion has declined 6 per
cent, owing to the circumstances which have caused a general decrease in popu-
lation. 'I'he Jains live mixed up with the Hindus and have been effected by the
conditions which have brought about a decrease of 15 per cent, in the latter. But
theylive mostly in towns and have, therefore, suffered comparatively smaller losses.
Moreover they had no parallel to the classification, as Sikhs, of a number of persons
formerly returned as Hindus. The coincidence that the rate of decrease in Jains
should be almost identical with the correct measure of decrease among the Hindus
(see para. 123), is somewhat curious. It will be seen from the map printed in para.
120, that the only district in which the Jains represent
Eissar ... 7
Lohuru ... 1
Rohtak ... 8
Gurgaon ... 5
Pataudi ... 4
Delhi ... 11
Kamal ... 5
JuUundnr ... 1
Kapurthala 1
Ludhiana ... 4
Maler Kotla 18
Ferozepore a
Faridkot ... 3
Patiaia ... 2 njore than 1 percent, oftho total populatiou is Delhi.
Jind ... 5 » " n" 1 • 1 •
Nabha ... 1 But in the small Maler Kotla State which is not
Amritsar ..'. I visible on the map, they come up to 2 per cent, of the
Gujranwala' 1 population. The local distribution per miUe is given in
A^bala "" 3 ^he margin. Jains are most numerous in the eastern
Kaisia '..'. 3 I'uiijab. lu the I'Bst of the Province they- are con-
siTikoT^""^. 2 fi"6<^ *o the towns and belong mainly to the trading
uawalpindi -^ class. The only units which have returned no Jains
Muitan ... 1 v^hatever are the Dujana and Suket States,
228. A full account of tlie Jain religion has been given in the previous ''^'^^ ^^"^
Census Reports and in the Imperial Gazetteer. In a pamphlet called " Notes on "l*&io"-
the Sthanakwasi or the Non-Idol.itrous Shwetambar Jains by Seeker," published
at the Dewas Printing Press in 1911, the writer has tried to prove the extreme
antiquity of Jainism. He has adduced references from the Hindu SJidi^tras,
Itihdses and even the Vedas indicating the existence of the Jain tenets and has
argued on their stiength that Jainism is older than Hinduism. According to
him " Ahinsd Paramo Dharviah" (Not causing pain or injury is thebij^hest duty)
is the foundation of the Jain religion, aa preached by Mahdvir. He has also tried
to establish that the Shwetambars are the real Jains, that tho Digambar sect is
a later development, and that it was in consequence of the designation adopted by
this later sect that the relative epithet of Shwetambar was devised by tho other
Jains. Then again he discards the idolatrous Shwetambars as unorthodox and says
that Stlianakwiisis who, according to him, were nicknamed Dhundias, are the real
followers of Jainism in its original unalloyed form. It may, however, be noted that
these are apparently the views of a Sthanakwasi Shwetambar and that the Digam-
bars, or tho idolatrous Shwetambars, mfiy havo a different story to tell. And after
all, perhaps, his arguments may cut both ways and show that Jainism is nothing
new and that tlie ideas underlying it have existed all along in Hindu literature.
Jain Sects.
229. Much confusion exists regaidmg the classification of Jain sects. The Classifica-
two main divisions of Digambari and Shwetambari are universally recognized, but tioa.
the classification of the minor groups under the one or the other is by no
means easy. Tho entries registered at the recent Census are given in the
Census Report ]
160
UtTHAUMADAN.
Chapter
1. Digambari —
(a) Sthanakwisis ...
(b) Terapanthis
(c) Digambarig (miscellaneons) ...
, Shwetambari —
(a) Bhuudia
(b) Pujere
(c) Sadhmargi
'd) Stbanakwis! ... ... ...
(e') Diigpecifiod ... ... ...
Miscal laneo n s —
(a) Pitambari ... ...
(6) Mandirpanthi ...
(c> Sadhupanthi ...
{d) Saraogi ... ... ...
(e) Sthanakwisi ...
if) Pnepecified
(g) Miscellaneous ...
Sects tiiialogous to Hindu Heligion —
(n) Hupnimi
(6) Sanatandharmis
(c) Hindus
2
3
136
21,175
1,494
499
1,118
1,484
9,836
121
123
27
664
8,976
86S
98
43
21
158
General
attitude of
Jains to-
wards
Hinduism.
Local dis-
tribution.
Worshipping nude linages —
(a) Digambari ...46
Worshipping dressed imagss —
(b) Shwetambaris ...31
2. Non-Idolatrous ... 23
3, Miscellaneous ... 23
(a) Sthinakw^sis ...19
(6) Others 2
(c) Unspecified ... 2
The SthanakTvasis are supposed to be
l^hwetambaris, but 36 of tliem leturned them-
selves as Digambaris. And yet as many as 8,976
have put themselves down as iSthanakwasis
without specifying whether they are Digamba-
ris or Shwetambaris. Terapanthis are undoubt-
edly Digambaris. Some hold Dhundias to be
identical with Sthanakwasis, but the former
have been returned separately under Shwetam-
baris, and their number is about equal to that
of the Shwetambari Sthanakwasis. Digambaris
are those -who worship nudo images and whose
priests go about, naked. Shwetambaris aredivid-
ed into Dhundias (monks who always go about
with a piece of muslin tied across the mouth to
prevent insects being swallowed) and Sthanakwasis who worship no images or those
who worship images clad in white. Pujeres and Siidhmargis are said to he branches of
Shwetambaris. Opinions differ about the classification of Pitambari, Mandirpanthi,
Sadhupanthi and Saraogi Jains. They have, therefore, been classed as Miscellaneous.
Rupnami is a Hindu sect and the 43 Jains who have returned themselves as such,
really belong to that creed. The 21 Sanatandharmis and 158 Jain Hindus are per-
sons who insisted on calling themselves Hindus as well as Jains. The percentage of
1. Idolatorus 77 Jains falling within each of the above mentioned groups is
given in the margin. The idolatrous Jains thus represent
77per cent, of the total strength. Sthanakwasis of all kinds
come up to 22 per cent. Only 2 per cent, have not given
their sect and the percentage of Jain Hindus is insignificant,
being 0-5. The entries included under unspecified are such
as Aggarwal, Parasnathi and Bhabra.
230. Although the Jains pursue an entirely different set of doctrines and
their temples and forms of worship are quite different to those of the Hindus, yet
socially they are more or less intermixed, like the Bishni Aggarwals mentioned by
Mr. Rose at page 138 of his Punjab Census Report (1901). The general tendency
is to join the Hindus in their festivals, etc., and to be considered as part and parcel
of the Hindu community, on the same standing as Aryas, Brahmos, etc.
MUHAMMADANS.
231. The map printed in the margin, indicating the local distribution of Mu-
hamm a d a n s,
shows that,
generally
speaking, the
proportion
of M u h a m«
mad ana to the
total population
increases as we
go from east
to west. The
Gurgaon Dis-
trict and the
Kapu r t h a 1 a
State alone
would appear
to have an ab-
normal p r 0-
portion, but
they have risen
to the class
next higher to
that o f the
neighbour i n g
«
MAP
SHOWING
WOHDtiS PER laOOO OF POPULATION
IV.
16]
UDHAHUADAN.
[Punjab, 1911.
No. of Muhaimnadans
Rate of
Decade.
in every 10,000 of
variation
population.
per cent.
1881 ..
4,758
1891 ...
4,7.39
+ 10
1901 ...
4,922
+ 13
1911 ...
5,075
+ 1
districts by only a nominal difference of 7 and 12 per cent., respectively. The
■western-Punjab is mainly Muhammadan. The proportion of Muhammadans to the
total population is above 80 per cent, in the western half of the Sub-Himalayan
tract and the whole of theNorth-West Dry Area, with the exception of the Lyall-
pur and Montgomery Districts, where the percentage is 61 and 75, respectively.
The preponderance of Islam in this tract is due to the influence of Muhammadan
invader.s, who always came from the west and to the proximity of the Pathan
and Biloch Settlements on and across the border. In the Central Districts, the
strength falls from 80 to 30 per cent, as we go east. The Himalayan tract has
fewest Muhammadans (1 to 10 per cent).* The lowest proportion of Muham-
madans in British Territory is in the Kangra District (5 per cent.) and the
highest in the Attock District (91 per cent.) which he at the north-east and
north-west corner of tbe Province, respectively. Of the Native States,
Bahawalpur shows the highest figures — about 84 per cent. The Suket State
has only 1 Muhammadan in every 100 of its population.
232. The figures in the margin show the development of the Muhammadan Variation.
population during the past three decades. There
was a steady increase during the two decades
1881 — 1901 jind the improvement was pro-
gressive, but the results of the recent Census
are far from satisfactory, although a nominal
increase of under 1 per cent, has been regis-
tered. The proportion of Muhammadans
to the total population, on the other hand,
shows a marked increase and the followers of Islam who represented rather more
than 47 per cent, of the total population in 1881 and 1891 and 49 percent, in 1901,
now take up close on 61 per cent, thereof. Their strength, therefore, exceeds that
of all the other religions put together. A closer examination of the variation during
the past 10 years shows that in all Natural Divisions, except the North-West Dry
Area, substantial decreases have resulted and that it is only the increase (16 per
cent.) in the last mentioned Natural Division which has counteracted theunfavourable
results in the rest of th« Province and just saved the Muhammadan population from
an actual decrease in the
whole Punjab. The figures
are given in the margin.
The decrease of population
among the Muhammad-
ans is due generally to
the unfavourable effects
of epidemics. That the
Muhammdans have not
suffered so much as the
Hindus, is due to the laigest proportion of the former being located in the
North-West Dry Area, which suffered least from the general cause. Kxamining
by Districts, it is noticed that the districts where the Hindu population
has suffered most, the Muhammadans have suffered in almost equal pro-
portion. Hut their population in those districts being comparatively small,
the disastrous effects of mortality are less apparent on their strength as a whole.
Another cause of the variation is the difference in classification. The Chuhras, as
well-known, profess an extremely flexible reli-
gion and class themselves as Hindus or Muham-
madans, according to convenience. When
they openly profess Islam, they are called
Mu.sallis or Kutanas in the western and
central and Dindiirs in the eastern Punjab.
The figures given in the margin are interesting.
They show that the number of Chuhriis who have returned themselves as Muham-
madans, in spite of tlie general instructions (that all Chuhras were to be put down
as Hmdusfor the purpose of classification) fell by 13:^,677, but that, on the other
Total Population.
Variation.
Natural Division.
1901.
1911.
Actual.
per cent.
Punjab
IndoGangelic Plain
West
Himalayan
Sub- Himalayan
N..W. Dry Area
12,183,345
4,481,366
76,480
3,741,759
3,883 740
12,275,477
4,144,971
7i,205
3,551,989
4.504,312
+ 92,132
-336,395
- 2,275
-189,770
+620,572
+ 1
-7
-3
-5
+ 16
Chuhras.
Musallis.
Total.
1901
1911
217,805
8»,128
67,410
309,568
+252,158
275,215
393,696
- 133,677
+ 118,481
'Simla nilh 15 per cent. Muhaiiin:adaiia is an exceptiuu.
162
Census Report] mdhammadan. Chaptkb
fa ■- ■' I. I - ■ ■_ - — — - - — — — --■"■■■ - ■ I —
hand, there was an increase of 252,158 in Musalllis. It ia impossible to believe that
the Musallis should have multiplied 5^ timeg during the course of 10 yeaf"Rby the
excess of births over deaths or that an addition of over 250,000 should have
been made by conversions during the same period, considering that the total
conversions of the Province are estimated to be not more than 40,000 (see
paragraph 246). The obvious inference therefore is, that either a large number
of Musallis were returned as Chuhras in 1901, or a number of those returned as
Chuhras in 1901 have now been shown as Musallis. In any case, th^^ total
number of Muhammadan Chuhras ami Musallis put together shows an increase
of 118,481 compared with the Census of 1901. Presuming that the population
returned as Muhammadan Chuhras and Musallis did not on the whole lose or gain
by the excess of deaths over births or vice versa, the present population would
have to be reduced by 118,481 in order to eliminate the effects of difference in
classification. Presuming that the greater part of tl e conversions is included in
the Musallis, the total population of Muhammadans should therefore be reduced
by at least, 118,481 in order to obtain the figure, which, when compared
with the population of 1901, would show the natural increase or decrease. This
Total population of 1911 I2.275,.i77 has been done in the margin
Deduct on account of difference in classification ... 118,481 with the result that there is really
Total population of 1911 comparable with that of a decrease of 26,349 Or '2 per
^\^?^ ,:■ v\ I!'15®'^^? cent, in theMuhammadanpopula-
Total population of 1901 12,18b, 345 . .. , . . '^ ^ r r,
tion (instead ot an increase of '8
Difference -26,319 pp,. cent.) as compared with the
figures of 1901. This conclusion is fully corroborated by the vital statistics. The
death-rate among the followers of this religion has been somewhat in excess of the
birth-rate, the two figures being 43"4 per cent, and 43 per cent., respectively.
The Muhammadan population should, therefore, show a decrease of about -19 per
1. Population in 1901 10,825,698 cent, as has been Worked out in the
2. Add births dunna the decade 4,075,097 • > -n -.• i m
margin for British territory only
, -n . ♦ ^ .,, ^ • .u ^ ^ '^°^^ - ^^Ay.ll (tbe vital statistics not being
3. Deduct deaths during the decade ... 4,695,877 ^ i i i c i -nt , • n, , ?
available for the JNative otates).
4. Population of 1911 according to vital statistics 10,8(14,918 '|'be increase shown by the
Difference between 1 and 4 -20,780 Muhammadan population in the
Census returns is therefore only nominal, but they have scored a good deal over
the Hindus in so far as their population remained practically stationary, while
the latter have exhibited an apparent loss of 15 per cent, and a real one of about
7 per cent, (see paragraph 123).
The Muhammadan Religion-
lelam- 233. The basic principles of Islam are contained in the aphorism (Kalimah)
Li Ilihd-il Alldh-o-Muhammad-ur-Uasul Allah. (There is none but God and
Muhammad His Prophet). The remarks on this great religion contained in.
paragraphs 651 and 654 to 656 of the Census of India Report, 1901, leave httle
to be added, but a few quotations from the writings of a philosophically inclined
Indian Muhammadan g<^ntleman will throw some light on the view of Islamic
tenets taken by cultured minds of the present day.
" I wish to consider a few preliminary points, the consideration of which, to my mind,
is essential to arriving at any definite conclusion concerning the Muslim community. These
points are : — (I) the yenernl structure of (he Muslim Community, (2) the unifurmity of
Muslim culture, ;3) the type of cliaracter essential to a continuous national life of the Mus-
lim community. I shall take these points in oi der.
(I) The essential diffeit nee betvveen the Muslim community and other communities
of the world consists in our peculiar conception of nationality. It is not the unity of
language (.<t country or the i't. ntitiy of economic interests that constitutes the hasio
principle of our nationality. It is because we all believe in a certain view of the
nniverse, and participate in the same historical tradition that we are members of the society
founded by the Prophet of Isldm. IsUm abhors all material limitations, and bases its national-
ity on a purely abstract iiloa objectified in a potentially expansive gioup of concrete
personaliiies. It is not dependent for its life-principle on the character and genius
of a particular people ; in its essence it is non-temporal, nou-spatial. * * * In
the cttse of no community the words of Augustus Comte are so completely true as in the
case of our own. "Since reliir>on," says he, "embraces all our existence, its history
must be an ppitome of the whole history of our development." It may, however,
bo asked that if mere belief in certain propositions of a metaphysical import is the only thing
M3
IV. KUHAMMADAN. [ Pnnjal), 1911.
that ultimately determines the structure of the Muslim community is it not an extremely
unsafe basi? especially before the advance of modern knowledge, with its habits of Rational-
ism and Criticism ? This is what tho French Orientalist Kenan thought ; and entertained a
veiled hope that Isldm would one day " lose the high intellectual and moral direction of an
important part of the universe." Nations, the basic principle of whose collective life is
territorial need not be afraid of Rationalism ; to us it is a dangerous foe, since it aims at the
very principle which gives us a communal life, and alone makes our collective existence
intelligible. Rationalism is essentially analysis and consequently threatens to disintegrate
the communal synthesis achieved by the force of the religious idea. It is undoubtedly true
that we can meet Rationalism on its own ground. But the point which I wish to impress on
you is that the dogma— i e., the point of universal agreement on which our communal solidarity
depends, has essentially a national rather than intellectual signi6cance for us. To try to
convert religion into a system of speculative knowledge is, in my opinion, absolutely useless,
and even ahsurd, since the object of religion is not thiiiking about life ; its main purpose is to
bnild up a coherent social whole for the gradual elevation of life. Religion is itself a meta-
physic, in so far as it calls up into being a new universe with a view to euggest a new type
of character tending to universalise itself in proportion to the force of the personality in
which it orginally embodies itself. The point that I have tried to bring out in the above
remarks is that Isldm has a far deeper significance for us than merely religious ; it has a
peculiarly national meaning, so that our communal life is unthinkable without a firm grasp
of the Islamic principle. The idea of Isldm is, so to speak, our eternal home or country
wherein we live, move, and have our being. To us it is above everything else as England
is above all to the Englishman and " Deutschland uber alles " to the German.
(2) Coining now to the second point, the uniformity of Muslim culture ; the unity
of religious belief on which our communal life depends, is supplemented by tho unitormity
of Muslim culture. Mere belief in the Islamic principle, though exceedingly important, is
not sufficient. In order to participate in the life of communal self, the individual mind
must undergo a complete transformation. Just as the Muslim community does not recognize
any ethnological difft-rences, and aims at the subsumption of all races under the universal
idea of humanity, so our culture is relatively universal, and is not indebted, for its life and
growth to the genius of one particular people. * « * Our Muslim civilization is a pro-
duct of the cross-fertilization of the Semetic and the Aryan ideas. It inherits the softness
and refinement of its Aryan mother and the sterling character of its Semetic father. The
conquest of Persia gave to the Musalmdns what the conquest of Greece gave to the Romans.
But for Per.-ia our culture would have been absolutely one-sided. * * * In order to become a
living member of the Muslim community, the individual besides an unconditional belief in the
religious principle, muBt thoroughly assimilate the culture of Islam. The object of this assimila-
tion is to create a uniform mental outlook, a peculiar way of looking at the world, a certain defi-
nite stand point from which to judge the value of things which sharply defines our community
and transforms it into a corporate individual giving it a definite purpose and ideal of its own.
(3 1 Modern sociology teaches us that the moral experience of nations obeys certain
definite laws. In primitive societies where the struggle for existence is extremely keen and
draws more upon man's physical rather than intellectual qualities, it is the valiant man who
becomes an object of universal admiration and imitation. When, however, the struggle
relaxes and the peril is over, the valourous type is displaced though not altogether by what
Giddings calls the convivial type, which takes a due share in all the pleasurt-s of life, and
combines in itself the virtues of liberality, generosity and good fellowship. But these two
types of character have a tendency to t>ecome reckless, ami by way of re-action aga'nst them
appears the third great type which holds up the ideal of self-control, and is dominated by a
more serious view of life. In so far as the evolution of the Muslim community in India is
concerned ; Timur represented the first typo, Hd,bar combined the first and the second ;
Jahangir embodied pre-eminently the second; while the third was foreshadowed in Alamgir
whose life and activity forms, in my opinion, tlie starting point in the growth of Muslim
nationality in India. * * * Tome the ideal of character foreshadowed by Alamgir is
essentially the Muslim type of character, and it must be the object of all our education to
develop that type. If it is our aim to secure a continuous life of tho community we must
produce a type of character, which at all costs, holds fast to its own ; and while it readily
assimilates all that is good in other types, it carefully excludes from its iifo all that is
hostile to its cherished traditions and innt'tutinns. A careful observation of the Muslim
community in India reveals the point on which the various lines of tho moral experience of
the community are now tending to converge.
*******
In the foregoing discussion I have tried to establish three propositions : —
(1) That the religious idea constitutes the life-principle of the Muslim community.
In order to maintain the health and vigour of such a community the development of all
dissenting forces in it must be carefully watched and a rapid influx of foreign elements must
be checked or permitted to enter int^i tho social fabric very slowly, so that it may not bring on
a collapse, by makintr too great a ileinand on the assimilative jxswers of the social organism.
(2) That the mental out6t of the individual belonging to the Muslim community must
be mainly formed out of the material which the intellectual energy of his forefathers has
164
Census Report- ] mtthammadan. Chaptbb
produced, so that lie may be made to feel the continuity of the present with the past and the
luture.
(3) That he must possess a particular type of character which I have described as
the Muslim type."*
As regards the moral and political ideal, he says : —
" We have to recognise that every great, religious system starts with certain
propositions concerning the nature of man and the universe. The psychological implication
of Buddhism, for instance, is the central fact of pain as a dominating element in the consti-
tution of the universe. Man, regarded as an individuality, is helpless against the forces of
pain, according to the teachings of Buddhism. There is an indissoluble relation between
pain and the individual consciousness which, as such, is nothing but a constant possibility of
pain. Freedom from pain means freedom from individuality. Starting from the fact
of pain, Buddhism is quite consistent in placing before man the ideal of self-destruction.
Of the two terms of this relation, pain and the sense of personality, one (i.e., pain) is
ultimate; the other is a delusion from which it is possible to emancipate ourselves by ceasing
to act on those lines of activity, which have a tendency to intensify the sense of personality.
Salvation, then, according to Buddhism, is inaction; renunciation of self and unworldliness are
the principal \'irtues. Similarly, Christianity as a religions system, is based on the fact
of sin. The world is regarded as evil and the taint of sin is regarded as hereditary to man,
who, as an individuality, is insuflBcient and stands in need of some supernatural personality to
intervene between him and his Creator. Christianity, unlike Buddhism, regards human perso-
nality as something real, but agrees with Buddhism in holding that mau, as a fcrce against sin,
is insufiBcient. There is, however, a subtle difference in the agreement. We can, according to
Christianity, get rid of sin by depending upon a Redeemer; we can free ourselves from pain,
according to Buddhism, by letting this insufficient force dissipate or lose itself in the universal
energy of Nature. Again the Zoroastrian looks upon Nature as a scene of endless struggle
between the power of evil and the power of good, and recognises in man, the power t'j choose
any course of action he likes. The universe, according to Zoroastrianism, is partly evil, partly
good ; man is neither wholly good nor whtJly evil, but a combination of tie two principles —
light and darkness — continually fighting against each other for universal supremacy.
The central propositifin which regulates the structure of Islam, is that there is fear in
Nature, and the object of Isldm is to free man from fear. This view of the universe indicates also
the IsMmic view of the metaphysical nature of man. If fear is the force which dominates man
and counteracts his ethical progress, man must be regarded as a unit of force, an energy, a will,
a germ of infinite power, the gradual unfoldment of which must be the object of all human
activity. The essential nature of man, then, consists in will, not intellect or understanding.
Ethically speaking, man is naturally good and peaceful. Metaphysically speaking,
he is a unit of energy, which cannot bring out its dormant possibilities owing to its miscon-
ception of the nature of its environment. The ethical ideal of Isldm is to disenthral man
from fear, and thus to give him a sense of his personality to make him conscious
of himself as a source of power. This ideal of man as an individuality of infinite power,
determines, according to the teachings of Islim, the worth of all human action. That which
intensifies the sense of individuality in man is good, that which enfeebles it is bad. Virtue
is power, force, strength; evil is weakness. Give man a keen sense of respect for his own
personality, let him move fearless and free in the immensity of God's earth, and he will
respect the personalities of others and become perfectly virtuous. It is not possible for
me to show, in the course of this paper, how all the principal forms of vice can be reduced
to fear. But we will now see the reason why certain forms of human activity, e g., self-
renunciation, poverty, slavish obedience which sometimes conceals itself under the beautiful
name of humility and unworldliness — modes of activity which tend to weaken the force of
human individuality are regarded as virtues by Buddhism and Christianity, and altogether
igroreil by IslAm. While the early Christians, glorified in poverty and unworldlitiess, Islam
looks upon poverty as a vice and sajs; "Do not forget thy share in the world." The
highest virtue from the standpoint of Lsl^m is righteousness which is defined by the Quran
in the following manner : — " It is not righteousness thnt ye turn your faces in prayers towards
" east and west, righteousness is of hitn who believeth in God and the last day and the angels
" and the scriptures and the prophets, who gives money for God's sake unto his kindred
'' and unto orphans and the needy and to strangers and to those who ask and for the redemp-
" tion of captives, of those who are constant at prayer, and of those who perform their
" covenant when they have covenanted and beliave themselves patiently in adversity
" and in times of violence. " It is, therefore, evident that Isld,m, so to speak, trunsvibratesthe
moral values of the ancient world, and declares the preservation and intensification of the
sense of human personality to be the ultimate ground of all ethical activity. Man is a
free responsible being, he is the maker of his own destiny; his salvation is his own
business. There is no mediator between God and man. Good is the birthright of every man.
Briefly speaking, then, a strong will in a strong body is the ethical ideal of Isldm.
Just as there are two basic propositions underlying Muslim ethics, so there are two basic
propositions underlying Muslim political constitution.
(1) The law of God is absolutely supreme. Authority, except as an interpreter of
the law, has no place in the social structure of Isl&m. Islam has a horror of personal authori-
*Eitracts from a lecture on" Muslim Community," delivered by Doctor Sheikh Muhammad Iqb4l, m.a., Bar-at-Law.
IV.
185
MOH&UMADAK SECTS.
[ Punjab, 191t
ty. We regard it as inimical to the unfoldment of human individuality. The Shias of
course, differ from the Sunnia in this respect. They hold that the Caliph or Imdm is appointed
by God and his interpretation of the law is final ; he is infallible and his authority, therefore,
is absolutely supreme.
(2) The absolute equality of all the members of the community. There is no aris-
tocracy in IsUm. " The noblest among you," says the Prophet, " are those who fear God
most." There is no privileged class, no priesthood, no caste system. IslSm is a unity in which
there is no distinction, and this unity is secured by making men believe in the two simple
propositions — the unity of God and the mission of the Prophet — propositions which are
certainly of a supernatural character, but which, based as they are, on the general
religious experience of mankind, are intensely true to the average human nature. Now, this
principle of the equality of all believers made early Mussalindns the greatest political power
in the world. Islim worked as a levellinsj force; it gave the individual a sense of his inward
power; it elevated thos9 who were socially low. The elevation of the down-trodden was the
chief secret of the Muslim political power in India."*
Muhammadan Sects.
234. But while uniformity of belief and culture is one of the fundamental ^^^^^''^
principles of the Muhammadan religion, differences of opinion in the interpretation
of the Holy Book and the traditions have led to the formation of sects -which, thouo-h
far less numerous than those amongst the Hindus, are yet by no means negligible.
The situation is viewed with apprehension by the far sighted Panjabi Muham-
madan gentleman above referred to. For says he: —
"Is the organic unity of IsMm intact in this land ? Religious adventurers set
up different sects and fraternities, ever quarreling with one another; and then there are
castes and sub-castes like the Hindus! Surely we have out-Hindued the Hindu himself • we are
BuflFering fiom a double caste system — the religious caste system, sectarianism, and the social
caste system, which we have either learned or inherited from the Hindus. This is one of the
quiet ways in which conquered nations revenge themselves on their conquerors. Islam is one
and indivisible; it brooks no distinctions in it. There are no Wahdbis, Shias, Mirzdis or
Sunnis in Islim. Fight not for the interpretations of the truth, when the truth
itself is in danger. Let all come forward and contribute their respective shares
in the great toil of the nation. Let the idols of clasa-Histinctions and sectarianism
be smashed for ever; let the Mussalmd,ns of the country be once more united
into a great vital whole. How can we, in the presence of violent internal dispute
expect to succeed in persuading others to our way of thinking? The work of freeing
humanity from superstition — the ultimate ideal ( f Isl^m as a community for the realisation of
which we have done so little in this great, land of myth and superstition — will ever remain
undone if the emancipators themselves are becoming gradually enchained in the very
fetters, from which it is their mission to set others free."*
235. Before proceeding to discuss the sects, it will not be out of place to ^^^^°^*'^^"
offer a few remarks regai ding their classification. With reference to the entries in *^°° °^ ^^"
the Census returns, the Mui.ammadans may be divided into three main classes ^^•"'Q^dau
viz., I, iShias; 2, Sunnia; and 8, Reforners. A small number of entries in
the Census records, regarding sects which are analogous to other reli-
gions, will have to be dealt with separately. The characteristics of Sunnis and
Shias have been explained at length in the Puniab Census Reports of 1881 and
1891. +
Detailed figures for the sects are given in Table VI A and the totals for
Sect. Person. ^^^ Pfoviuce are noted
Reformers —
Ahl-i- Koran ... 271
Ahmadi ... 18,695
Ahli Hadis ... 39,083
Muwahid ... 458
Others ... 58
sects.
Sect.
Peraon.
Sbias
247,532
Sqdius —
Hanafi
782
Mutiammadi
253
Miscellaneous
55,9S7
Qadri
945
Bhafi
3,219
Unspecified
... 11,9117.572
Total
ll,96«,758
Total
58,565
Sects analogous to other Religions—
Sansi ... 516
Others ... ]06
Total
622
in the margin. The
Sunnis form the bulk of
the Muhammadan popu-
lation, representing 97"5
per cent, thereof. The
Shias come next in
numerical strength (2
per cent.) and the Alil-i-
Uadis rank third (•;? pep
cent.). The figures of
these three main secta
• Extract from an article on " Islam as a Moral and Political Ideal,"' by Dr. Sheikh Muhammad lobal ma
published in the Hindustan Heview, ^ > • r
t Ibbelson'8 Census Report, page 146, paragraph 283 ; Maclagan's Census Report, pages 188-9, paragraphs 132.133.
Seels of
Shias.
Census Report. ]
166
MDHAMMADAN SECTS.
Chapteb
Sects.
1881.
1891.
1911.
Percentage of in-
crease. +or decrease —
1881.1891.
1891-1911.
All sects
Sunnis
fihias
Ahl-i-Hadis or
Wahabis
Other sects and
unspecified
9,872,745
9,547,498
74,548
2,453
248,246
10,827,028
10,ti2'i,854
lU.iSl
3,604
88,709
12,275,477
11,968,758
247,032
39,083
20,104
+ 10
+ 11
+ 54
+47
-64
-i 13
+ 13
+ 116
+ 984
- 77
are compared in the
margin for the three
Censuses of 1881, 1891
and 1911. Sects were
not tabulated in 1901*
and consequently sepa-
rate statistics are not
available for that year.
It "will be noticed that
the increase in Sunnis has been more or less proportional to the increase
in the total number of Muhammadans, but the gains of the Shias and
the Ahl-i-Hadis sects have beeu phenomenal, during the past 20 years and
the decrease in the number of persons belonging to unspeciOed and minor sects is
equally remarkable. The main reason for tliis result is the reluctance of the
followers of the Shia and Ahl-i-Hadis doctrines to give public expression to
their views, particularly in tracts possessing a strong Sunni influence. With
the growth of religious liberty and the independence of persuasions secured by
the British rule, the hesitation of the old days is fast disappearing. We,
therefore, 6nd that the number of Shias has more than doubled itself during
the last 20 years and the present recorded strength is considerably more than
three times that in 1881; also that the Wahabis (Ahl-i-Hadis) have risen about
11 times, in number, within the last 20 years and about }6 times during
the past three decades. As a consequence of this, and perhaps, owing to more
careful registration, the minor sects have sunk to their proper place and there
is not a single Muhammadan now, who has not returned one sect or another.
The Shias.
236. TheShiast are classified as follows byawidelyrespectedShiascholar: —
fl. J4friorJafarS4diqi-a. Asni-i-Ashri or Imimia ^ .|- AMbari or Ahl-i-Hadis.
^^^^ --j ^-I-ili [i^
{_2. Zaidia.
The Jd/ris are the followers of Imam Jafar Sadiq, who have believed in the
Shia tenets from the very beginning, as distinguished from ' Zaidis' who are the
followers of Imam Zaid. Imam Zaid was originally not an open believer in the
Shia doctrines, but when put to the test and asked, either to say Tabarra to {i.e.,
curse) the other Caliphs, or to give up the following of the Imam, he did the former
and joined the Shia fold, his followers becoming Zaidis. As7id Ashr means 12 and
Asnd Ashris or Imdmias are those who believe in the 12 Imams.} The Akhbdris
are that branch who believe in the Hadis as well as in the Koran. The Usulis
do not follow the former. Ismdilis are a group who believe in a continuous
series of Im;ims to this day. There are two sections of the Ismdilis,
^iz^. — (1) the Zdhiris, who profess allegiance openly to an Imam for the time
being (these are the followers of H. H. the Agha Khan), and (2) the Bdiinis who
do not make a public display of their Imam. The Bohras belong to this class.
A third group called the Tafzilia are those Muhammadans, who respect all
the four Ashdls (Caliphs) but give preference to Hazrat Ali. The Sunnis regard
them as Shias but the Shias treat them as Sunnis
The names of the districts showing the
District.
1911.
1891.
District.
1911.
1891.
Lahore
7,527
5,367
Attocki ...
8,023
Sialkot ...
11,533
6,756
Mianwalij ...
24,883
...
Gujranwala
10,859
2,887
LyaUpur§ ..
6,314
Gujrat
6,421
1,839
Jhang
24,903
12,713
Shahpur ...
20,109
9,545
Multan ...
12.870
5,792
Jbelum
15,023
10,180
Muzaffargarh
22,725
4,355
Bawalipindi
7,657
8,761
Dera Ghazi
Khan ..
15.446
3,745
largest number of Shia
entries are given in the
margin and the figures are
compared with those of 1891.
In almost all these districts, the
strength and influence of the
Sunni population is considerable,
and many followers of the Shia
doctrines to this day conceal their
faith, with a view to pass as
* Figures for males over 15 years only are given in the Punjab Census Report of 1901.
t For an elaborate account of Shias see Brown's Literary History of Persia.
t The 12 Imims are (1) Ali, (2) Hassan, (3) Hosain, (4) Ali II. (Zain-ul Abid Din,) (S) Muhammad Baqar, (6)
Jifar 84diq, (7) Musi Kizim, (8) Ali III (Ali Raza), (9) Muhammad Taqi, (10) Ali IV (Ali Naqi), (11) Oasaan
Askari, (I2> Muhammad Abul QSsimor Imim Mehdi,
§ These districts did not exist in 1891.
IV.
167
MOHAMMADAN SECTS.
[ Punjab, 1911.
Hianwali
Jhane
MuzaEFargarh
Sbahpur
Dera Gh^zi Khan
Jbelum
MulUtn
most of
7,448
8,089
11,674
13.156
7,830
13,008
11,695
Percentage of
increase of Shidi.
Province
Xahore
189 1.
54
77
1911.
116
40
Sunnis among the general public. The most important Shia districts are Mian-
Tvali, Jhang (which has been largely strengthened by
immigration), Muzaffargarh, Shahpiir (also hepled by im-
migration), Dera Ghazi Khan, Jhelum and Multan. The
Sayads are cliiefly Sbias and the districts above named
contain a very large population of that tribe (see margin),
whom are Pira having a large or small following of Murids (disciples).
Under their influence, numerous members of other tribes and castes adopt the
Shia faith, and it is only natural that these districts sliould show the largest num-
ber of Shias in the Province. The Rawalpindi and Attock Districts forming part
of the western Punjab as also the Sialkot, Gujranwala, Gujratand Lahore Districts
contain large bodies of Shias. In Lahore (particularly
the Lahore city), the Shias who had the Kazilbash Nawab
at their head appear to have been less shy in owning
their faith at the previous Censuses, than in other parts of
the Province, as the difference in the rate of increase of Shiaa
shown in the margin will prove. That the remarkable increase in the number of
Shias is not due tn the general development of population, owing to natural causes,
1901 1911 Increase p. c. is dear from the fact that the most affluent tribe of
Sayads 238,227 247,388 4 Shias, VIZ., the Sayads, have only gained 4 per cent,
in strength since 1901, as the figures noted in the margin will show.
The Sunnis.
237. The Sunnis have— (a) the old Ahl-i-Eadis called Zdhiria who follow Principal
what is given in the Koran and the Hadis ; (b) Ahl-i-ljtilidd or those who began Sunni sects,
to improve on the meanings of the Scripture (this class includes the four great
schools* of Hannfi, Shdfi, Mdliki and Bambali, so ably describsd by Mr. Maclagan
in his Census Keportt; (c) Theologians (Unitarians), also called Bdtinia (the secret
doctrinistH), or Sufifi, who recognise the necessity of submission {hai'at) to tbe Pir,
divided into Chishti, Sdbiri, Nizdini, and Faridi, and various fraternitie>i, e.g.,
Qddiri, NaqshhandiX {Mujaddadi), Sohrwardi and the independent religious
orders of Maddri, Basuli, Hasulshdhi or Qalandari, Naushdhi, Sdldri, Malang,
etc. The Sunni sects returned at the recent Census are compared in the
margin with the figures of 1891. The Shafi
school would appear to be gaining ground, but
the figures cannot signify much as the number of
Sunnis who returned no sub-sect in 1891 op
1911 is overwhelming. On the whole, the Sunnis
have increased 13 per cent, daring the past 20
years. The figures for 1901 are not available,
but assuming the rate of progress for Sunnis
to be the same as for all Muhammadans, the
rate of increase during the past decade may be taken as '77 per cent. Some
Sunnis have called themselves Muhammadi, but they are quite apart from the
Muhammadi AVahabis. In consequence of the result of enquiries in individual
cases which showed that the entry of Muhatnraaiii did not signify Wahabi, the
Muhammadis have been classed as a sub-sect of Sunnis.
Hanafi
SMfi
Muhammadi
Qidri
Uiliki and MiUki
Balmiki
Miscellaceuus
Unspecified
'1
1891.
1,748
1,760
616
1,579
6,427
10,608,524
1911.
782
3,219
253
945
55,987
11,907,572
Total Sunnis ... 10,620,854 11,968,758
238.
The sects throwu under the head " Miscellaneous " are those shown in
the margin. The Balashiihi, Balmiki and
Liil Begi are Chuhras. Those and (Miuhras ^®'^*^-
of all kinds, including Bhangis, should,
under the instructions, not have been
returned as Muhammadans. Teji and
Panda (or Pandat) are sub-castes of
Chuhras. Baba Kalu 1 ; Dadupanthi 4;
Od 4 ; Siidh 1 ; Sanatan Dliiuma 1 ; are
Hindu sects. In Table VI A, all these
should really have appeared under the
head of " Sects analogous to other reli-
* They diiTer on points of law, but not in dogma
t Punjab Census Keport, 1891, para. Irf3, page l89.
I But it must be remembered that a Naqsiibaudi may be a Hambali or Shafi in law.
Persons.
Persons
B4b4 K41u
1
Muqallid
3
Bilashuhi
3,917
Naqshbandi
4
Balmiki
. 34,9H5
Naushdhi
55
Bhangi
7(i
Od
4
Chuhra Din Panii
hi 25
Pandit
25
Chuhra Rati
51
Panjpiria
4
D4dupanthi
4
Sadh
1
Din-Panahi
57
Sanatan Dharma
1
Guga Cbuhra ,
28
Shiih Ismailia
106
Hashmi
27
S.Kliqi
12
JAfar 84(liqi .
11
Shoikh Sidiqi ..
13
Jalali Fakir
10
Sufi
88
L41 Begi
. 15,59a
sarwaria
530
Mad4ri
331)
Sarwarpfr
3
Maulai
6
Teji
18
Miscella-
neoQs Sonni'
General
lemarks.
Censns Beport- ]
168
UUBAHMADAN SECTS.
Chapteb
Wahabis or ^^^^^^
gions" instead of under Sunnis. Tho entries are obviously the results of mistakes
in Enumeration, but they were not corrected in the hope of bein^ able to find the
individuals and obtain an explanation. It was, however, not found possible to
trace them. Madam are a religions order of Unitarians (Sufis). An account of
this order and their branch Malantj is contained in para. 142 of Mr. Maclagan's
Census Report of 1S91. The local fakirs of this order describe themselves as
attached to Zinda Shah Madar whose shrine is 12 miles west of Montgomery
on the bank of the Ravi. He was a disciple of Lai Shahbaz Qalandar of Sewan in
Sindh. At the time of initiation, the head and face including the eyebrows are
clean shaved. The hair is then to remain untouched for 12 or 24 years, as the pre-
ceptor may prescribe. All this time the initiate has to constantly wear the Langot
(loin cloth), to remain celibate, to keep constantly on the move and not to beg,
contenting himself with whatever food may be given to him by people without the
asking. The use of intoxicating drugs, such as Bhang and Gharas, is not prohibit-
ed. On completion of the prescribed period the preceptor shaves the initiate's
head, has the crop of hair buried and authorises him to initiate others. The
restrictions then cease and he is permitted to marry if he so desires. The number
of Sarwarias (including Sarwarpir) is small. They have been returned in the
Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana, Ferozepore, Lalioie, Gurdaspur, Sialkot, Gujranwa'la and
Lyallpur Districts and the Faridkot State. Ordinarily the term is applied to the
Hindu or Sikh followers of Sakhi Sarwar, but the Muhammadan disciples of the
Sajjddd-nashin of Sakhi Sarwar also call themselves by that name. Din-Panahis
also called Shah de fakir * are the followers of Din Panah, a Wuhammadan saint,
whose shrine is situated at Daira Din Panah in the Muzaffargarh District.
After a very simple initiation at the shrine, they receive the privilege of demand-
ing alms all over the western Punjab in the name of Din Panah. Hashmi is a
Bub-caste or clan of Sayads. The persons returned as Jafar-Sadiqi, Shah Ismailia,,
Sheikh Sadiqi and Sadiqi are probably Shias who have apparently got mixed up
about their faith and are not quite sure whether they are Sunnis or Shias.
Jalahs and Naushahis are independent religious orders as stated in the pre-
ceding paragraph. For a detailed description of these sects see Punjab Census
Report, 1891, page 194 et seq. Sufi is a general expression which includes the
particular sects mentioned in the last paragraph. Maulais are a sect of Sufis
inclined to Shiaism. Muqallad is an ironical term used by Wahabis for Sunnis
who retaliate by calhng them Ghair Muqallid.
The Reformers.
239. The main schools of Reformers are the (a) New Ahl-i-Hadis — i.e.,,
Wahahi Wahad Wahabi, Mawahid, or Muhammadi (the purists); (/)) Ahmadi ; (c)
Ahl-i-Koran or Chakralvi; {d) Muatazila, Mazhab-i-Rasul or Nechari
(Rationalists) included under the head Other Reformers. Of the sects based
upon ideas of reformation, the Ahl-i-Hadis and Mawahid have been described in
the three previous Census Reports.! The figures have been given separately in
Table VI A, but the two denominations represent one and the same sect.
239a. The Wahabis generally call
Ahl-i-
Sadis.
Delhi
Boshiirpur
JuUundur
Ludhi4na
Ferozepore
Lahore
Amritsar
Ourd&spar
SUIkot
GQJranw4la
Gujrat
Bhabpur
53
Jhelum
.. 310
^ 519
Rawalpindi ...
.. 76
.. 4ti9
Montaomery
..1,870
.. 291
Lyallpur
.. 2,360
.. KOO
Jbang
.. 35
..7,816
Mullan
.. 1,302
.. 6,708
Muzaffargarh
.. 152
.. 4,225
Dera Ghazi Khan .
.. 30
4,512
Kalsia State
.. 98
.. 3,215
Kapurthala „
.. 173
. 3,541
Malerkotla „
.. 240
.. 65
Patisla
.. 547
... 261
Nibha „
.. 32
Ahmad L
themselves Ahl-i-Hadis and sometimes
Mawahid. Ghair Muqallid is a term
applied to them by others. The local
distribution of Ahl-i-Hadis (including
Mawahids) is given in the margin
(omitting figures under 20). The strong-
est Purist centres are Ferozepore and
Lahore, but the strength in Gurdaspur,
Amritsar, Sialkot and Gujranwiila ia
nlso considerable, and they are found in fairly large numbers in Lyallpur, Mont-
gomery and Multan.
240. The Ahmadiya sect was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Kadian
(in the BatalaTahsil of the Gurdaspur District). The Mirza was born in 1839 and
wrote in 1880, Burhdn-i-Ahmadiya, his masterpiece, in which he claims to beja
* For an account of this order see Muzaffargarh Gazetteer of 1908, p. 247.
t Ponjab Census Report, 1881, p. 147, para. 286 ; Punjab Census Report, 1391, p. 189, para. 134; Funjab^
Census Report ,^901, p. i42.
169
IV. xt'HAMMADAN SECTS. [ Punjab, 1911.
recipient of Divine revelation. A brief description of the sect was given by Mr.
Rose.* " Beginning as a Maulvi," says he, " with a special mission to the sweepers,!
the Mirza eventually advanced claim to be the Mahdi or Messiah expected by
Muharamadans and Chvistians alike. The sect, however, emphatically repudiates
the doctrine that the Mahdi of Islam will be a warrior and relies on the ' Sahih
Bokhari,' the most authentic of the traditions, which says, he shall wage no
wars, but discontinue war for the sake of rehgiou. In his voluminous writings,
the Mirza has combated the doctrine of Jihad and the sect is thus opposed to
the extreme section of the Ahl-i-Hadis."
The following quotation from the Imperial Gazetteer^ shows another
aspect of the movement. " The wildest development of recent sectarianism in
Islam is furnished by the Ahmadiya sect. The Koran is to him (its leader) the
repository of all knowledge. The Resurrection is at hand. While discouraging
religious war, he is said to preach strongly against Christianity, Hinduism, the
Shiah doctrines, and the movement in favour of Enghsh education." The last
observation does not appear to be correct, considering that some of the prominent
Ahmadis are graduates and ^eud their sons to Colleges.
The founder claimed to be the promised Mahdi and Messiah of the
Mu'shms, Messiah of the Christians, and Avatar § of the Hindus, and one of
his adherents, M. Muhammad Ali, M.A., LL.B., proves from this triple
claim, the universality of the Ahmadiya Mission. H The Reverend Doctor
Griswold's pamphlet on Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the Mahdi Messiah (1902),
discusses the claims from the Christian point of view. Among the Muham-
madans, the pretensions are admitted by only the adherents of the faith and
it goes without saying that the claim to being an Avatar is considered
preposterous by the Hindus. Although the first volume of B urban -i- Ahmadiya.
was pubhshed in 1880 and the book was completed in 1884, the Ahmadiya
movement did not come into existence till 1889, in view of the strong opposi-
tion raised by the Maulvis. The Mirza wrote three books Fdteh Islam, Tauzih-
i-Mardm and Izdla-i-Auhdm, to clear hia position, though without success. His
professions were characterised by a strong element of prophecies and the fulfilment
of those about the violent death of his bitter opponent Lekh Ram, the Arya Musafir,
and the end of Abdulla Atham, a Christian (which is alleged to have been delayed
because he had adopted the faith of the new Prophet before the expiry of tlie
time allowed, but came on because he went back to Christianity), strengthened the
hands of the founder of the sect. It is mentioned that Jesus Christ never died
on the Cross, but escaped to India where he died in Kashmir. The tomb of
Yds Asaf at Srinagar was identified by the Prophet of Kadian as the place
where Jesus Christ was buried.
The number of Ahmadis now returned is given in the margin. The strength,
total strength of the sect in 1891 or 1901 is not known but Mr.
Females... 8',579 Rosc gave the number of males over 15 as 1,113 and considered
his return to be a complete one. The proportion of Mahammadan
males over 15 to the total Muhammadan population of 1901 was
1 : 3"1. The total Ftrength of Ahmadis in that year may, by analogy, be esti-
mated at 3,450. In the last ten years, thei-efore, the number of adherents of the
faith has multiplied more than 5 times. One great stimulus for conversion has
been the assertion of the founder that all those owning allegiance to him would
escape the scourge of plague. But after a certain period of immunity, the Ahmadis
began to succumb to the disease like others and the faith in the eflScacy of the
Prophet's declaration was somewhat shaken. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad died on the 26th
May 1908, and was succeeded in the leadership by his chief colleague and adviser
Maulvi Nur Din, who is a creat Arabic scholar and an eminent physician. Hia
successful treatment of patients attracts a large number of sufferers from all
parts of the Province and brings them under his influence. In spite of the oppo-
sition to the doctrines of this school, it is somewhat remarkable that it embraces
• Punjab CensoB Report, 1901, p. 143.
t This appear.^ to be incorrect. It was Mirza Ghulam Ahmad's brother, who was the Pir of sweepers. The
movement is said to have died with him.
I Vol. X, p. 4.38, Edition l'J07.
§ Nishkalank or Kalki.
|{ ' Ahmad the promised Messiah,' by Muhammad Ali, M.A., LL.B., p. 2.
170
Censns Report. ] mdhamuaban sects. Csapteb
men of great intelligence and reaource. The sect appears to be in full vigour and
has shown no sign of decadence.
TheAhl-i- 241. The sect was founded in 1902 and is named Chakralvi after its founder
Koran or Abdullah, an inhabitant of Chakrala in the Mianwali District. His followers are
Chakralvi known as Ahl-i-Koi'an, because Abdullah relied on the Kovao itself to the exclu-
sion of the Hadts, etc. They believe that Muhammad was not the Rasul (Mes-
senger) but that the Messenger was the inspiration and that the Koran itself, as
embodying the inspiration, is therefore the Rasul. As regards Hazrat Muhammad,
they say that he only conveyed to the people, the Message of God contained in the
words of the Koran. The sect thus has no belief in the Badis and totally denies
its validity. The founder of the sect was named Ghulam Nabi by his parents.
His father who belonged to the Hanafi school and was a disciple of Khwaja Allah
Baksh of Taunsa had him initiated by the said Khwaja, accor(1ing to his own views.
Ghulam Nabi took his lessons in the Hadis from one Nazir Husaain of Delhi (a
thorough master of the subject) and became a renowned scholar. After this he
took some lessons from Maulvi Nur Dm, Ahmadi, and changed his name from
Ghulam Nabi (slave of the Prophet) to Abdullah (servant of God). On his arrival
at Lahore, he put up at the ChiuianwaU mosque, which is the only place of worship
of the Ahl-i-Hadis and is situated in the residential quarters of the followers of
that sect. The Ahl-i-Hadis flocked to him on account of his great learning,
and Mian Chittu who was at the time a true helper of the sect, specially
patronized him. Abdullah now began to publish a commentary on the Koran with
special refei'ence to Hadis. With every Ayat (couplet) of the Koran he gave
references to the Hadis, explaining the meanings. He completed thi'ee Siparas
(Chapters) in this manner. But then his faith in the Hatiis began to shake, and
he changed his views, throwing the Hadis completely overboard. He expressed
his new views to few, bub those who heard him agreed with him and Muhammad
Chittu being one of them, did all he could to help him. The Ahl-i-Hadis getting
scent of the change of faith turned theqa out of the Chinianwali mosque.
Abdullah with the financial support of Chittu purchased a house and the party
began to read prayers according to the new faith. In order to give publicity
to his doctrines, Abdullah started a journal called the ' Alkoran,' edited in
the beginning by Ahmad Hussain, Shaukat, and afterwards by 8ham3-ud-din,
Shayak. They rejected the old form of prayer and improvised a new one calling it
Burfidn-ul-Kordn. The other sects of Islam then declared them ' Kafirs ' (blas-
phemers). Notwithstanding this persecution, their number rose to about 500 at
Lahore and in the neigltbourhood, during the first 5 or d years of the sect's life.
Differiitices, however, arose in consequence of the impossibihty of adequately
explaining some of the doctrines laid down in the Koran without the help
these resulted in many of the followers of the new faith
deserting the ranks. Muhammad Chittu who was the
right hand and the chief councillor of Abdullah, is his
bitterest enemy now. Only 271 persons (150 males
and 121 females) have been entered in the Census
returns, as followers of this sect. The districts where
they were enumerated are noted in the margin. They
appear to be strongest in Lahore, Gujrat and Multan.
The native district of the founder, viz., Mianwali, pos-
sesses only 7 adherents of the faith, mostly members
of his family.
The peculiarities of the sect are these: — (]) The Azdn (call to prayer) is
considered unnecessary. (2) The Tahhir (aphorism proclaiming the greatness of
God) is not read aloud, ('i) There are some differences of detail in the text of the
Nitndz (prayer). The followers of this sect consider only the recitation of the
i^(jras /?a/.-a'rtfs binding and reject the Sunnai and Nafal portions. (4) Unlike
other Muhammadans, the Atd-i-Koran bend one knee, while standing to pray.
(5) The Id and Funeral prayei-s are considered unnecessary. (6) They hold that
the departed soul cannot profit by prayer or charity in its behalf. (7) They
consider it necessary to read aloud, both Amin (amen) and Bismillah (in the name
of God), called Jahar, while the other sects are against it. (8) They believe
Heaven to bo eternal like the Creator Himself.
of the
Hadis and
Districts.
Persons.
Ludhiana
7
Lahore
62
Sialkot
20
Gujranwala
32
Gujrat
60
Jhelum
6
Mianwali
7
Lyallpur
12
Jhang
1
Multan
50
Patdala Stat«
14
171
IV.
MDBAUMADAtI — MISCELLANEOUS.
[ Punjab, 1911.
others.
Ahl-i-Tauhid ..
11
Ahl-i-Zikr
4
Hami Ost
12
Khiriji
1
Uazhab Rasul
8
Mu'atazila
1
Nechari
5
Basuli
1
Kab
15
Total
-. 68
243.
242. The entries under ' Others' are noted in the margin, Ahl-i-Tauhid are Other Re-
TJuitarians. Ahl-i-Zikr are spiritualists who go in for devotion former
and meditation. Bama ost means " All is He." The followers sects,
of this doctrine are Pantheists similar to Adwaita Vedantis.
The Elbdrijis are neither Sunnis nor iShias. They abuse Ali and
respect the other three Ashdb. In common parlance Sunnis call
Shias Rafizie (i.e., the outcastes) and the latter use the epithet
Khariji (conveying the same meaning) for all Sunnis. Owing to
change of residence, it has not been possible to trace the 8 persons
who had returned themselves as Mazhab-i-Rasul. But they are
obviously the same as Nechari or Mu'atazila, i.e., followers of the Aligarh Scbool.*
The Rasuli or Rasulshahi sect is dying out. There is only 1 entry now against
133 in 1891, Their creed was described by Mr. Maclajj^an in para. 144 of his
Census Report (1891). The term Rab has been used for a set of persons who
go about in yellow clothes and give no description of their faith. The only
specimen I have seen is a half crazy faJcir in Lahore, who would be taken more
readily for a member of the secret Police than of a religious order. So far as I could
gather, he firmly believed that he himself was God, and that there was no other
God. There is also a class of fakii-s, who grow the beard, but dress and behave
like females. The idea is to worsbip and please God as a wife does her husband
(similar to the principle of the Vishnu — Shaktilcs of the Vallabhi Sampradd).
They have to pass a period of probation before initiation. The apprentice is
asked to go about begging for a prescribed time and if he shows no, signs of a
temper, he i.s initiated into the SBcrets of the order by the murshid (preceptor).
The fakirs are contemptuously called Malamatis (the reprehensibles).
Sects analogous to other religions.
The return of Muhammadaus includes 317 male and 199 female Sansis, etc.
Saosis. The entries are found in the districts nam-
ed in the margin and only signify that these Sansis
have come under Muhammadan influence. Where
Sansis have been converted, they have returned
themselves as Sunnis. The other unusual entries
are named in the margin. These entries are due
to mistakes of Enumerators, except in the case of
Rababis who call themselves Sikhs as well as
Muhammadans and the followers of Radha Swami
who have been ascertained to be Muhammadans.
The Kesdharis are obviously Sikhs, the Ramdasis
and Rahtias may be Sikhs or Hindus, and the
others are apparently Hindus. Except the Rababis
and Kadha Swamis, the other persona could not be
traced.
Miscellaneous.
244. But while those are the differences of tho theologian, the masses observ-
have a matter of fact religious curriculum of their own. Tho performance of ances of the
circumcision, the five daily prayers, the assembled prayer on Fridays in amasses,
mosque, the abhorrence of pork.t the clipping of tho moustache in the centre,
the observance of fasts in Ramziin and the celebration of tho Ids, are looked
upon as the sum total of the dictates of the sacred Koran and the Skar'a.
Circumcision, abhorrence of pork, and the celebration of Ids are universal.
The daily prayers and the Ramziin fasts are strictly enforced in the western
Punjab and a Muslim who neglects these duties or does not grow a beard
or clip his moustache is looked (town upon. But even here, certain exceptions are
allowed. " Among tho Bilochos, for instance, it is considered in some tribes
sufiBcient if the chief keeps the fasts ami prays all the prayers on behalf of his
tribesmen."! In the central and eastern Punjab, however, this discipline is more
lax. But beyond these distinguishing features of Isliim, the life of a Muhammadan
in this Province has, till recently, not been very different to that of a Hindu.
•Seo Punjab Census Keporl, I8»l, p. 191, para. 135^
tTlio abhorrence of pork is siiid to bo'duo to the belief that tho pig was created to clean up Noab'a ark
of the filth whicli was acoutnulutini; theroin.
+ Paper on Sluh.imiiiaJan Saints of the Western Punjab, by Major A. O'Brien, C.I.E., Journal of the Royal
An thropological Inslilute, 1911, Vol. XLI, p. 509.
Sialkot
Gujranwala
Lahore
Gujrat
Lyallpur
Dev Dharam
Gorakhpanthi
. Jogi
Kesdb^ri
Rababi
R4dba Swimi
Ramdasi
NAm Deo
Bahtia
2ind Eali^na
Total
Total
145
322
17
11
18
516
1
18
5
IG
15
/■
4
10
18
12
lOti
172
Census Report ]
MUHAMMADAN MISCELLANEOUS.
Chaptee
Popular
liefs.
be-
Piii-Muridi.
Saint ^or-
abip.
Charm e.
245. The diffidence of the ignorant in tlieir ability to grasp the secrets of
spiritual elevation and of attaining paradise, has inaugurated the system
oi Piri-Muridi, known in the Hindu religioua terminology as Guru Parampard.
The practice is common all over the Province, but it is most prevalent in the
western Punjab, where every single person is supposed to have a Pir or
preceptor, who initiutes him into the secrets of Divine worship and guides
him in his spiritunl progress. IS'o one can inspire confidence as a truthful
or straight forward man until he has done Bai'at (affihated himself) to some
£ir. Once this is done, the Murid (disciple) depends upon the Pir for helping
him through all difficulties and having him absolved of all sins. Even the thief
follows his evil pursuits in the firm conviction that his Pfr will see him saved
both from the clutches of the law and fi-om God's retribution, and right enough
the first thing he does is to go and confess his guilt to the Fir, like confession
in the Roman Catholic church, and to make a handsome offering with a view to
obtain his intercession. The forgiveness from God is readily secured, but the Courts
of Law are less amenable to the spiritual influence of the Pir, and the most he can
do is to instruct the thief to recite certain aphorisms if he is apprehended and
to repeat them each time his case goes up for hearing. Armed with this weapon
he stands his trial with absolute confidence in the efficacy of his Pir's prayers,
and if the flaws of evidence result in his acquittal, the miraculous powers of
the Pir are confirmed. The extent to which the Pir can exert his influence on
his Murid is wonderful. In all matters concerning social hfe or property, few
people will discard the advice of the Pir. Mr. B. O'Brien was not far wrong
when he wrote of the Muhammadans of the Muzaffargarh District that ' Their
feelings of worship are entirely diverted from the Divine Being to their
Spiritual Guides." The Pirs are a class separate from the priest or Mulla and
the spiritual instructions they impart are usually by way of prescribing the recita-
tion of certain portions of the Koran daily or the repetition of a certain formula
on the rosary, the dispensing of certain charities and other similar rules of conduct.
The I'everence for shrines dedicated to saints of great repute which are
ordinarily their tombs, is a natural consequence of the faith in Pirs. The western
Punjab is full of shrines of varying importance from the Sakhi Sarwar of Dera
Ghazi Khan which attracts votaries, both Muhammadan and Hindu, from all parts
of the Province, to the small insignificant tomb of a local Pir, in some bye-lane of
a town or on the outskirts of a village. A lamp is lit regularly at this small
tomb which is covered with a cloth as a mark of respect and the Mujdioar
(attendant) can add a little to his ordinary income, if the place is not important
enough to maintain him. The Pathans are desperately fond of praying at the
tomb of a saint and in Bhangikhel (District Mianwali) a Sayad is said to have
been murdered and buried in order to supply the deficiency of a sacred tomb
in the neighbourhood. Several shrines are known for efficacy in curing certain
diseases. A vissit to and residence at some will cure leprosy,* others give
wealth {Lalthddtd or giver of lakhs is an epithet of Sakhi Sarwar) or sons, and
a number of them are known for their sanctity in driving off Jinsf (evil spirits)
which so often possess women.
But this is not all. Charms have a great potency in the western Punjab
and form the source of considerable income to those who are competent to sell
them. All diseases are believed to be more or less curable by charm, domestic
happiness can be secured by them, cases can bo won, enemies subdued, opposing
wrestlers thrown down, the quantity of butter (at the churning) enhanced ;
indeed all human wishes can be fulfilled by these means. And cattle are no less
subject to the influence of magic. In many Sayad villages, there is a particular
porch which the cattle have to pass through in order to get cured of disease or
insured against sickness. Where the number of cattle brought in for such treat-
ment is large, two large poles are stuck up at a convenient place and a string is-
fastened across them with festoons and buntings of all colours hanging from it.
The cattle passing through this arch receive the benefit of the blessings, and
the offerings of bells and tags which are added to the string, from time to time,,
make its appearance rather imposing.
* Seo account of Pir Jahiniio ia Chapter X.
t See MuzaSargarh Gazetteer, p. 73, account of Alam Pir shrine at Shahr Sultan.
173
IV. MOHAMMADAN — MI8CKLLANE0DS. [ Punjab, 1911.
Then trees are dedicated to Pi'rs and people offer rags to them when they Bespeotfor
pass by. Such trees, usually Jand {Prosopis Kpecigcra), get revered over with
rags and are known as Lingri Pir (the rag saint). People pray to these trees
for fulfilment of their desires. I have known a tree which was supposed to
have the power of curing toothache. Anyone suffering from toothache had only
to go and drive h nail into it and was supposed to return free of pain * Then
clusters of trees in the Jungle, dedicated to certain Pirs may not be touched by
anyone. No one dare remove even the dry wood falling from such ti-ees, for fear
of incurring the wrath of the spirit of the guardian saint.
In short, in the western Punjab, the belief of the masses in magic or Belief in
miraculous powers and what are called superstitions, is no less common than ""S'o.
amouj; the Hindus. In the central and eastern Punjab too, the dread of the evil
eye, the fear of evil spirits and the belief in the efficacy of magic {Dam Darud) are
common, though perhaps not to the same extent as in the west. Even in the
city of Lahore, which has the privilege of a very well equipped Veterinary Hos-
pital, cattle diseases are treated generally by charms. Several Muhammadans
make a profession of giving charmed balls of kneaded flour to cows which
refuse to be milked or suffer from a sore nipple, and so on.
246. The accretions to Muhammadans within recent years have not been Conver-
any thing like so great us in the past, but nevertheless, the process of prose- siona.
lytization is still in progress and enquiries show that the number of con-
verts admitted to Islam during the past 10 years, at the Jama Masjids
of Lahore and Delhi amounted to 2,000 and 646, respectively, and in the
opinion of gentlemen who are in a position to judge, something like 40,000
persons must have embraced Islam during the past ten years. The con-
verts come mostly from amongst the H indus (including Sikhs and Jains). The
cases of conversion from Christianity are rare. The recruits come mostly from
the depressed classes, for according to usage, the fact of being admitted to the
Muhammadan society raises the status of untouchable Chuhras, Chatuars, etc.,
and in the tracts with a strong Muhammadan influence, this inducement is
sufficient for the change of faith.
The educated or uneducated Hindus of the higher castes seldom adopt
Muhammadanism on account of its psychological or metaphysical attractions,
nor do the advantages of embracing the State religion apply to it now. When,
therefore, any of them goes over to Islam, there is usually a love affair or some
material advantage attaching to it. Not only are accretions of males due to
this cause, but a number of hill women are enticed and kept or married by the
Muhammadan menial servants of the khansama, bearer or chaprasi class, every
year and taken down to the plains to be disposed of to the advantage of one or
both parties. These women have to adopt Islam willingly or perforce.
247. From the names of castes and tribes, given in Table XIII, it is easy composition
to form a fairly correct estimate of the foreign elements and of uuijam.
their descendants amongst the local Muhammadans, The madans.
castes indicating undoubted foreign descent are enumerated
in the margin. The Awans are supposed to be of Arab
extraction, but I have my doubts about this. I'he question
is discussed in Chapter XI, but for the purposes of this
comparison I have taken them as foreigners. The convert
Sheikhs have been left out and the figures of only those
sub-castes of Sheikhs which are known to be descended
from immigrants have been taken into account. t Only
1,875,557 or 15 per cent, of the Muhammadan population
Total ... 1,875,557 ^^^^y ^.j^^^^ appear to be of foreign origin. The rest
appear to be converts from Hinduism. §
* An EaglanJ reUirned Muhammadan gentleman tells me that this i.s n hypnolic operation and ciin be per-
forael in connection with any tree. Ho has seen it performed by an Indian .Muhammadan in England, but 1 know
of only one tree in a wholo district which is said to possess these healing powers.
t'.a) Qiireshi 9.'.,^tJ7 ; U)) VnTu^x 3,481. (c> f adiqi 67.252; (d) Ansiri 8,047 ; (c) Muhijarin Ui ; (/) Qoreshi
Sadiqi 1,463 ; (y) Qurcshi liishmi 30 , Total 175,714.
t It is not possible to make allowance for the mixture on account of intermarriage between castes of foreign
and local extraction. The general rule amongst the Muhammadans is, that the son, whatever caste his mother
may come from, belongs to the caste or tribe of the father. It is, therefore, best to take the figures as they stand
for the purposes of comparison.
§ The origin of the various castes is dealt with in Chapter XI of thia Report.
Arab
fl60
Aw4u
425,931
Baddun
1.630
Biloch
532 499
Daudpotra
21,229
Moghal
98,574
Pathiin
292.417
Qazilbash
219
Qureshi
70,922
Say ad
247,388
Turk
531
Harni
3,380
Chishti
4,154
t Sheikhs (part)
175,7U
174
Census Report. ] mohammadan — misceilaneocs. Chaptkb
Influence of 248. In paragrnph 234 I have quoted the remarks of a MnhammHdan
Hinduism scholar, regarding the Musalraans having oat-Hindued the Hindu himself
ontheMu- in respect of the double caste system, viz., sectarianism and the social caste
hammadan limitations. This is only natural considering what a large proportion of the local
population. ]\^yljammadan3 are converts from Hinduism, who have for centuries lived side by
side with their Hindu brethren, as members of the same village or social
commuaity ; and in the words of a historian,* " Wherever a military form of
Government has held in subjection a conquered race for some time, the civil-
isation of the conquered race has had a reflex action on the alien conquerors."
Sir Alfred Lyall, says :t —
" But the MuhammadauB gained their footing gradually and held it precariously.
They never completed the territorial conquest of India and on the whole they made little
way against the customs and creeds of Hinduism. Orderly Christian rule has given to
IslW in India an opportunity for beconaing regenerate and for re-uniting its strength which
it owes entirely to us."
The foreign element was bound to be influenced by the manners and
customs of the overwhelming majority of Hindus amongst whom they lived
and particularly by the large number of them who were, from time to time, con-
verted to the folds of the imported religion,
b^iiefe and "^^^ State of affairs, as regards the survival of Hindu religious beliefs
festivals. and practices amongst the Muhammadan converts depicted by Sir Denzil
Ibbetpon in para. 276 of the Punjab Census Report, 1881, J has considerably chang-
ed. The idolatrous practices have been practically given up, but the belief of
the Muhammadans in the efficacy of the worship of the goddesses of disease, etc., has
not become extinct yet. For instance, Muhammadan females do not, ordinarily,
go and make offerings at the temple of Sitala, but when a child is attacked by
small-pox, no medicme is, as a rule, administered for fear of offending the goddess
and in the eastern Punjab, the assistance of the female attendant of the Sitala tem-
ple is requisitioned, offerings (JJtdrd) being given away according to her suggestion
with a view to pleasing the goddess and saving the life of the patient. But in
some isolated tracts of the Himalayas which have kept well out of Muhammadan
influence, the profession of Islam by some converts of generations is still merely
nominal. For instance, in the hills of Chamba, I found that there were
Muhammadans who professed to follow Islam, but never said their Nimdz (prayers),
and did not even know the Kalima. On the other hand, they worshipped the
Hindu gods like their Hindu brethren, although they were not admitted inside the
temples. It appears that these people were converted to Islam at some Muham-
madan invasion of the country, but being left isolated amongst an overwhelming
majority of the Hindus, their descendants soon became ignorant of the tenets of
the religion which their ancestors had professed and not being re-admitted into the
folds of Hmduism, stuck to their faith of adoption only in name, satisfying their
religious craving by worshipping their local and ancestral Hindu gods. The Meos
(Muhammadans) of the eastern Punjab still participate in the observance of the
Holi and Dewali festivals. On the latter occasion they paint the horns, hoofs, etc.,
of their bullocks and join in the general rejoicings. In other parts of the Province,
too, traces of Hindu festivals are noticeable among the Muhammadans. In the
western Punjab, Baisdichi, the new year's day of the Hindus, is celebrated as
an agricultural festival, by all Muhammadans, by racing bullocks yoked to the well
gear, with the beat of tom-toms, and large crowds gather to witness the show. The
race is called iJaisdkhi and is a favourite pastime in the well-irrigated tracts. Then
the processions of Tdzidt in Muharram, with the accompaniment of tom-toms, fenc-
ing parties and bands playing on flutes and other musical instruments (which is
disapproved by the orthodox Muhammadans) and the estabhshment of Sahils
(shelters where water find sharhat are served out) are clearly influenced by similar
practices at Hindu festivals, while the illuminations on occasions like the
Chtrdghdn fair of Shalamar (Lahore) are no doubt practices answering to the holi-
day-making instinct of the converted Hindus. The rosary is a striking example
of the transmission of a practice with slight alterations, from the Hindus to the
• Times' Hielorian's History, Vol. II, p. 201.
t Asiatic Studies, Isl series.
J pp. 142-143.
175
IV. MnHAMMADAN MI8CELLANE0D9. [ Punjab, 1911.
Muhammadans through the Buddhists and tSyrians. The 108* beads representing
the names of Vishnu with the 109th top bead called Sumeru (mountain of gold, the
abode of Vishnu) in the Hindu rndia, (rosary) appear as 99 beads denoting as many
names of God and the 100th indicating the Imam, in the rosary of the I\Iuham-
madans.t " That a man's fate is written on his forehead, is entirely of Hindu
origin." J Sufism according to Schopenhauer, is entirely Indian \i\ spirit and
origin. The creation of numerous sects among the Sufis and the multiplication
of other MuLammaiian Fakir oiders,§ is obviously a counter-part of the Hindu
institution of ascetics. The clean shaving of the head and face by some of the
Muhammadan independent religious orders, the growing of the hair (often
unkempt and matted) and the beard by others and tbe smearing of the body with
ashes have their prototypes in similar practices among the Hindus. The
initiation by Pirs, justified by the precedent of bai'at to the Prophet, may be
a continuation of the Hindu belief in the supernatural powers of holy people, and
the vow of celibacy taken by certain religious orders amongst whom the leader is
succeeded by his Chela (disciple) is a clear remnant of the Hindu system. The
shrine of Sadiq Nihang in the Jhang District|| affords an excellent example of the
influence of the Hindu religion on Muhammadan religious orders. As the term
Nihang implies, the order of Fakirs in charge of the shrine preserves a number of
Hindu practices. The Gaddinashin remains celibate, the Chela (disciple) succeeds
him, the dhuni (fire) is kept up day and night, a rot (large loaf of bread) of
enormous weight is cooked, with the fire of the dhmi, once a year and distributed
to all present. All these are Hindu customs and yet the shrine has an exquisitely
built mosque attached to it and the monk presiding at it is as j);ood a Muhammadan
as any other, and is very widely respected. Then again, women of ill-fame sing
and dance at the shrines of saints after the manner of Hindu Dev Ddsis and
Murlis. The occasions at which these shows take place are the tJrses (annual
festivals) to commemorate the demise of these saints and are attended by re-
spectable Muhammadan gentlemen and many members of the Muhammadan re-
ligious orders, although a non-Jndian Muslim would probably be shocked at such
a scene as being strictly against the principles of Islam. Tbe tonsure (Sanskar)
of the Hindus still finds a parallel in the jhand lahdivan ceremony of the western
Punjab Muhammadans, ie., when little children are taken to shrines for their
first shave. Similar to the Hindu custom of burying the first crop of hair with
walnuts, etc., the hair of these newly shaved children is wrapped up in the akin
of a sacrificed goat and buried somewhere near the shrine, in redemption of the
life of the child.
The Hindu institution of caste has not only subsisted in many particulars Caate.
among the converts in this Province but has ako affected the foreign Muhammadan
immigrants such as the Biloches and Pathans, in maintaining their pride of
birth. The Rajput, the Jat, and the Aliir retains his identity, on em-
bracing Islam. The only caste which includes miscellaneous converts is the
Sheikh, which is really a title of respect and was applied originally to the Arab
spiritual guides. Converts who did not take pride in their original caste,
adopted this respectable designation until the term came to be appUied to
new converts without distinction and crystallized into a separate castf>. Never-
theless the agricultural tribes have not foisaken their distinguishing appellation.
The employment of Bhats by A wans and Mirasis by Muhammadan Rajputs as
geneolagists, is an obvious remnant of the Hindu institution.
The converts have not only preserved their custom of endogamy but have Marriage.
spread the contagion to the immigrant foreign Muhammadans as well. For in-
stance, the Pathans and Biloches will marry in the same tribe for a preference.
AUiances outside the tribe are contracted either for financial considerations or
in con.'^equence of individual choice, and are looked upon with disfavour. The
existence of hypergamy due probably to pride of conquest, is also more in keeping
* Another explanation of the 108 beads of the Hindu mdld (rosary) is that they represent \2 Nishtcdni
(breaths), 2-t Tatvas corresponding to the 2t letters of Gayatri and 72 Ndria united by a Brahmd^anthi (Divine
knot) at the top with the Sumeru covering it.
t Journal of the Asiatic Society of Great Sritain and Ireland, 1904, p. 125,
i Ibid.
§ Asceticism probably originated among the Muhammadans under the infltience of Chrialian monastic orders,
but it appears to have developed later on in India.
II See Jhang Gazetteer, p. 169.
176
Censas Report. ] mohammadan — miscellankouh. Chaptee
vsitli the Hindu ideas than with the tenets of Islam, and the tendency of some of
the converts like Kbatri Sheikhs and Rajputs towards exogamy indicates traces of
the exogamous custom of the Hindus.
Betrothal by guardians is unknown to Muhammadan law, yet the Punjab'
Muhammadans recognize it and sue for damages fc^r breach of contract of
betrothal. Almost every Muhammadan marriage in this Province ia preceded by
a betrothal by parents or other guardians. Adults seldom select their mates
except when an irregular union is followed by marriage. Marriages contracted
by guardians other than parents are not repudiated. Early or infant
marriage is clearly an adoption from the Hindus. Marriage, though a contract
in its inception, is a festive occasion, accompanied by rejoicings and display.
The bridegroom is dressed after the Hindu fashirm in a royal robe, with a
Sehra and Kalgi. He is made to ride a horse and goes in state with the retinue
of his brotherhood, in procession, with music and tom-toms and a display of pyro-
technics, to the bride's house, where singing by the ladies of the house goes on all
the time. The marriage party is entertained and treated in truly Hindu fashion.
The Ntkdh is, of course, substituted for tlie Hindu marital rites, but most of
the subsidiary ceremonies are scrupulously observed. The bride duly dressed in the
choicest clotbes, with her hands and feet coloured with Mehndi is brought to the
house of the father of the bridegroom, generally a minor, where she is bashful and
modest for some time and where she finds not a home for a husband and wife
only, but a whole joint family messing and living together in commensality.
The fixing and payment of dower are similarly influenced and the practices
regarding divorce and remarriage of widows are to this day repudiated by
Rajputs, some Sheikhs and other high castes.*
Inheritance. The Muhammadan law regarding inheritance is practically a dead letter
and not only Hindu converts to Islam follow their original law of inheritance
but the descendants of foreign Muhammadans have also adopted the rule of succes-
sion by agnatic descent. In attesting the Customary Law of two districts of the
western Punjab, I noticed a very strong tendency among the Sayads and some
of the more orthodox Pathans and Biloches to subscribe themselves as strict
adherents of the Shar'a (Muhammadan laiv), but the prescribed questions relat-
ing to inheritance and succession elicited answers diametrically opposed to their
general contention. The difficulty whs often explained away by the cleverer cham-
pions of the Shar'a in this way. The succession, they would say, must be in accord-
ance witli the Muhammadan law, but every owner of property persuades l)is sistere,
daughters, etc., to forego their share in tlie estate, so that for all practical purposes
the succession devolves only on the lineal male heirs. But such a procedure,
if ever actually adopted, can only be looked upon as a contrivance to give the
appearance of validity to practices clearly opposed to Muhammadan Inw.
Smperstitions, The use of charms and amulets alluded to in paragraph 245, the casting of
horoscopes, divination through sacred books, Jafars and Bammdls (fortune-tellers)
and the observance of omens, the firm belief in the evil-eye, the psychic treatment
of diseases {Dam-darvd) apparently owe a great deal to the traditions of the
Hindu converts. Magic {Jddu-tuna) is practised very largely by Muhammadan
experts and freely resorted to by Muhammadan laymen and particularly females.
The exorcising of evil spirits (Jin) who fiossess females, is also an institution,
evidently borrowed from the Hindus. The converts have, therefore, retained
the so called superstitious ideas and transmitted them also to their coreligionists
of foreign origin.
OoatomB of xiie MuM Jats (according to some Mula is a term applied generally to Jat
(Mnham-* couverts in the eastern Punjab) and the Ranghars (who are converted Rajputs)
madao). show marked traces of Hindu customs. They do not generally marry in the four
prohibited golras (one's own, mother's, father's mother's and mother's niotber's)
and many of tliem consult the Brahmans about dates of marriage, invite them to
their marriage ceremonies and make suitable gifts to them. The following
translation of a note by a Muhammadan Rajput Naib-Tahsildar is to the point : —
Muhammadan "The majority of Riijputs in tlie Sialkot District are of four jrdi*, rtz., Khokhar,.
Eijpots of Bhatti, Manh^s and Salehria. The Manhas and Salehrid Muhammadan Rdjputs generally
fiialkot. abstain from beef and most of them do not eat any meat whatever. My family and I are
• For other subsidiary ceremonies see Chapter VII.
IV.
177
CBRISTIANS.
[ Pnnjab, 1911.
strict observers of the rule. Tlie Manhds and Salehrid Rdjputa do not marry among their
near relhtions according to the Muhammadan law (Shar'a Muhammadi) and give preference
to distant relations. They go so far as not to marry even in their own village or town. The
Bhatti and Khokhar Rdjputs do not mind cousin marriage. All these four castes, however,
recognise Br»hmans as their priests and respect tliem no less than the Hindu Rajputs. The
Salehri^ and Manhas observe the custom of raubani,* which is prohibited according to the
Muhammadan law."
The following infornriation regarding the Muhammadan Meos received from Customs of
the Gnrgaon District will be found interesting. In certain parts of the eastern Muhammadaa
Punjab, Meo children are given Hindu names and tlie other iMuhammadans also
have no particular objection to doing so. The extract from the genealogical
tree of one of the villages in that district, given below, will show how Hindu
names (in antique) are mixed up with Muhammadan names.
SHER KHAN.
I
Mulaa.
I
Raiya.
Rora.
r —
Bharaich.
I
Bhikka.
I
Mebrali.
I
Murad.
I
Chand.
I
Pira.
I
Mauhu.
I
Snkkha.
I
Sayar,
I
Majlis.
Sawai.
I
Mamraj.
Sanwani.
I
Namdar.
I
Ranjit.
U awali.
I
Bahmiin.
Nattha.
r
1
Ghisa.
I
Imam
Khau.
Iiahi Singh. Buddha.
Man
Singh.
Gul Khan.
— 1
Bhag
Singh.
Amin
Chand.
Bhummar.
I I
Pir Bakhsh. Shama Singh.
I
Samean Eban,
Jiwna.
Sila.
(
Mnnir.
I
Ujagar.
Ram
Singh.
Chand
Singh.
Pirn.
f"
shadi Mohna.
KhaD.
I
Moua.
Chand
Mai.
I
Eamala.
I
Mangali.
r
n
Rai Singh. Tarela.
f
Taje
Khun.
I
Udebhan.
Khnsbi
Khan.
Farta. Mahtab.
r
— "1
Sukhar.
Mamraj.
Out of 56 names covering twelve generations from SherKhan downwards,
there are as many as 35 or 62| per cent, which are distinctly Hindu and they
run up from the last (i.e., tlie present) generation right up to the third. The
following rites in the Meo community resemble those of the Hindus: —
(1). Oil the occasion of marriage, Lagan (invitation to the bridegroom for the
wedding) is sent, in the s;ime way throngli a barber or a Brahman, as amongst
the Hindus, the metisenger being given his food with a fee of one rupee. (2). Wheu
after the mari'iago the brideyroora returns to his father's house, tlie shrino of Sati is
worshipi)od in 75 cases out of every 100. (3). The Meos do not marry in their own
got. (4.) On^miua.s (dark night) the Meos do not yoke their bullocks and celebrate
the day by eating cooked rice. (5) As stated above they observe the Diwiili and
Holi festivals like the Hindus. On Diwiili they paint the bullocks' bodies and horns
with gem (red ocbre) while on Holi they sprinkle culour, etc., on each other like
the Hindus. (6). They make offerings at the shrines of Devi and Guga imd ob-
serve certnin ether festivals as well. (7). At the gntliering of the harvest, they
give the fixed cbaritiible dues to Brahmans, and if a Brahman happens to visit
the house of a Meo on an Atudvas, he is given dry rations for one meal.
CHRrSTIANS
249. The total strength of Christians a.«certained at the recent Census is j^ . ,.
close on 200,000, representing a little over 8 per mille of the total population, ^^., ..
iMtibani is a custom whereby on a certain day in the week ;Thursday or Friday) cows milk may not be sold
or given for use to any one except the members of the family.
Census Report ]
178
CBKISTIAN8.
Chapter
Natural Division.
Proportion per
10,000 of
population.
Total 83
Indo-Gangetic Plain West 24
Himalayan 2
Sub- Himalayan 38
N.-W. Dry Area 19
Per
population
Lahore .. 210
Gujranwala 176
Delhi ... 87
concentrated chiefly in the Sub-Himalayan tract.
The distribution by Natural Divisions is given in
the margin. The most important districts are
Sialkot, Gurdaspur, Rawalpindi and AmbalH, with a
propoition of 496, 279, 152 and 108, respectively, to
every 10,000 of their total population. The figures of
Rawalpindi and Amhala are not indicative of proselytization, as they are made up
largely of British troops, British officers, etc., residing in the cuntonments. Next
in importance comes the ludo-Gangetic Plain West, in which the districts register-
in ooo i°o ^^^ largest number of Christians are Lahore, Gujranwala and
Delhi (see margin). The figures of Delhi are somewhat abnormal,
having been affected by the preparations for the Coronation Dur-
bar. In the North- West Dry Area, the only important districts
are Lyallpur and Sliahpur, which have 373 and 125, respectively,
per 10,000 of population. The Christian population of the Himalayan tract is
practically confined to the Simla District, where their proportion to the total popu-
lation is the highest on record, being 932 per 10,000. The districts with a strong
Christian population have been marked on the map printed in paragraph 120.
"Variation. 250. The Christian population of the Province has shown a steady increase
ever since the first regular Census was taken in 1881. In that year, they
numbered only 28,054 ; by 1891 they had multiplied to 48,472 ; a decade later
the number rose to 06,591; and at the present Census Christianity holds 199,751
persons within its folds. The strength of Christians has thus almost trebled
itself within the last ten years and the population is now more than seven times
that in 1881, while the total population has increased only 14*4 per cent, during
the past 30 years. The spread of Christianity has been general during the
last decade, throughout the Province, with the exception of a few units, showing
decreases, but in some districts (Tvhich are
named in tlie margin) the development has
been remarkable, due doubtle^^s in a great
measure to the zeal nnd activity of the
Salvation Army and the Presbyterian Mis-
sionaries. The increase in the Sialkot Dis-
trict, where the latter Mission has succeeded
in making a very \nv^e number of converts
from the depressed classes, is phenomenal,
and but for emigration to other districts
would have been still higher. The Presbyterians contribute about 80 per cent,
to the Christian pofiulatiun of tlie district. The Roman Catholics have also
increased to some extent. The next district in point of spread of C hristianity is
Lyallpur, but here most of thn Ct'i'istians are immigrants. Immigration has also
helped the development in Gujranwala. The increase in the Gurdaspur and
Lahore Districts is due to the work of Missionaries. In the Shahpur
District again immigration has played an important part in the increase of
Christians. In Lyallpur, the Anglicans and Presbyterians are mainly responsible
for the large increase. The Salvationists and Roman Catholics have also
gained ground. The increase in Gurdaspur lias been contributed by the
Salvationisis, Presbyterians and Methodists, in the order named. 'I'he Christian
population in Lahore, Gujranwala and Shahpur has grown by a large increase
in the ranks of the Presliyterians. The Methodists in Lahore an(i the Boman
Catholics in Gujranwala have also helped to swell the number of Christians in
those districts.
-R^ce. 251. The Nationality of the Christians (i-ee Imperial Tables XVII and
XVIll) is indicated in the margin. About
69 per cent, of the Europeans are Anglicans,
19-6 percent. Roman Catholics, 66 percent.
Presbyterians and 3*2 per cent. Metiiodists.
Quite 61 per cent, of the Anglo-Indians are
Anglicans, about 30 per cent. Roman
Catholics, 4*6 per cent. Presbyterians, and
2'6 percent, are Methodists. The distribution amongst the Indian Christians is:—
District.
1901.
11,930
8,672
4,471
7,296
91
2,748
1911.
48,620
32,023
23,365
21,781
8,616
16,215
Varia-
tion.
Sialkot
Lyallpur
Gurdaspur
Lahore
Shahpur
Gujranwala
36,681
23,3!: 1
18,894
14,485
8,525
13,467
Nationality.
Persons
Remarks.
Europeans
32,278
or a little over 16 per
cent.
Anglo-Indians ...
3,479
or rather less than 2
per cent.
Indian Christians
163,994
or mo»8 than 82 per
cent.
179
aV. CHBI6TIAN8. [ Punjab, 191t
Presbyterinns 56-6 per cent,, Anglicans 17*7 per cent., Salvationists 11 per cent.,
Methodists 7'1 per cent, and Hcman Catholics 5"2 per cent. The total increase of
133,160 fur the Province is contributed as follows :— Europeans 6,123 (4,298
males, 1,825 females), Anglo-Imlians 1,023 (480 males and 543 feruates), and
Indian Chiistians 126,014 (70,000 males and 55,954 females). Having regard
to the numerous Missions at work in all parts of the Punjab, it is only
natural that the largest increase should be amongst the Indian Christian com-
munity. The distinctive feature of the increase among Europeans is tliat about
70 per cent, of the additional population are males. There is nothing abnor-
mal in thi-*, as more tlian 75 per cent, of the total European population of
the Province are males. They preponderate in a very marked degree (7 to 1) in
the age periods 15 to 30. The explanation is, that the strength of the European
population is affected largely by the British tioops, located in various parts of
the Province. It must be remembered that when the Census of 1901 was
'taken, the Punjab had been denuded of some troops, in connection with
the South African War. Since then, not only has the strength of the
British troops in India been restored, but under Lord Kitchener's Army
re-orgamsatiou scheme, the numerical strength of the forces located in the
Punjab and North- West Frontier Province has been increased, bringing about
a coiresponding rise in the number of European Christians in this Province, and
as only a very limited proportion of British soldiers are permitted to marry, the
number of males in the Province must necessarily be largely in excess of the
females. Tlie development of trade and industries and of educational and
other institutions has also brought in a larger number of Europeans, but
the variation due to this cause is comparatively t<mall. The largest increasea
amongst Europeans have taken place in the marginally
noted districts and states. All the British Districts
mentioned in the margin contain cantonment stations, at
which British troops are located. It has been ascertained
that the increase in the number of Europeans in Patiala
is due to the temporary presence of a smali body
of British troops in the State territory on a route
march, at the time of the Final Census. Karnal shows
a decrease of 854 and Ludhiana of 41+ European males,
respectively. This is similarly due to the temporary location of troops in those
•districts at the time of the Census of 1901, Simla shows an increase of 416
European females. Tliis is apparently due to the transfer (o Simla, as a perma-
nent measure, of the headquarters of tho Government of India Military Offices,
in consequence of which the wives and families of the officials now winter in
Simla instead of moving down to Calcutta.
In Tables XVII and XVIII, the Europeans and allied races have been shown
together. Hut from a special Table XVIII A. prepared for the purpose of dis-
tinguishing between the countries of their birth, it appears that 23,2U5 Europeans
out of 32,278 or a little moi-e than 71 "6 per cent, were born in the British Isles.
The remaining 9,073 comprise Europeans born in India and in the Colonies,
inhabitants of other European countries, Americans atid Anglo-Indians who
have returned themselves as Europeans. Of the non-British Kuioperms, l4l
are Portuguese, many of whom are most probably Goanese ; 76 are Germans,
61 Belgians, and 51 French, There are some belonging to other nationalities
also, but they are too few to bo placed in their national category. The
majority of the other Europeans reside in Lahore, Delhi and Rawalpindi, and are
chiefly engaged in trade. There is a fair proportion of Americans, 267, of whom
34 are from Canada, 14 from the United States, 141 from North and 50 from South
America, Unspecified, respectively. They are mostly Missionaries and have been
enumerated iu all the large Mission centres of the Province, Quite 82 per cent, of
the European British subjects are between the ages of 1 5 and 60, and 59 per cent, are
from 15 to 30 years old. Of the latter, no less than 1 6,563 out of 18,8t)9 or over 88
per cent, are males, the majority of whom are soMiors in His Majesty's Army.
252. The increase of about 42 per cent, in the number of Anglo-Indians Tlie Anglo-
cannot be due to natural causes. It is affected in a small degree by immigration, Indians.
3)ut I am incUned to think that the tendency of Indian Christians to pass as
District
Males.
Females.
Ambala
2,376
223
Lahore
9.57
294
£ialkot
969
SO
Attock
665
95
#'erozepore ...
332
137
Pu'iala
102
ifi
Simla
6
416
Census Report]
180
CHRISTIAN SECTS.
Cbapteb-
Anglo-Indians has gone a long way to swell the ranks of the latter in spite
of the counteracting inclination of Anglo-Indians to return themselves as
Europeans. In order to form a rough idea as to the extent to which
Anglo-Indians have returned themselves as Europeans, and Indian Christians
as Anglo-Indians, I have had the Household Schedules for the cities of Lahore
and Amritsar scrutinized by reliable persons, in a position to determine tho
nationality of the majority of the Christian community in those places. The
Cities.
Race.
No. re-
turned.
Correct
No.
Variation
per cent.,
compared
with cor-
rect No.
Lahore |
European
Anglo-Indian ...
Indian Christian
Total ...
4,741
995
2,700
4,6fi3
1,092
2,741
+ 3
-8-9
-1-5
8,436
8,436
• ••
Amritsar
European
Anglo-Indian ...
Indian Christian
Total ...
463
51
614
436
73
619
-f 6-2
-301
- 08
1,128
1,128
...
BolbCiUes j
European
Anglo-Indian ...
Indian Christian
Total ...
5,204
1,046
3,314
5,039
1,165
3,360
+ 3 3
-10-2
- 1-4
9,564
9,564
...
figures for the two cities are given
in the margin. Taken collectively,
the Europeans would appeartohave
gained 3 2 per cent, from Anglo-
Indians. The Anglo-Indians, on
the other hand, would appear to
have suffered a net loss of 10'2
percent, of their correct strength,
by Anglo-Indians returning them-
selves as Europeans, even though
1*7 per cent, of the Indian Chris-
tians have been put down as
Anglo-Indians. One would infer
from these figures that the real
strength of the Anglo-Indians was
much (say, 10 per cent.) larger
than it appears from the Census
returns, bat the results are based upon the figures of the cities of Lahore
and Amritsar, where the obvious difiiculty, in claiming European descent in the
absence of a fair complexion greatly reduces the chances of Indian Christian passing
as Anglo-Indians. Nevert.heless the tendency to raise one's status is abundantly
in evidence throughout the Province and it is rather pronounced in Railway
Settlements and Establishments. Assuming for the sake of argument that
1 per cent.* of Indian Christians passed as Anglo-Indians and that 3 per cent, of
the persons returned as Europeans were really Anglo-Indians throughout the
Province, the calculation would stand as follows: — Deducting 1 per cent, of the
total Indian Christian population (163,994) from, and adding 8 per cent, of the
total European population (32,278) to, the total strength of the Anglo-Indians
shown in Subsidiary Table IV, we arrive at the probably true population of
Anglo-Indians (2,807) which would be only 14 per cent, m excess of their total
strength in 1901. This measure of increase of the Anglo-Indian population
would probably be nearer the mark ; but this calculation which is more or less
speculative must be taken for what it is worth. Anyhow there appears to be little
doubt but that some Indian Christinns have passed as Anglo-Indians while a
number of Anglo-Indians have put themselves down as Europeans. This desire
of rising in social importance is not restricted to Christians only, but is noticeable
on a much larger scale in the castes and tribes among tho Hindus and Muhamma-
dans alike, as will be noticed in Chapter XI.
Christian Sects.
Christianity are too well known to be described.
In the margin is given a list of the denominations
under which the various sect entries have been
grouped. As regards the better known sects, no
description of the distinguishing features will be
attempted and the remarks will be confined to
variation and local distribution. The two main
inherently Christian sects in India are Roman Cath-
lic and Protestant, and while the former acknow-
ledges no power outside the Papal heirarchy, in
matters of dogma and doctrine, the latter compre-
hends Anglicans, Baptists, Presbyterians, Method-
ists, etc., each sect under its own governing head.
Classif ca-
253. The doc
trines (
tion of
Persons.
sects.
Anglican Commanion
. 53,427
Armenian
12
Baptist
1,340
Congregationaliat
25
Greek
18
Lutheran
115
Metbodiat
. 12,8.50
Minor Proteetant denominationd 1,479
Presbyterians
. 95,039
Protestant unseotarian
930
Qaaker
3
Roman Catholic
. 15.847
Salrutiouist
. 18,t73
Syriiiu
I
Unspecified
538
Indefinite beliefs
S4
• This figure is regarded by some to be too larjje. The actual measure of the error may be less bat ex-
i<«rience shows that the number of Indian Christians passing as Anglo-Iodiaos is considerable.
181
jy, CHRISTIAN SECTS. [ Punjab, l9ll.
On the broad basis adverted to, the sects may be grouped as in the margin.
It 13 not strictly correct to class indefinite beliefs
Botan ouho.icB Z 'Ssl' uiider Christianity. The following remarks of
Unspecified ... 538 ^ho Rio-ht Reverend the Bishop of Lahore appear
IcdefiDite beliefs ... SI i c° „ v.,:^.^ .
to defy criticism : —
"But indefinite beliefs are to include Atheists, Agnostics, Theosophists, Deists and
Positivists. Id what sense can these be called Christians at all ? 1 imagine that in
Bcarcely any instance would the individuals coming under these minor heads claim
for themselve.s the name of Christian, and certainly the claim would not be admit-
ted by any branch of the Christian Church. How could it be, when one thinks of the
palpable signification of some, at any rate, of the names I have indicated."
But the principle borne in mind, in not excluding certain beliefs from the
strict limits of Christianity, was that such persons were either Europeans or
derived their ideas from Europeans, and consequently could not be placed more
suitably under any other religion. Their strength waa, on the other hand, too
small to justify the opening of a separate head. Although Roman Catholicism
has continued to spread, yet the activity of proselytization would appear to be
more manifest in the Protestant Missions.
Protestants.
254. The entries which have been included under 'Anglican Communion' Anglican
1. Anglican Communion. are noted in the margin. Of these, 42 per cent. ajeConimunioiu
2. Charchof England. Europcans, 4 pcr cent. Anglo-Indians, and about 54
*• S°for';rloting the percent. Indian Christians. The sect has increased in
Gospel Mission. uumbers from 36,465 in 1901 to 53,427 in 191 1.
6.- 'sLZt t^u^: Towards this increase the Europeans have contributed
7. Church Mission of England. 2,207, Aiiglo-IndiaDS 740 and Indian Christians
I: KwTn.rU.nd, Jesus. 14,015. Persous who returned themsclvcs as belong-
10. Church of inHia, Jesus. j^g tg " Church of India Jesus" and " Church of
12: charrh of Christ Mission. Clirist Mission " wcre f oiiud ou enquiry to be Anglicans.
13. St. George. ijij^g variations among Europeans are due mainly to
the movement of British troops which consist of members of different persuasions.
The chief increases have taken place in the Ambala (1,563), Lahore (1,409)^ and
Attock (495) Districts. Decreases have occurred in the Districts of Kariial (721),
JuUundur (842), Ludhiana (319) and Ferozepore (375). In Karntil and Ludhiana,
the decrease is due to the temporary presence of troops at the Enumeration of
1901 in connection with Rehefs or Manoeuvres. The increase among Anglo-
Indians is small and does not call for special comment. Indian Christians have
increased most in Lahore (1,773), Amritsar (1,962), Sialkot (1,579) and Lyallpur
(7,428). The increase is noteworthy, as at the last Census, the figures for all
IFnspecified Protestants were thrown under this head, while a separate head has
been provided now, for the 'Unspecified.'
255. There has been a decrease of 1 1 amongst Armenians. Followers of gr™f q^Ja-
the Greek Church and the Quakers have declined by 4 and 8, respectively, ker, Syrian
Congregationalists show an increase of 19 and Lutherans of 76. The Quakers tfon^'j^ft"
are all Indian Christians found in the Lyallpur District. The Lutheran Sect in- and Ln-
cludes 81 Indian Christians (G6 in Sialkot, 14 in Kangra and 1 in Amritsar) andtteran-
34 Europeans. The solitary person returning himself as 'Syrian ' is an European.
The Baptists* have a totR] strength of 1,340 only, of whom 186 are Baptists.
Europeans, 37 Anglo-Indians and 1,117 Indian Christians. They have increased
by 741 during the past decade. Increases have taken place mainly in the
Gurgaon, Delhi and Ambala Districts, to which the sphere of influence of tha
Baptist Mission, Delhi, is confined.
256. The Sects classed under the denomination « Methodists ' are detailed Methodists-
in the margin. Out of a total of 12,850 persons, 1,037 or 8 per cent, are Euro-
i Methodist. peans, 90 or less than 1 per cent, arc Anglo-India os,
2.' American Mission. and 11,723 or 91 per Cent, are Indian Christians.
4. ilthS English Mission. 'l^heir number has increased during the past decade
^ Methodist English Church. by 11,588, to which the Indian Christians alone
0. Church of MisBion. |^.j^g contributed 11,373. Delhi (2,689), Lahore
(4,322) and Gurd.ispur (2,(;21) are the three districts showing the largest
* Including a few "American Uission ' entrias.
Census Report ]
182
CHRISTIAN SECTS.
Chapter
enquiries
Presby-
terians-
increases. The entry " Churcli of Mission " was an enigma, but
showed that some Methodists had chosen to designate their sect as such.
257. The figures of Presbyterians include tlie sect entries given in the
margin. Jn the decade preceding 1901, the number
of Presbyterians fell by over 50 per cent., but during
the past ten years their strength has risen to almost
20 times the figure of 1901. But only 2,140 or
about 2 per cent, of them are Europeans, 1 60 or
Presbyterian-
Church of Scotland.
Unitctl Presbyterian Church.
American Mission,
f 'Lurch of American Mission.
Christ.
Ahl-i-Nasari.
R. C. Dull.
about '2 per cent. Anglo-Indians and 92,739 or close
on 98 per cent, are Indian Christians. The marginally nuted districts show the
Salvation-
ists.
Hoshiirpur
Lahore . . .
Gurdaspor
Biilkot ...
Gnjrinwila
Shahpur
Ljallpur
258
2,599
7,191
7,349
37,527
13,224
8,000
8,628
principal increases in the Indian Christians. There is
a nominal increase of 9G4 Europeans at Siiilkot, due to
the fact that a Scotch regiment has replaced an English
one at the Cantonment. The other increases are the
result mainly of conversions.
There has been a very remaikable increase in the numbers of Chris-
tians belonging to the Salvation Army, who in 1901 aggregated 443 souls only, but
have in a decade multiplied to 18,073. All but "4 per cent, of these are Indian
Christians. The small balance represents the number of European officers
in charge of the Mission work of the Army in the Punjab. The largest number
of Salvationists is found in Gurdaspur, Lyallpnr and Amritsar.
Other sects 259. In view of the fact, that an overwhelming majority of the Christians
included are uneducated, instructions were issued requesting the Missionary Societies to give
under Ma- the converts, in writing, the name of the Church to which they belonged. Christian
jor Protest- Enumerators were appointed where possible to write out the Enumeration books
antdenomi-in wards with large numbers of Christians and the entries relating to them were
nations. specially checked by supei'vising officers. Nevertheless great difficulty has been
experienced in deciphering the terms entered and discovering their connotation.
(1). Church Mission. — This is probably a corruption of 'Church Mis-
sionary Society ' as the majority of persons who thus returned their sect have
been found to be Anglicans, 8 males and 12 females are Methodists, and 7 males
and 11 females belong to the Salvation Army.
(2). American Mission. — On inquiry the majority were found to be
Presbyterians ; 15 males and 2 females were ascertained to be Baptists.
(3). Church of American Mission. — Of those returned under this head,
21 males were found to bo Anglicans and 3 appeared to be Presbyterians.
(4). Church of Africa. — On enquiry, it was found that all those who
returned ' Church of Africa ' as their sect, belonged to the Presbyterian Church.
(5). Church of Jesus. — The persons who liad returned Church of Jesus aa
their sect were found, to belong to the Anghcan Communion. Some returned
themselves aa Church of England Jesus, and some as Church of India Jesus.
Subsequent enquiries made have elicited the fact that all these persons belong to
the new society formed under the name of ' Jesus Church of India.'
(G). Ahl-i-Nasdrd. — A few persons from Chamba returned their sect as
Ahl-i-Nasara. They were found to be Presbyterians.
(7). B. C. Lutt. — The persons who returned ' R. C. Dutt ' as the name
of their sect were discovered on enquiry to be Pres-byterians.
260. The sects included in Minor Protestant denominations are named in the
margin and a
brief account
of each is
given below.
(1). American Britain Church Protestatit. — This sect was returned by four
Indian males of the Karnal District. Enquiries were made but the men could not
be traced. It is probable that they are converts of the amalgamated Presbyterian
Mission of which mention is made in the account of Presbyterian Missions, para-
graph 270.
(2). Attierican Brother Mission. — The number of persons returned under
this denomination w&s 11. All of them are Indian Christiana of Patiala.
(3). Brethren. — The 228 persons grouped under this head, include those
who retuiued themselves as * Brother Mission,' ' Massih Brother,' ' Biradar,'
Minor Pro-
testant de-
nomina-
tions.
1.
American Britain Church
G.
Church of God.
12.
Israeli.
Protestant.
7.
Church of India.
13.
Jesus Army,
2.
American Brother Mission
8.
Episcopal Church.
14.
New Dispensation.
3.
Brethren.
9.
EvangeUc.
15.
Scientist.
4.
Catholic Apostolic.
10.
Faith Mission.
16
Swedenborgian.
6.
Church of Chiisl Mission
11.
(iod's Faith.
17.
Unspecified.
183
IV'. CHRISTIAN SECTS. [ Punjab, 1911.
• Brother Christian,' and ' Plymouth Brother.' The majority were entered
*as Brother Christian ' and ' Brother IVIission ' (75 males under the former and 8
males and 78 femtdes under the latter head).
(4). Catholu; Apostolic — This denomination was returned by 2 persona
of Ambala and 1 of Jnllundur.
(5). Church of Christ Mission. — Only 5 persons of Patiala, all Indians,
were returned as belonging to this sect.
(6). Church of God. — The eeot includes 525 persons. The majority of
those who formerly belonged to the ' Faith Mission,' appear, on the present
occasion to have returned themselves under the head ' Church of God.' Not
very long ago, the institution known as the Faith Mission began to be styled
the ' Church of God Faith Mission ' and now the members of the Mission seem
to have made a furtlier change in the name of tlieir sect, and call themselves
simply ' Church of God ' Christians. The sect is quite independent of all others,
but is open to all converted or snvf.d people belonging to other sects.
(7). Church of India. — This sect was returned by 602 persons, all of
■whom are Indians and reside in the Lyallpur District. The persons so returned
have, on enquiry, been found to belong to the Society of ' Jesus Church of India.*
(See Jesus Army No. 13 below).
(8). Episcopal Church. — This sect was returned by 11 Indian females
of Lyallpur. These persons may either belong to the Anglican Communionists,
or to the Methodists.
(9). Evangelic. — The number of persons returned under the denomination
is only 2, both being Europeans at Delhi.
(10). B'aith Mission. — Twenty persons have returned themselves as be-
longing to the ' Faith Mission.' The members of this Mission appear to have be-
come absorbed in the new ' Church of God ' sect. The Mission had its head-
quarters at Lahore, and had acquired some landed property in the vicinity of
the Lunatic Asylum. There the Mission converts, chiefly famine waifs, were
brought up and trained under the considerate care and attention of Mr. and
Mrs. Jervis by whom the institution was founded. On the death of Mr. Jervis,
the work was carried on by Mr. Neff, who is now at the head of the ' Church of
God ' sect. The Mission propei'ty at Lahore was sold a few years ago.
(11). God's Faith. — The God's Faith sect -was returned by 4 Indian Chris-
tian women of Amiitsar, of whom no trace could be found subsequently. It is very
probable that they are also members of the ' Church of God's Faith Mission.'
(12). Israeli. — Only o Indian males of the Shahpur district returned this
sect. These men were Chuhra converts who had left the district of enumeration
when the enquiry was made, except one, and he could not give any explanation
of the term. It is possible that the entry may be due to the impression of the
converts that they belonged to one of the 10 lost tribes of Israel.
(13). Jesus /Irrni/.— Fifty-one persons of Lyallpur (all Indians) returned
' Jesus Army ' as their sect. The society which was founded in the year 1908, in
Lahore, is a self-supporting movement and has made considerable progress
within the last throe years. In the year 1909 its name was altei-ed to ' Jesus
Church of India.' The number of adherents is estimated at 11,172. There are
branches of this society at Gujranvvfila, Lyallpur, Jhang, Lahore, Rawalpindi
and iSiiilkot. Lyallpur has by far the largest number of members.*
(14). Neio Dispensation. — Three persons have given this designation of
their persuasion.
(15). Scientist. — This is the sect returned by 6 persons (European) of
Shahpur. On enquiry it was found that the term meant Christian t^cientist.
(16). 8ivedenborfjian. — This sect was returned by only one Kuropean male
in the Faridkot State.
261. The enti'ies which indicate no particular set of doctrines or whose Uusectarian
(a) American Army ... 38 |(d) Non-St-ctarian ... 2 siiTnificanCO COuUl UOt bo aSCer- and Uuspe-
(b) Church of Amerioi ... 781 (e) Protestants ... 159 ^ , i u ■ 1 J j • -^ ,
>c) Non-Conformist ... .3 I (/) RuH~iaii MishI..,, ... 7 tauied havo been incluaed m cified Pro-
" [Jnsectarian and Unspecified Protestants." The figures are noted in the margin, testants.
* The note on thie society wub received from the Lyallpur Dintrut after the Iteport liad gone to press. It
'Chuiohof ludia,' ' Jeeua Church of Enp;-
rch of India,' The uote was unfortunately
shows that those who have returned themselves as ' Aniericaa Army,' ' Chuioh of India,' ' Jeeua Church of Eiifj
laml,' 'Jesus' and 'Russian Mission,' all belrm^ to the ' Jeaue Chu - . —
received too late to make any alteratioos in the Tables.
Census Report. ]
184
CHRISTIAN SECTS.
CUAPTEE
Roman
Catholics.
Sects not re
turned.
Indefinite
l)eliefs.
Qolabshahi
American Army. — The * American Army ' sect was returned by 33 Indians
(males) of Lyallpur. Information regarding the nature of the sect was at first
not forthcoming and the figures were clas.sed under ' Unsectarian and Unspecified.'
But further enquiries have elicited the fact that these persons belong to the
Society of ' Jesus Church of India.'
Church of America. — The sect 'Church of America' was returned by 721
persons (Indian) from various districts in the Punjab. It has been included
under the head ' Unsectarian and Unspecified Protestants ' because no particulars
of the sect could be ascertained.
Russian Mission. — Seven persons of Lyallpur were entered as belonging
to the ' Russian Mission ' sect, but no trace of them could at first be found. They
have after all been ascertained to belong to the recently founded society of
' Jesus Church of India.'
Non-Conformists. — Three persons returned themselves as Non-Confcrmists.
Unspecified Protestants. — Only 159 persons put themselves down merely
as Protestants in tlie column for sects without specifying their real persuasion.
Roman Catholics.
262. The followers of this Church have increased by 8,623. Europeans
contribute 6,310 or a httle under 40 per cent., Anglo-Indians 1,040 or about
7 per cent., and Indian Christians 8,497 or over 53 per cent, to th« total of
15,847. Europeans have increased chiefly in Ambala (533), Simla (23 J),
Jullundur (486), Ferozepore (902), Amritsar (103), Sialkot (109), and Multan
(314). All these districts have cantonments garrisoned with British troops and
their movements have affected the numerical strength of the Roman Catholics
in the Province. It is worthy of notice that the increase in the number of
European Catholics in Jullundur, Ferozepore, Amritsar and Multan, is to some
extent balanced by a corresponding decrease in those stations of the number of
Europeans who are Anglicans. The Anglo-Indians show an increase of 124 in
Simla and a decrease of 169 in Jullundur. Indian Christians have increased
most largely in Sialkot (1,479), Gujranwala (1,540) and Lyallpur (2,2ii0).
263. There has been a very satisfactory decrease from 15,395 in 1901 to
538, at the current Census, in the number of persons who returned no sect whatever.
The decrease is due to the pains taken in instructing Enumerators and the caro
Avith which Enumerators generally carried out their instructions. It is impossible
to say definitely which sect has benefited most from this improvement in regis-
tration, but it is very probable, having regard to the fact that the chief
decreases have taken place in Gurdiispnr, Sialkot, Gujrunwala and Lyallpur, that
the omi.ssion to return the sect in 1901, occurred mainly among the Presbyterians
who show a large increase in those very districts.
264. A detail of the sects thrown under the head " Indefinite beliefs,"
Asnosiic ... 23 Spiritualist ... 1 aggregating 54 persons is given m the
Theist ... 3 margin. All of them except Gnl;ibshahis are
Theosophist ... 4 ,^, i , r ^i j
Unitarian ... 15 "Well known and need no further descrip-
An account of the Gulabshahi faith is given below.
265. Three males and 1 female of Hoshiarpur have returned themselves as
Gnlabshahis. Enquiry showed that Gulabshah was a Muhammadan Gajar who
adopted Christianity and was baptized by the American Presbyterian Mission.
After some time, he would appear to have changed his mind and separated from
the Mission, starting a sect of his own. It was obviously with i-eference to his
adoption of Christianity that the present Gulabshahis have returned their faith
as a sect of that rt'ligion. He is dead, but two of his disciples Sadama
and Chandii (Hindu names), when questioned as regards their creed
have given quite a different story, and seem to disclaim all connec-
tion with the Christian religion. They say that Gnlabshah was never converted
to Christianity, Out that one of his disciple.s, named Musa, embraced Christianity
thereby ceasing to belong to the Gulab«hahi faith. According to them, Gulabshah
was employed in tlie Army, and while in service he was persuaded by some Fakir
to give up the world and worship God. He consequently left service and took up
liis abode in village Maih, Tahsil Garhshankar, preaching worship by Dhyctn
(meditation) of one impersonal God. His followers observe restrictions in the
matter of interdining in the same way as the Hindas and Muhaaimadans. They
Atheist
Freethinker
Oalibsh»hi
tion.
185
TV. CHRISTIAN MISSION WORK. [ Punjab, 1911.
have Shabad Mela and not Beohdr Mela, i.e., they meet each other in God'a
worship and do not eat together or intermarry. But they ■worship no Devi-
Devata (goddess or god). Gulabsbahi ie, they say, not a separate religion but is a
sect of Fakirs, and the males of this sect dress as siich. Both the sexes shave
their heads, and alike lead a life of celibacy, and consequently the continuance
of the sect must depend entirely on converts. Co-habitation is strictly abjured.
The faith is obviously a curious outcome of the Hindu and Muhammadan ideas
of celibate orders and, although their customs have doubtless been borrowed from
both those religions, their faith must be classed as a distinctly separate one. As
it now stnnds, the sect is obviously disconnected with, and cannot be properly
classed under, Christianity.
Mission Work.
266. The Missionary movements have besides making numerous converts, General
done extremely useful work iu the spread of English education, the relief of dis- remarks,
tress, the bringing up of orphans, the provision of free medical aid, the treatment
of lepers and the intellectual and social regeneration of the depressed classes of
Hindus. The people of the Province have cause to be indebted to them in more
ways than one. Missionaries have been the pioneers of mental and moral education
at a time when the Province was steeped in ignorance and the noble example of
some of them has inspired the people with the craving to study their own religions
and shown them the way to research. While the Salvation Army and the
Missions are striving to impart mental and religious education to the depressed
classes. Missionary Societies such as the Young Men's Christian i^ssociation and
the Young Women's Christian Association are achieving enormoaa success in
instilling the Christian ideals into the minds of the educated youngmen and
women of the higher castes. Short accounts of the work done by the more impor-
tant Missions are given below.
Protestant Missions.
267. The Missions included in the Anglican Communion working in the Anglican
Punjab are : — the Church Missionary Society, the Church of England Zenana Mis- Communion,
sionary Society, the Episcopal Cliurch of United Brethren, commonly called Mor-
avians, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel Mission, the Cambridge
Brotherhood and the Missionary Society of the Church of England in Canada.
The C. M. S. and C. B. Z. M. S. are closely associated with each other in their
work, both societies having but one Secretary. In the Amritsar District, the
work of the Zenana Mission has not made much progress. The number of The Church
Missionaries has fallen from 18 in 1901 to 10 in 1911 ; and although the number socLlL""^
of pupils in the day schools has risen from 844 to 1,024, the numb^^r of Zenana
pupils has dropped from 060 to 159. The Industrial School pupils have also
decreased from 126 to 62. It has been found necessary on account of the
diminished statf of Missionaries and the decrease in funds to close the Converts'
Home at Amritsar and the dispensary at Majitha. A new hospital for women
was, however, opened at Amritsar during the decade. A leper asylum at Tarn
Taran, with 192 inmates, is maintained by the Mission to lepers and managed by a
Missionary of the Society. In the Lahore District, a Primary school at Clarkabad
has been raised to the Middle standard. An Industrial school for Christian boys
has been established at Lahore, with an European artisan as the teacher, the
chief industry taught being Carpentry. At Narowal in the Sialkot District, the
number of persons baptized during the decade was 1,521. In 1901, only 24
persons had been baptized, against 334 in 1910. An analysis of the figures shows
that about 50 per cent, of the total number of baptisms represent adult
conversions. The number of village schools has increased by four, but the
average number of pupils is about the same. Good progress has been made at
Batala where the C. M. S. has added 760 to their number during the decade.
The number of schools has risen from 3 to 7 and that of the scholars from
330 to 950. At Gojra in the Chenab Colony, two Christian villages were estab-
lished in the year 1898, viz., Montgomery wala, named after Colonel Montgomery,
andlsa Nagri. In 1000, the number of Christians in these villages was 536. Since
then a church has been erected at Montgomery wala and the number of schools
has been increased from one to ten. It is estimated that the number of Christiana
as now not less than ten thousand, while the number of scholars has risen from
186
Census Report. ] chbistian mission woek. Chaptks
290 to about 600. The converts are recruited mostly from the depressed classes.
They are backward in edacation, the majority being serfs to zamindars who ara
opposed to the spread of education amongst the menials, due partly to the inno-
vation to their tradition, whicL it involves, but mainly to the economic difficulty
caused by tlie withdrawal of educated menials from their usual avocations. Th&
work of the C. M. S. in the Kanf^ra District received a severe blow from the earth-
quake of 1905. In 1904 the Middle school for boys had been raised to tlie High
school standard. The earthquake demolished the entire structure, and the Mis-
sionary incharge lost his life. A Primary school has sinces been started and is the
only educational institution under the Mission. At Dharmsala, there was a
Christian girls' boarding school under the supervision of a Lady Missionary, and
also a school for Gurkha girls with an attendance of about 60. Both these schools
were destroyed, all the children in the former losing their lives. In this memo-
rable earthquake, 3 foreign Missionnries lost their lives and about 40 Christians
residing in the Mission compound were killed. In 1907, a Zenana hospital was
opened at Kangra. The work has recently been transferred to the Missionary
Society of the Church of England in Canada. Quiet work is being carried on at
Kot^arh in the Simla District, but the number of conversions is small and
only one Middle school has been opened during the decade.
The Moravian The Episcopal Church of the United Brethren, commonly called Moravian,.
*^^*°'^" carries on its operations in the Bashahr State. The number of adherents has not
increased during the decade, but a school and dispensary have been opened,
and a fair measure of success has attended the undertaking.
TheS. P. G. The operations of the S. P. G. and Cambridge Missions are mainly confined
bri/ Vi™-tothe Delhi Division, but the S. P. G. works also in Rawalpindi. The St,
sion. Stephen's College which is affiliated to the Punjab University, continues to
do goo3 work. The St. Stephen's High School has now an attendance o£
over 900 students, of whom about 50 are Christians. Elementary schools
have been established in Delhi and the neighbourhood for low caste boys. An
Industrial Boarding School has been opened at Gurgnon, where some 45
pupils, orphans or the children of very poor parents, are given a simple
education and are taught shoe-making, tailoring and carpentry. Plague
broke out amongst the boys in 1910 and the institution had to be closed.
The chief industry taught in the Girls' Industrial School is shoe-embroidery
and net-lace work. The work done in the school gained a silver medal at the
All-India Ladies' Arts Exhibition held at Nagpur in December 1910. la
the Simla District, an attempt was made to open a school for Bengali
girls, but it had to be closed after four months, as the Bengali Christian lady, wha
had lent her assistance for this work was obliged to leave the station. It has
however been re-opened this year.
Baptists. 268. The Baptists are a small community in comparison with some of the
other Christian sects, their sphere of work being confined to the Delhi, Ambala,
Guro-aon and Rohtak Districts. In the Kharar Tahsil of the Ambala District,
several Primary schools have been started. There were 172 scholars in the
Villatje schools in 1901, but this number has, within ten years, increased to
over 500. In 1902, the Kharar Anglo- Vernacular School was first recognised by
the Educational Department, and in 1909 the institution was raised to the status
of a High School. The education of girls has not been neglected either. It
was taken up seriously in 1906 and has progressed considerably since. It is
interesting to find that a Ghiihra and a Chamdr Christian belonging to the
Kharar Mission have recently appeared for the B. A. Examination. Much
conBdence appears to be reposed in the Society, as is exemplified by the progress
made in the Co-operative Bank estabhshed for the purpose of granting small
loans, at reasonable rates of interest, to the zamindars. The work during the
decade has increased to such an extent that it has necessitated the increase
of the staff from one Missionary in 1901 to six in 1911. In the Hissar District,
there is a small Medical Mission at Bhiwani. At Palwal, in the Gurgaon District,
there is a Zenana hospital and an out-door dispensary, in addition to the
Florence Toole Hospital for men. The girl school at the same station, which is
chiefly industrial, is doing remarkable work. A Zenana school and a Female
dispensary have been established at Rewari and much good work is being done.
i
IV.
187
CHRISTIAN MISSION WORK.
[ Punjab, 1911.
A school opened at Sohna has met -with considerable opposition on the part of
the Biswedars who are averse to kamins being educated.
269. The work of the Methodist Mission is in its infancy in the Punjab, Dis- Method-
strict work not having been seriously taken up until 1 902. Since then, the work has ists.
develojied considerably, necessitating the division of the Punjab into two Mission
centres, with headquarters at Lahore and Delhi. The number of converts brought
into the Methodist fold during the decade, is about 17,000, nearly all of whom were
recruited from amongst the Ghuhras. Save at Lahore, no Educational or Medical
institutions have been opened in the Punjab. At Lahore a small boarding school
.for boys has been started, and has now an average attendance of about 30. There
is also a Training school for young men and women, where promising converts are
given a training and are prepared for Mission work. The Mission hopes to have
a boarding school for girls constructed and started in the near future.
270. Three different Missionary Societies are at work in the Punjab, in con- Presby-
nection with the Presbyterian Church. These bodies are, the Church of Scotland terians.
Mission (including the Women's Association), the Presbyterian Church of the United
States of America, and the United Presbyterian Church of North America. The
work of the Church of Scotland Mission is confined to theSialkot and Gujrat Dis-
tricts and to the town of Wazirabad in the Guj ran wala District, which borders on
Gujrat. In Sialkot, no new institutions have been opened. The number of Chris-
tians has risen from 2,275 to 6,227, and the number of children attending the
Mission schools has gone up from 709 to 930. In Gujrat and Wazirabad, 822
persons, of whom 537 were children, were baptized during the decade. The
number of Christians rose from 1,000 in 1901 to 1,258 in 1911. No new institu-
tions were started during the decade. The number of school children, however,
increased from 1,225 to 1,659. Quite a number of Christians died of plague, and
several hundreds have migrated to the Canal Colonies. The women's hospital
opened at Gujrat in 1899 has gained in popularity, the total attendance, which in
1901 was 7,473, rose in 1910 to 14,590, the number of in-patients having hkewise
risen from 100 to 414, and that of operations performed from 100 to 200.
The Presbyterian Church of the United States of America carries on its
operations in the Jullundur Division and in the districts of Lahore and Arnbala.
The total Christian community numbered 14,597 in November 1910. No
record is however kept of persons (not. a few) who
call themselves Christians but who have not been
baptized. These are members of families whose
heads have adopted Christianity. The progress
made within the last ten years is illustrated by the
marginal figures. The educational institutions
have also shown considerable improvement during
the decade, as indicated by the comparative
statement given in the margin. It would appear that owing to the open-
ing of numerous other private girls' schools, the attendance at the Mission schools
for girls has fallen off in some place?. The following new schools have been
opened since 1901 : — The Hira Mandi (Lahore) School for low caste Christian
girls, with an attendance of 20, the Training School for Christians at, Moga
/attendance 20), the Jagraon Village Girls' Boarding School with an attendance
= of 50, the Khanna I3oarding School for Village
Boys (attendance 28), the Christian Girls (middle
grade) Boarding School, Ambala (attendance 25),
the School for Village Teachers and Preachers at
Ferozepore (attendance 37), the Girls' School for
non-Christians at Ferozepore (attendance 37) and
several village schools for low caste Christians.
As regards Medical institutions, the num-
ber of patients in the Philadelphia Hospital for
Women at Ambala increased from 208 in 1901 to
339 in 1910, and the number of visits increased
by 717. At the Women's Hospital, Ferozepore,
the number of in-patients rose from 21 to 314 and
the number of out-door patients from 5,384 to 12»702.
1901.
1910.
Organised Churches...
18
22
Meeting Places
34
74
Communicants
1,875
4,862
Adherents
2,939
8,736
Christian Community
4,913
14,597
Forman College
368
426
-
Attendance.
Institutions.
1901.
1910.
Forman College
.368
426
Bang Mahal H. H, S. ...
999
1,192
Jnllundur B H. S.
441
694
Ludhiana B. H. S.
335
681
„ Christian B.H.S.
134
139
Ambala B. H. S.
442
590
Hindu Girls' School
212
194
Muhammadan Girls' School
60
130
Jullundur Girls' School ...
189
153
Zenana Schools
73
78
Hoshiarpur Girls' Orphan-
age
71
60
Ludhiana Girls' Schools ...
60
90
Ambala Girls' Schools ...
155
117
188
Census Report. 1 christian mission woek. Chapteb
The Phillaur Dispensary had to be closed in consideration of the increase
in the house rents brought about by the influx of Engineers and others
for the building of the new bridge over the Sutlej. The Dennys' Hospi-
tal for Women and Children at Hoshiarpur was opened by Dr. Dora Chat-
i terjee in 1902. It has ten feeds and a dispensary. The number of in-patients
during 1910 was 146, and the number of out-patients was 9,982. The Mission
maintains two leper asylums, one at the Ambala town, where there are 65 inmates,
and the other at Sabathu with 70 inmates. It also publishes a weekly newspaper
in Urdu with a circulation of 500 copies. The Ludhiana Christian Book Store
publishes books and tracts in Urdu, Panjabi and Enghsh for Missionary use.
During 1910, no less than 60,000 booklets and tracts were published.
During the last decade, the Presbyterians connected with the American
Presbyterian Church and those connected with the Church of Scotland Missions
joined in a movement to establish a Presbyterian Church in India. The union was
consummated in 1902. The Presbyterian Church in India is the result of a union
of the American Presbyterian Church, Canadian Presbyterian Church, Cnited Free
Church of Scotland, the Church of Scotland, the Irish Presbyterian Church, the
EngHsh Presbyterian Church and the Gopal Jang Independent Presbyterian Church,
Calcutta. The union is organised under a Constitution and Canons, and comprises
14 Presbyteries, 5 Synods, and a General Assembly which meets once in two years.
The United Presbyterian Churcli of North America carries on its Missionary
propaganda in the Gurdaspur, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Rawalpmdi, Jhelnra and Lyall-
pur Districts. In Gurdaspur, the number of Chi'istians under the Mission has
increased from 858 in 1901 to 3,957 in 1911. At the beginning of the decade,
Christians were to be found in 34 villages only, while they have now spread to as
many as 121. The number of adult baptisms during the decade was 1,973 and
1,847 infants were baptized with them. Two new Institutions, the Avaion
Girls' High School and a Girls' Primary School were established during the decade
at Pathankot; otherwise the number of schools in the Gurdaspur District has remained
stationary. But the number of scholars attending school has risen from 348 to
622. Altogether 4,3.58 pupils are enrolled in the various Mission schools in
the district. At Lyallpor, the number of converts made by the Mission, during
the decade, was a Uttle over 1,000. Pjight to ten Primary schools were started in
the district for poor Christians, the strength of the inmates in March 1911
being 200. The Christian community rose from 2,487 in 1901 to 5,332 in 1911.
The strength of Christians in Rawalpindi rose from 173 to 237. The total
number of adult and infant baptisms during the decade was 104 and 98, respect-
ively. No change occurred in the number of Educational institutions. There
was a slight increase in the number of students attending the Gordon Mission
('OUege, but there was at the same time a falling off in school attendance. In
Sialkot, the number of Missionaries has increased from 15 to 25, but there has
been a diminution in the ranks of the local preachers from 88 to 74. The total
number of Christians has risen from 6,301 to 18,185, the number of baptisms
being 7,404 adults and 6,102 infants. The number of schools has increased from
46 to 79, and the number on the rolls has gone up from 1,910 to 3,711.
Salvation 271. The remarkable body of (Christian workers known as the Salvation
Army. Army has devoted much attention to the depressed classes and the criminal tribes
of the Punjab. The head-quarters of the Mission are at Lahore, where two indi-
genous schools have been established, one for boys and another for girls. The
schools contain 69 boys and 48 girls, of whom 14 boys and 26 girls are orphans. A
settlement was started in May 1910, at Sialkot. A weaving factory has been
established, where both men and boys of tlie Pakhiwara criminal tribe are taught
the art of weaving on tbe Salvation Army handlooms. A small school has also
been started and has « daily average attendance of about 30 scholars. A landed
estate and a fruit farm have been acquired in the Kulu valley, the income from
which is devoted to the establishment of a self-supporting institution. Weaving
and needlework: are also being taught there. The Central Weaving School for the
Punjab has been established at Ludhiana. Weaver boys come to this school from
all parts of India and even from British East Africa. The Salvation Army is also
engaged in fostering and encouraging the silk industry, including the rearing of
the silkworm, and the provision of those agricultural products on which the
189
IV. CHRISTIAN MI8310N woBK. [ Punjab. 1911-
silkworm subsists. A temporary silkworm rearing camp has been located in
the Clihaaga Manga forest. Efforts are being made to introduce cheap forms of
food and fodder, and every endeavour is being made to push on the cultivation of
Gtssava which is considered to be a great famine fighter and the flour made from
the roots of which can be sold at the rate of about 40 sers to the rupee. They
are al.^o trying to introduce the celebrated thornless cactus which furnishes
excellent fodder for cattle in the dry seasons of the year. It has been estimated
that as much as 100 tons of this fodder can be grown in a single acre of land.
Attention is also being paid to tree-planting and quinine distribution, as well as
to encouraging the people to get themselves inoculated as a precaution against
plague. The efforts of the Salvation Army have met with considerable success
throughout the Province and their numbers have increased almost tenfold in the
last decade. Their work amongst the criminal tribes with a view to their
reformation has only just commenced and will be watched with much interest.
They have recently struck an entirely new line in the reclamation of criminals.
A settlement has been established near the Centrjil Jail of Lahore and they have
arrived at an arrangement with the Local Government to obtain under the pro-
vision of Section 401, Criminal Procedure Code, the release of the more promising
prisoners, from the District Jail, managed on the Borstal system, who have
served out the greater part of their term of imprisonment, to enable them to
keep such prisoners under their charge for the unexpired term and thereafter, if
possible, with » view to reform their character. It is hoped that they will be as
successful in this undertaking as they have been in dealing with the criminal
'tribes. The fact that the sect endeavours to combine the economic and industrial
interests of the country, with the social reclamation of its proselytes, is the chief
feature that appeals readily to the depressed and criminal classes, to which their
endeavours are mainly directed. The rescue of the latter is of incalculable value
to the State and solves a by-no-means negligible problem in the administration of
the country.*
Other Missionary Institutions.
272. There are only two Young Men's Christian Associations in the Punjab, The Young
one in Lahore and the other at Simla. The Simla Association was started on a small Men's
scale in the year 1 877. Since then it has progressed steadily and is now in posses- Christian
sion of its own building, purchased at a cost of Rs. 59,000 in 1905, which jiccom- Associa-
modates 20 resident members. The building also contains a reading-room liberally tion.
supplied with papers and magazines, and a billiard room. The Association caters
principally for European and Anglo-Indian men employed in Government offices
and in trade. Lectures, debates and a language class constitute the educational
work carried on, at present, by the institution. The Lahore Association
is concerned principally with the Indian community. In 1901, it had a small
building, but now possesses a handsome double-storied structure erected at a cost
of between Rs. 55,000 and Rs. 60,000. At the commencement of the decade,
the staff consisted of one secretary and a clerk, and at its close, provision
has had to be made for three secretaries and 2 assistant secretaries. A Students'
Union Hostel has been opened and furnishes accommodation for 60 members. Two
branch associations were also opened during the decade. Besides the conducting
of religious and social meetings, the Association has taken over the conduct of
evening continujition classes (under Government grant) which have an average
attendance of 90. The influence exerted by this Society on students and other
young men, belonging to non-Christian religions, is considerable.
273. Like the Young Men's Christian Association, the young women have The Yoong
associations, established at Simla and Lahore. Both associations cater Women's
chiefly for European and Anglo-Indian girls. The Simla association was enabled, Christian
during the decade, to purchase its own house, which provides residential Association-,
accommodation for 20 girls. The membership numbers about 100. The Lahore
Association has increased its membership from 140 in 1901 to 270 in 1910. It is
housed in a budding taken on lease and provides accommodation for a few girls,
but funds have hjen coUeoted aud a spacious building of its own, is under con-
struction. Continuation classes for girls are conducted by the Association, and
* Whil« this Ch.ipter i? pa^8iii(» through the Press, oomes the ineUaoholy ne«rs of th« death of General
Booth, the father of this world-wide luoTenient,
Census Report ]
190
CHEIBTliN MISSION WORK.
Chapter
girls are taught type-writing, needlework, painting and cooking. The classes have
proved most popular, and several girls have managed to secure posts as typists, in
various ofEces, through the managing body. Just towards the close of the decade,
a branch of the Associatio:i was started on a small scale at Amritsar. It has no
paid secretHTv. The members have formed a work class and are able to support
a child in the Kalirapong Borne, and to provide a bed in the local hospital.
The Indian 274. The association known as the Sunday School Union has its headquar-
Snnday ters for the Punjab at JuUundur. It has made considerable progress during; the
School decade. The number of schools has increased from 2d'i in 1901 to 547 in 1910,
Union. while that of teachers and scholars has risen from 359 and 9,213 to 462 and 20,249,
respectively. The work of the Society lies purely amongst the children of
Christian parents, and consequently it has no conversions to report.
The North 275. The North India School of Medicine for ('hristian Women has it8
IndiaSchool headquarters at Lndhiana, where there are two hospitals and four dispensaries
of Medicine established under its auspices. During the decade, it has been found necessary
for Chris- to increase the staff from 8 to 15, the number of in-patients having risen
tian Women, from 658 to 1,296, and that of out-patients from 16,842 to 65,385. The
hospitals and dispensaries are open to men and women without distinction of
religion. Five of the patients were converted and baptized during the decade.
One of them, a male, has since bathed in the Ganges and abandoned Christianity
in order to be able to reside with his family.
The Chris- 276. The Christian Literature Society for India was organised as far back as
tianLitera- 1858, under the name of the ' Christian Vernacular Education Society for India.'
ture Society It was established as " A Memorial of the Mutiny." The object was educational^
for India and at first Normal Schools were opened for the purpose of training teachers.
Later on, it was decided to confine its attention to the preparation and publi-
cation of hterature in both English and the various vernaculars of India, the
name of the Society being changed accordingly. In 1898, a Punjab branch of the
Society was formed with its headquarters at Ijudhiana. During the decade, this
branch has issued 155,000 copies of 73 publications in Urdu and Panjabi. These
cover a variety of subjects, aiming at moral, social, agricultural and sanitary
refoi'm. Text books, nursing lessons, history of plague, stories for young people,
home dutie?, Hindu sects, Vedic Literature, etc., are also dealt with in its
publications.
The Punjab 277. The Punjab Religious Book Society undertakes the publication of
Religions secular as well as religious works. The religious works published during the decade
Book Socie- were 107 books, 101 pamphlets, and 189 tracts. During the decade, the society
ty- began the publication of a number of scientific, historical and descriptive works in
Urdu, as well as translations of first class English novels such as Ivanhoe and the
Talisman and moral handbooks such as Dr. S. Stall's Self and Sex Series. It issued
53 Urdu secular books and 3 pamphlets. The Society was awarded a gold
medal for its Vernacular publications at the Lahore Exhibition, 1909-10.
Throughout the greater part of the decade, the association maintained a monthly
magazine caWed " Taraqgi" containing articles of general information, some-
what on the lines of Chamber's Miscellany. The expenses of I he magazine,
however, proved too great for its continuance by the Society, and it is now
being continued by two Indian clergymen with the assistance of honorary
workers.
The British 278.
J P ■ Scriptures published bv the Society in langu
*"'''°'^"Sn ages spoken in the Punjab, Sindh, Kashmir,
Bible Socie- Baluchistan, etc., excluding English
ty. _==
The work of theBritish and Foreign BibleSociety hasexpanded in a very
i,.jk„.i,_c..,:-._:-i Issued from the Lahore Depot of Scriptures remarkable de-
in all languages.
Publications.
Bibles ...
Testaments
Portions...
1891—1900.
7,000
25,275
607,700
1901—1910.
ifi.roo
41.000
1,028,000
Publications.
1891-1900.
1901—1910.
gree, during
the past de-
cade, as will
appear from
the statement
given in the
margin. The
increase i n
Scriptural
publications corresponds with the increase in the numerical strength of Christians
in the Province.
Bibles ...
Testaments
Portions
17,895
34,623
508,203
24.448
43.667
989,560
191
IV. CONVERSIONS. [ Punjab. 1911..
279. A new association called the National Missionary Society of India was "^^^ Na-
founded in 1905, by a number of Indian Christians, who met at Seram- ^^oi^al li^is-
pur in December of that year. It has for its object the opening of "oJi^iT So-
work in various districts in India, where the existing Missions have not started "^ty °f
operations. It is worlved and financed entirely by Indians. The headquarters^"*^'*
of the Society are in Madras and Raja Sir Harnam Singh of Jullundur is the Presi-
dent. The work in the Punjab is at present limited to thw three tahsils of the
Montgomery Disti'ict. The Mission has two chief workers in those parts, viz.,
the Reverend James Wdliams, B. A., and Dr. Dina Nath. 'I'he former is sta-
tioned at Montgomery and the latter at Okara. Three schools have been started
on fi very small scale by the Society, and a dispensary has been opened at Okara.
Roman Catholic Mission.
280. The chief centres of Romati Catholic Mission work are Lahore, Sialkot, -Roman
Gujranwala, Lyallpur and Rawalpindi, wheie the efforts of the Catholic Missionaries ^^t'^^'lics.
have met with a large measure of success. The sphere of Mission work lies chiefly
amongst the depressed classes, from whom the majority of converts are made.
The Roman Catholic Missionarv propaganda was first started in the Pun-
jab in the year 1889 in the District of Sialkot. "With the opening of the
Chenab Colony in 1892, Mission work was vigorously extended throughout
those irrigated tracts, and has achieved "considerable success amongst the
depressed classes. Sevex'al Indian Christian villages have sprung np under the
directing hand of the Revd. Fathers who are untiring in tlieir efforts to raise
the condition and status of their converts, by encouraging them to adopt agricul-
ture as their principal means of livelihood.
Roman Catholic Missionaries admit isolated cases of converts, in places
remote from Mission activity, adhering to their old ceremonies at births, marri-
ages and deaths, but they deny that such is the case where converts are within the
reach of Christian influHnces, as the substitution of the Catholic religious cere-
monies and ritnal in their beautiful churches, captivates the fancy and satisfies
the mind of the average Indian convert. There are 103 families of Indian
Christians who are cultivating Mission land as tenants of the Mission, and 143
families who have settled down as Government tenants. Educational institu-
tions have been established in different districts by the Roman Catholics. There
is a school for boys and another for girls at Lahore. The number of pupils in
them ha'^ increased during tise past 10 years from 94 and 108 to 98 and 136,
respectively. There are Convent Schools for girls at Dalhousie, Multan, Sialkot
and Ambala and each has secured a substantial rise in the number of pupils during
the decade. At Simla there is a plurality of schools. I'here are three large schools
for girls all teaching up to the High Standard, and one for boys which has a very
small attendance of 15 only. Apart from the schools, there is the St. Bede's
Training College for Teachers, which was opened in 1903 and now has 30 young
ladies in training. This collepjo is recognised as the premier institution of its
kind for girls in the Punjab. For Indians, there are two orphan institutions, one
for boys and one for girls, both at Lahore. The children are taught up to the
Primary Standard, and the girls are given instruction in cookery, plain and
fancy needle work, dress-making and embroidery. In 1907, a school for high
caste Indian children was opened. It teaches up to the Entrance Standard
of the Punjab University, and has an attendance of 85. There are, in addition
to these, several Primary schools located in the villa<^es and these are attended
by the children of the Indian Christians of those parts.
Conversions.
281. The work of conversion to Christianity is now limited mainly to the Conversions
depressed classes. The spread of English education and the facilities of travel to
Europe have resulted in the disappearance of scruples, and a wholesale modification
of restrictions among both Hindus and Muhammadans, which in thH past, were a
strong stimulus for the adoption of Christianity as a freer religion, enjoining
practically no social limitations. The Muhammadans have on the one hand
devoted close attention to strengthening their religious side, while on the other the
reformers amongst the Hindus have provided moat of the facilities for which people
sought baptism. Even those Hindus who do not profess one t)f the reformed per-
suasions are, with a few exceptions, not so particular about caste restrictions. A
large number of them almost totally disregard the rules of interdining and are not
Census Keport ]
192
OTHBB BELIOIONS.
Cbaptkb
much opposed to intermarriage. The advanced sections of the middle and
upper classes find it more convenient to adhere* to their own society in its present
flexible state. It is no wonder, then, that from a social point of view, very few,
except from the lowwr classes, are induced to seek conversion. The number of
cases in which conversions are based ou an intelligent recognit-on of thp psycholo-
gical superiority of a religion is never large, and converts to Christianity are not
always free from the weaknesse? of human nature. The depressed classes are
in a condition of peculiar social and rehgious disadvantage and gain most by the
equality of treatment preached and secured by the Missions. Their status is raised.
An untouchable becomes touchable by adopting ('hnstianity, and has the satis-
faction and advantage of receiving spiritual instructions from highly educated
and sympathetic clergymen exactly in the Same familiar way as his fellow-
beings of the highest position. He can receive education and follow better
pursuits than his degraded hereditary calling. The Chuhras and other untouch-
ables usually adopt Christianity in large bodies, whc)le villages sometimes being
baptized simultaneous^ ly. These cases are however rare. The ordinary conver-
sions go on in small numbers, except in the case of orphans who, when picked
up in large batches during a famine or other disaster, are brought up in orphan-
ages and baptized as a matter of course.
The conversions effected by the Presbyterian Missions are of enormous
magnitude, securing an increase of about 27,000 persons. The Anglican
Communion and the Roman Catholics have also attained marked success, though
in a much smaller degree.
OTHER RELIGIONS.
Buddhist. ^82. The other religions, viz., Buddhist, Zoroastrian and Jew do not require
separate discussion. The figures of
1911 are compared in the margin
with those of 1901. The increase
of 11 percent, amongst the Bud-
dhists is due mainly to immigra-
tion, as is clear from the opposite
tendency of the variation in
similarly circumstanced places.
The districts and states show-
ing large numbers of Buddhists
are noted in the margin. The
decrease in Kangra may be due
in some degree to the losses
during the earthquake of 1 905.
283. The Zoroastrians are a trading class and are found chiefly in large
towns or cantonments. The districts and states named
in the margin have registered a population of more
than 10 each. The increase in their numbers has
been general, and although the (Parsi) community
has been strengthened by immigration, yet their
natural growth has been unretarded, and they have
had a fairly clean bill of health.
284. The local distribution of Jews is indicated in the margin. There are
very few domiciled Jews. A few British soldiers are Jews
and the religion also includes a few Europeans in Government
service. It is possible that some Jews may have been treated
as Christians, at slip copying, by over zealous supervisors.
One case came to my notice, in which an Englishman returned him-
self a? a Jew at Jhang, but the corresponding entiy made in the
plip by the copyist was considered preposterous by the supei-vising officer, who
could not conceive an English officer being a Jew and corrected it to Christian
(religion), Church of England (sect). The mistake was discovered too late for
correction of the religion table.
1901.
1911.
Difference
per cent.
Buddhists
Zoroastrians ...
Jews ..
6,940
177
36
7.690
653
54
+11
+37
+50
District.
Populatic
1911.
)n
Variation
against
1901.
Kangra ...
Lahore
Banhahr ... ...
Mnndi
Vhatnbi
3,992
128
2. 088
164
627
-184
+128
+ 465
-346
+605
Zoroastri-
an.
Jew.
Delhi
Ambala
Simla
Jullundur .
Ferozepore
Lahore
District
Hissar
Delhi
Simla
Lahore
Rawalpindi .
Jhelum
Multan
74
34
16
18
18
209
Amritsar ..
Giirdaspur
Sialkot ..
Rawalpindi
Attock
Multan
Patiala
48
22
17
64
11
58
22
(
8
7
3
13
16
1
6
IV.
193
SOBSIDURY TABLES.
[ Punjab, 1911
SUBSIDIARY TABLE I.
General distribution of the population by religion-
Proportion
per 10,000 Variation per cent, (inoreaso -f~
Percentage
of net
variation.
RicTiniftv aNd tocaiity
Actual No.
of popu
ation in decreaae — ).
XvHiululUA e i^ IJ Liv'V'ALiilX*
in 1911.
1911.
1901.
1891.
1881.
1901 —
1911.
1891—
1901.
1881—
1891.
1881 —
1911.
10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
MUHAMMADaN
12,275477
5,075
4,922
4,739
4.758
+ -8
-1- 12-5
+ 97
+ 24-3
lodo-GaDgetic Plain Weat
+,U1,!)71
1.714
1,810
1,804
1,808
- 7-5
+ 8-7
-1- 9-9
4- 10-5
Himalayan
7i,2u5
31
31
32
34
- 30
-f 4-9
-f- 3-3
4- 5-0
Sub-Himalayan ...
3,551,989
' 1,468
1,512
1,652
1,692
51
— -9
-f- 7-5
4- 1-2
North- West Dry Area
4,504,312
1,862
1,569
1,251
1,224
+ 16-0
+ 35-9
-f 126
4- 77-4
HINDU
8,773,621
3.628
4,179
4408
4384
- 15-2!
-1- 2-7
+ 10'7
3-5
Indo-Gangetic Plain West ...
4,79U,lia4
1,981
2,354
2,479
2,398
- 178
-1- 2-9
+ 138
37
Himalayan
1,630,084
674
646
682
703
-f 2-0
-f. 2-6
+ G-8
4- 11-8
Sub-Himalayan ...
1,588,097
657
825
988
1,041
- 22-2
— 9*5
+ 4-5
26-5
North -Weat Dry Area
764,Slt)
316
354
259
242
- 12s
-f- 48-1
+ 18-L'
4- 526
SIKH
2,883,729
1,192
849
809
822
+ 37-1
+ 137
+ 8-4
4- 69'0
Indo-Gangetio Plain Weat
1,993,750
824
648
624
670
-f- 24-2
-f 12-6
+ 2-5
4- 43'3
Himalayan
7,894
3
1
2
1
-f 102-6
- 6-5
-f- 55-5
4- 194-6
Sub-Himalayan ...
565,596
234
142
161
137
-f 61-3
— 5-0
4- 29-7
4- 98-7
North-Weat Dry Area
316,489
131
58
2-i
14
+ 121-4
-h 185-7
4. 7S-ti
4- 1,029-5
CHRISTIAN
199.75]
83
27
21
14
-f 2000
-f 37-4
+ 72'8
4- 6120
Indo-Gangetic Plain West
58,462
24
9
7
6
+ 164-5
-f 40-0
4- 34-6
+ 398-4
Himalayan
4,400
2
1
1
2
-t- 28-8
— 4-4
— 7-0
4- 14-6
Sub-Himalayan
92,524
38
12
12
5
4- 209-2
4- 11-4
-f 159-3
4- 7928
North-WcHt Dry Area
44,365
19
5
1
1
-f 298-1
-f 395-5
4- 6-0
4- 1,990-7
JAIN
46.775
19
20
20
20
- 6-4
-f- 9-7
+ 71
4- 9-9
Indo Gangntic Plain West --.
39,U1
16
17
17
18
- 6-6
+ 9-8
4- 4-5
4- 7-2
Himalayan
35S
...
...
...
- 25-9
-f- 24-5
- 27-6
- 33-2
Sub-Himalayan ...
6,695
3
3
3
2
- 8-0
4- 3-7
4- 34-1
4- 28-0
North-WoBt Dry Area
611
...
...
...
+ 77-1
-f- 721-4
— 87-1
4- 87-4
BUDDHIST
7,690
3
3
3
2
+ 108
+ 113
+ 91-8
4- 136'6
Indo-Gangetic Plain West
132
...
...
...
+4,-300-0
#
- 100-0
4-13,100-0
Himalayan
7,518
3
3
3
2
+ 8-5
+ 111
-f 91-9
4- 131-3
Sab-Himalayan ...
11
..•
...
...
-f- 83-3
*
...
*
North-West Dry Area
29
...
...
...
•
...
*
ZOROASTBIAN ...
653
...
-f 36-9
-f- 310
- 11-9
+ 581
Indo-Gangetic Plain Weet
412
...
...
...
+ 37-8
-f. 14-6
+ 876
4- 196-4
Himalayan
18
...
...
-f- 157-1
— 46-2
4- 225-(
4- 350-C
Sub-Himalayan ...
152
...
+ 29-9
-f- 53-9
- 63-t
24-0
Norlh-Weet Dry Area
71
...
...
-t- 31-5
-f 285-7
- 8U-(
4- 1-4
JEW
51
...
...
-f 50U
- a6'8
...
- 6-3
Indo-Gangetic Plain West
28
...
...
...
- 9-7
- 22-5
~ 18--J
- 42-9
Himalayan
3
•
- 1000
•
*
Sub-Hinittlayan
17
...
...
...
-f 240-0
- 54-5
4-i,ooo-(
4- 1,600-0
North-West Dry Area
6
...
•
- 100-0
- K5-7
14-3
* '1 here beii.g no untriua in the eailiur ilucmlf, no Coiiiparisun is (m.^siLl,-.
Census Eeport]
194
6CB91 DIARY TABLE3.
Ch4PTEE
SUBSIDIARY TABLE II.
Distribution by Districts of the main religions.
District or Statk and
Natcral Uivibion.
NDMBKB per 10,000 OF TUB POPULATION V-IIO ABK:
■TOTAL PROVINCE
1.
Indo Gangetic
Wbst —
Plain
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S.
9.
10.
11
12
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Hissar
Loharu State
Kohtak
Vujana State
fiurgaon
P'ltaudi State
Delhi
Karnal
Jollnndur
Kapurthala State ■
Ladhiana
ilaler Kotla State .
Ferozepore
Faridkot State
Patiala State
Jind Slate
Nabha State
Lahore .
Atnritsar
Gujranwala
HlHALATAN —
21.
22
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
Nahan State
Simla
Simla Bill States
Kaogra
Mandi State
Sulcet State
Chamba State
3. Sob-Himalayan—
28.
AmbHla
29.
Kaltia State
30.
Hoihiarpur
31.
Uurdaspur
32.
Sialkot
33-
Gajrat
34.
Jhetum
35.
Rawalpindi
36.
AUocli*
Hindu.
2
3,627
4,344
6,730
S,699
8,320
7,911
G,559
N,245
7,140
6,954
3,309
2,291
2,540
3,219
2,853
2,869
4,006
7,737
5,079
2,100
2,404
1,907
3
4,179
4,864
6,9G9
8,703
8,463
7,60:i
6,692
8,335
7,409
7,060
4,1111
2,979
3,997
4,956
2,913
2,864
5,514
7,516
5,3^9
2,378
2,744
2,241
4. North-Wkst Det Abka-
37.
88.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43-
44.
45.
Montgomery
ShahpuT
Mianwalif
Lyallpurt
Jhang
Multan
Bahaualpur State ..
MuZHffargarh
Dera Ghazi Khan..
9.453
9,405
7,387
9,570
9,413
9,835
9,880
9,293
2,736
5,516
5,480
5,428
3,394
2,474
663
670
884
380
1.358
1,24«
1,058
1,064
1,803
1,424
1,554
1.403
1,197
1,072
4
4408
5.028
7,073
9,000
8,467
7,747
6,803
8,328
7,501
7.310
4,19
2,98
4,286
5,277
2,844
2.875
5,953
8,112
5.832
2,527
2,787
2,409
4.384
4,894
6,798
8,88^
8,470
7,731
6,844
8,109
7,511
7,286
4,284
3,282
4,448
2,277
2,592
2.830
5,0C8
8,430
5,102
2,092
2^939
2,064
9460 9470 9471
9,469
7,509
9,603
9.407
9,785
9,877
9,335
3,309
9,531
7,580
9,680
9,378
9,836
9^907
9,343
Sikh.
6
1,192
1.808
478
3
45
169
2,198
2,024
4.003
2,954
2,735
4,252
3,781
830
3,062
1,631
2,883
1,167
46
9,578
7,551
9,645
9,409
9,837
9,805
9,361
3,506 3,617
6,252
5,750
6,090
4,0*!i
2,786
924
872
927
1,784
2.372
1,3%
1,18^
2,658
2.103
1,879
1,591
1,287
1,170
6,104
5,843
6,040
4,201
3.315
951
834
939
8,432
1,338
2,024
1,943
1,385
1,32m
1.291
6,462
6,14P
6,104
4,3S2
2,95
1,0b 1
1,03.J
1,050
1,632
1,969
1,400
1,642
2,02!
1,592
1,279
1,285
155
176
72
25
1
13
10
974
1.369
1,120
1,461
1,447
835
599
47«
581
618
562
1,274
7
849
1.340
366
'" 1
2
1
" 4
139
1,371
1,339
2.450
1.354
2,383
4,221
2,227
1,063
2,630
1,374
2,582
682
28
51
135
34
16
2
1
8
809
9
822
1,266 1,368
2S5
6
118
1,221
1,318
2,183
1,007
2,553
5 000
1^802
528
2,230
1,414
2,634
65
712
960
719
976
470
332
254
346
25
71
116
31
19
5
574
906
1,069
699
909
445
250
249
310
415
"3
15
129
1,144
1,049
2,05b
4,072
2,59b
4,142
2,781
173
2,967
1,359
2,422
Jain,
35 35
72
10
81
45
42
115
53
11
8
36
178
15
31
23
45
10
11
16
58b 10
17
487
243|
143
62
,71(1
1,112
377
93
244
66
213
111
111
80
20
21
291, 143
I
412 321
198
90
45
205
71
35
42
47
34
10
3
9
6
477
641
875
663
879
397
129
190
217
7
8
81
52
47
112
54
11
33
175
11
33
18
45
16
9
14
12
12
20
34
73
81
'55
63
119
59
8
6
31
168
16
35
20
6
14
8
7
10
12
12
.32 32
' 27
91 1
280
111
88
38
29
82
37
55
8
90
59
45
114
7b
9
8
3b
186
12
36
20
26
14
10
H
9
iiuhammadan.
14
15
5,075 4.922
3,759 3,742
2,716
1,291
1,590
2,089
3,378
1,708
2,612
2,812,
4,452
5,673
3,404
3,647
4,362
2.848
2,184
1,381
1,849
6,044
4,842
6,740
430
11
434
1,480
281
604
155
107
644
6,119
2.974
3,366
3,068
4,878
6,174
8.729
8,840
8,362
9,088
2,584
1,289
1,454
2.395
3,250
1,618
2,428
2,733
4.588
5,673
3,605
3,513
4,672
2,882
2,238
1,373
1,9G5
6,174
4 639
7,028
453
16
17
4,739 4,758
3,658
2,565
1,000
1,448
2,253
3,138
1,6C9
2,345
2,511
4,556
5,691
3,494
3 546
4,567
2,988
2,223
1,353
1,924
5,999
4 556
6,890
443
473
1,654
296
516
183
122
652
6,062
2,950
3,263
3,162
4,928
6,6)5
8,738
8,867
8,632
3,690
2,730
1.103
1,436
2,269
3,094
1,841
2,828
2,508
4,542
5,660
3,457
3,465
4,774
2,992
2,190
1,371
1,916
6,48'
4,626
7,337
Chrittian.
210
54
176
459
395 37
1,602 1,615
283
520
158
92
608
5,867
2,911
3.057
3,249
4,863
6,120
8.797
8,910
8,661
309
536
159
132
592
8,000 7,901 8.159
7,467
8,330
8,787
6,113
8,195
8,167
4| 8,381
8,691
8,906
7,215
8,449
8,754
6,120
7,803
8,025
8,297
8,632
8,803
7,245
8,462
7,885
7,981
8,410,
2,850
2,944
3,219
4,75
6,617
8,816
8,76^
8,667
8.268 79
7,749|
8.48
8.271
7,897
8,3
8,600! 8,638
8,67l| 8,676
26 20
3
932
6
5
3
693
3
159
108
6
32
52'ii79
496
8
9
162
14
11
125
5
373
4
30
3
1
1
48
53
"s
4'
110
6
5
82
23
1
2
1
no
1
28
21
14
14 12
22
1
4
31
21
26
1
50
10
3
23
2
689 7t.l
42
50
1
25
104
1
4
80
1
30
1
ll 1
31 3
17
35
15
47
84
» figares of 1901, 1891 and 1881 arc incladed in Jhelam and Rawalpindi Districts,
t Figures of 1881 and 1891 are not ayailable.
IV.
195
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
[ Pruijab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE III.
Christians. Number and variations.
Actual number of Christians in
Variation per
cent.
DisTBicT OB State and Natdeal
Division.
1911.
1901.
1891.
18M.
1901—
1891—
1881—
1881—
1911.
1901.
1891.
1911.
1
2
3
i
5
6
7
8
9
TOTAL PROVINCE
199.751
66,591
48,472
28,054
+
2000
+
374
4-
72-8
+ 612-0
1. I.vdo-Ganoetic Plain West — ...
58,462
22,103
15,785
11,729
+
1645
4-
400
4-
346
4- 398-4
1. Hiasar
273
253
242
72
+
7-9
+
4-5
4-
2361
+ 279-2
2. Loharu State
• •■
• ••
...
...
...
...
3. Rohtak
334
80
55
34
+
3175
+
'"45-5
4-
61-8
4- 882-4
4. Dujana State
...
• •.
• >•
...
5. Gurgaon
"'782
"278
152
'" 70
+
i'81-3
+
82-9
4-
117-1
4- 1,017-1
6. Pataudi State
9
• ..
...
7
...
...
1000
+ 28-6
7. Delhi
5,693
3,158
1,858
2,017
+
80-3
+
"70-0
—
7-9
4- 182-3
8. Karri al
920
1,179
12U
85
—
220
+
882-5
4-
41-2
+ 982-4
9. Jallundiir
2,404
1,713
1,645
1,631
+
40-3
+
4-1
4-
-9
4- 47-4
10. Kapurihala State
107
39
8
35
-f
174-4
+
387-5
77-1
+ 205-7
11. Ladliiana
888
947
372
322
—
6-2
+
154-6
4-
15-5
+ 175-8
12. Maler Kotla State
14
12
15
3
4-
16-7
20-0
4-
400-0
+ 366-7
13. Ferozepore
3,342
1,908
1,738
1,686
+
75-2
+
9-8
4-
31
4- 98-2
14. Faridkot State
6
11
13
...
45-5
15-4
• ••
15. Patiala State
739
316
105
39
+
13:<-9
+
201-0
4-
169-2
+ 1,794-9
16. Jind State
187
80
7
3
4-
133-8
+
1,042-9
4-
133-3
4- 6,133-3
17. Nabha State
5
7
10
18
28-6
30-0
44-4
- 72-3
18. Lahore
21,781
7,296
5,483
4,644
-f
198-5
+
331
4-
18-1
+ 3690
19 Amritsar
4,763
2,078
1,609
869
+■
129-2
+
291
4-
8b-2
4- 448-1
20. Gajranwala
16,215
2,748
2,353
194
+
490-1
+
16-8
4-
1,112-9
4- 8,2oS-3
2. HllULAYAN—
4.400
3,415
3,571
3,840
+
28-8
—
4-4
—
70
4- 14-6
21. Nahan State
37
46
25
21
_
19-6
■f
84-0
4-
190
4- 76-2
22. Simla
3,666
2,798
3,078
3,353
+
31-0
9-1
8-2
— 9-3
23. Simla Bill States
224
113
45
47
4-
98-2
+
1511
.
4-3
4- 376-6
24. Kangra
386
385
343
327
4-
•3
+
12-2
4-
4-9
+ 18-0
25. Uandi State
4
3
12
12
+
33-3
75-0
...
— 66-7
26. Suket State
2
• *.
3
...
1000
27. Chamba State
81
70
65
80
+
"l5-7
+
7-7
-
18-8
4- "' 1-2
3. SCB-HlMALAYAN —
92,524
29,930
26,867
10363
+
2091
+
114
4-
159-3
4- 792-8
28. Ambala
7,483
4,362
5,204
3,773
1
T*
71-5
16-2
+
37-9
4- 98-3
29. Kalsia State
31
...
3
1
—
100-0
4-
200-0
4- 3,000-0
30. Hoshiarpnr
2,878
813
120
98
+
266-3
4-
577-5
4-
22-4
4- 2,938-8
31. Gnrdaspar
23,365
4,471
2,400
463
+
422-6
4-
86-3
4-
418-4
4- 4,946-4
32. Sialkot
48,620
11,939
11,668
1,535
+
307-2
4-
2-3
4-
660-1
4- 3,067-4
33. Gojrat
570
460
114
255
+
23-9
4-
303-5
55-3
+ 123-5
34. .7hBlnin
450
271
253
416
f
66-1
+
7-1
39-2
4- 8-2
35. Hawalpindi
8,320
7,614
7,105
3,822
f
9-3
+
7-2
4-
85-9
+ 117-7
36. AUcck»
707
...
...
...
4. NoM H- West Dry Area—
44.365
11,143
2,249
2,122
+
2981
+
3955
4-
60
4- 1990-7
37. Montgomery
581
66
85
93
4-
780-3
22-4
8-6
4- 524-7
38. Shahpnr
8,616
91
80
29
+
9,368-t
4-
13-8
4-
175-9
4-ii9,610-3
39. Mianwalif
168
44
• ..
...
+
281-8
...
40. Lyallpart
32,023
8,672
■ •■
m»
+
269-3
41. Jhang
201
38
37
11
+
428-9
4-
"'2-7
4-
'236-4
4- l"727-3
42. Multan
2,441
1,964
1,892
1,861
+
24-3
+
3-8
4-
1-7
4- 31-2
43. Bahavalpur State
199
83
11
13
+
139-8
+
654-5
15-4
+ 1,430-8
44. Muzatfargarh
60
33
27
33
4-
81-8
4-
22-2 —
18-2
+ 81-8
45. Dera Ghazi Khan
76
153
117
82
500 +
29-9 -f
42-7
7-3
• Fignrea of 1881. 1R91 nnd 1901 are included in Jhelum and Rawalpindi Diatricta,
+ Figures at 1881 ami 1891 aro not available.
Census Report]
196
S0BSIDIABY TABLES.
Chapter IV.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV.
Races and Sects of Christians (Actual numbers)-
Sect.
TOTAL
Anglican Comicunioa
Armenian
Baptist
CongregationaliBt
Greek
Lutheran
Methodist
Minor Protestant Denominations
Presbyterians
Protestant (onseotarian)
Quaker
Koman Catholic
SalvationiBt
Syrian CJacobite)
Sect not returned
Indefinite beliefs
KCBOPBAN.
21,106
7«72
lt),h23
5,426
122
64
15
10
17
1
23
11
908
129
17
6
1.621
519
31
33
4V7O6
I'.'eo*
33
32
1
...
47
22
35
10
Anglo-Indian.
1-803
1,135
"l3
42
""96
4
"503
1
'" 8
1
1,676
992
""24
48
'"64
5
537
Indian.
Total.
S
90,776
15,739
572
46
6,465
826
51,766
493
2
4,694
9,907
B
b4
73,218
13,312
'545
35
5,258
tj30
40,973
364
1
3,803
8,100
'"l96
1
8
199,751
53,427
12
1,340
25
■ 18
115
12,850
1,479
95,039
930
3
15,847
18,073
1
638
54
9
66,591
36,465
23
599
6
22
39
1,262
95
4,978
"" 11
7,224
443
15,395
29
Variation
-(-or — .
10
-f 183,160
16,962
11
741
19
4
76
11,588
1,384
90,061
930
8
8,623
17,630
1
14,857
:|
-f
1
flote. In column 9 figures against (I) Lutheran, ^2) Minor Protestant DBaominntiona, i3> Koraan Catholic, and (4) Sect not returned
are those of (1) Lutheran and allied denominations, (2) minor denominations, (3) Koman and (4) Deuominations not returned,
respcLtirely.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE V.
Distribution of Christians per mille (a) races by sect and (b) sects by race-
Sect.
KACE8 DISTB.1BUTE0 BY Sect.
Sects oistbibuted bt Bacb.
European.
Anglo-
Indian.
Indian.
Total.
5
European.
Anglo-
Indian.
7
Indian.
Total.
1
2
3
i
6
8
9
TOTAL
1,000
1,000
1.000
1.000
162
17
821
1,000
Anglican Communion
689
611
177
267
416
40
544
1,000
Armenian
1,000
..•
• •*
1,000
Baptist
6
11
7
7
139
28
833
1,000
Corigref.'ationalist
1
1,000
*••
...
1,000
Greek
1
1,000
...
...
1,000
Lutheran
1
1
296
• >•
704
1,000
Methodist
32
26
71
64
81
7
912
1,000
Minor Protest&nt Denominations
1
9
7
16
*.•
984
1,000
Presbyterian ...
66
46
566
476
23
2
975
1,000
Protestant (unsectarian) ..
2
3
S
6
69
10
921
1,000
Quaker
...
,,
1,000
1,000
Koman Catholic
196
299
52
79
398
66
536
1,000
Salvationist
2
110
90
4
• ••
996
1,000
Syrian (Jacobite)
..
• ■*
1,000
*..
1,000
Sect not returned
2
4
3
3
128
24
848
1,000
Indefinite beliefs
1
...
...
833
37
130
1
1,000
SUBSIDIARY TABLE V
I.
Relig
ions of Urban and Rural Po
)ulation.
Stunber jyer 10,000 0/ urbun population who
Number per 10,000 0
f rural population who
are: —
art
•: —
Xatdbal Division.
Hindu.
Sikh.
Jain.
Muhan
madan
!• Chris-
tian.
Hindu.
Sikh.
Ja
in.
Muham-
madan.
Chris,
tian.
11
1
a
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
PUNJAB
4.041
609
96
5.05«
S 194
3.578
1.261
10
5.077
69
Indo-Gangetic Plain West
4,212
648
119
4,S8:
130
4.367
2,004
£1
3,568
40
Him«layan
7,212
219
20
1,797
743
9,521
41
2
389
4
Sub-Himalayan
3,481
'J94
100
5.317
406
2,661
1,002
3
6,199
13.i
North- West Dry Area
3,090
388
12 5,80«
99
1,182
575
8,165
77
CHAPTER V.
Age.
GENERAL.
285. The age statistics are given in Imperial Table VII, by sex and civil Scope of the
condition. Subsidiary Table I shows the age distribution of 100,000 of each Chapter,
sex (selected from certain localities) by annual periods, while Subsidiary Tables II
and III give the age di?tributi()n of 10,000 of each sex in the Province, by
Natural Divisions and main religions, respectively. The distribution, by selected
age periods, of 1,000 of each sex in certain castes, is shown in Subsidiary Table
IV, and the proportion of children under 10 and of persons aged GO and over to
those aged 15 to 40 together with the number of married females aged 15 — 40
per 100 females is indical^ed in Subsidiary Table V. Variations in population,
since 1881, at certain age periods, appear in Table VI. Birth and death rates
by sexes and Natural Divisions are shown in Subsidiary Tables VII and VIII ;
death rates by sexes and age periods for selected years in Table IX and deaths
from fever, plague, small-pox and cholera, per mille of each sex, in Table X.
286. No alteration was made in the instructions for recording ages. The Accuracy
number of years which had been completed on or before the Final Census night of the sta-
was to be put down as the age of the person enumerated. But a certain nam- tistics.
ber of people would not or could not tell their age. In such cases the enu-
merator was required to make his own estimate. Nevertheless several omis-
sions were found. These were supplied at the copying ofBces, with refei-ence to
literacy, occupation and civil condition, in accordance with the instructions laid
down in para. 13, Chapter II of the Imperial Census Code, Part II. Literate
persons were assumed to be over 12 years and workers, over 15. Unmarried
males were taken as under 15, married males between 15 and 50 and widowers
over 50. The corresponding figures for females were 12 and 40 years. In the
case of Europeans and Anglo-Indians the age of married males was taken to be
from 30 to 55 and that of females from 22 to 50,
No statistics compiled at an Indian Census are probably more removed from
the actual facts as those of age. The sources of error are twofold, viz., (1) where
the person enumerated gives a wrong figure because he does not know his correct
age, or can only form a rough idea of it, and (2) where the mis-statement
is deliberate, owing to (a) custom or what is called superstition or (/)) vanity.
287. A correct record of fige is kept among the Hindus, Jains and most (i) Uninten.
Sikhs in the shape of horoscopes, but while ihe towTispeople or the richer classes ^J^^J*^' ™""
usually celebrate the anniversary of the birthday or get a varashphal (a state-
ment of effects of stars, etc., during a year) made from year to year, thus knowing
the exact number of years of age ci mpleted by each person, the rustics seldom
refer to their horoscopes, if at all. The proportion of persons who have to rely
on their memory for their nge is therefore fairly large. The Muhammadans
observe no such practice, and although the mothers can usually remember the
age of their children by association with other events, yet in 9 cases out of 10,
the statement about a person's own age is [lure guess work. In Judicial cases
one comes across typical instances of the total absence of a conception of age.
A couple of years ago, a father and son appeared before me as witnesses in a
case. The hon who was the more intelligent was examined first and gave his
age as 40 or 50. He seemed to be nearer fifty and was put down as such. The
father who came in later was quite an old man, but on being questioned about
his age stated with much confidence that he must he quite 20 years old. When
told that the figure was inconsistent with his grey hair, be added a decJide and
on further remonstrance was willing to have himself put down as 40. Meanwhile
some one pointed out that he was the father of a former witness who had given his
age as 50. The old man then suggested that he might bo a couple of years older
than his son. His reisoning could not carry him further and he ultimately re-
signed himself to ihe will of the ("ourt and said I could enter ids age at whatever
figure I liked. He could, however, give very vivid accounts of the revolt of
Dewan Mul Raj and tif the siege of Multan, which enabled me to estimate his age
198
Census Eeport. ] genebal. Chapter
at about 85. Another very old man Tvhen told that he might be a hundred
years old, said that even his father who had died 50 years ago, was not of that
age ! The statement of age in alternate decade?, e.g., 20 — 30, 30 — 40, 40 — 50
is very common. The ages of this class of people recorded in the Enumeration
books are usually rough estimates in fives or tens, made by Enumerators from
the vague statements of the persons enumerated, and there is little chance of
correcting such errors, when the variation from facts exceeds a decade.
(8) Deliberate 288. (rt) Amongst the Hindus generally and the Muhammadans up to a
au a emen . ^^^.^.^j^j^ ^^^^ there are various reasons for a deliberate mis-statement of age. First
of all there is an idea that telling one's correct age tends to reduce the span
of life. In Niti Shastra, it is laid down that one's age should be carefully con-
cealed like his wealth, etc* A Hindu will therefore very often give his age as
a few years more or less than what it is. The real cause probably is that the
true age coupled with the Bdshi (sign of the zodiac) Nvhich is usually apparent
from one's name, can afford his enemies a chance of petting the forces of black
magic to work against him. This seems to account for the concealment of one's
Janma (birth) name, which is based on the Bdshi, by some of the Hindus and
the adoption of a different name {Prasiddh or current name) for actual use. Then
a multiple of 10 i. e., the year having a zero in it, is considered ominous and the
10th, 20th, 30th, 40th, etc., years are called ^iudmaZa instead of being named.
This objection is, however, dying out now. There is also a general aversion to
odd numbers, except five. The even number is supposed to bring prosperity.
Secondly, certain customs operate against a correct statement of the ages o£
children generally. A child of one year is usually said to be a little less than
one year old. Up to one year the chances of the child's life are supposed to be
very precarious and the mother, feigning anxiety for the child, will not readily
admit that he has passed that perilous stage. When the child grows to 2 years,
the above statement cannot hold good and the correct age has to be stated. The
age is then exaggerated or understated according to the condition of the child's
health. If the child is well grown, a couple of years will be added so that he may
not look imusually healthy and fall a prey to iWi^ar-i-tat^ (theevil eye). If the
child is poor in health, a few years are taken off the correct age, so that he may
look as good as other children of equal age. After about 7 years, the age record
is affected in opposite directions in respect of boys and girls. The boy's age
is usually overstated, particularly among the working classes. Every working
boy, howsoever young he may be, will claim to be between 15 and 20
in order to demand full wages. This tendency seems to be increasing in
consequence of the prohibition of boys under 15 to work in factories. In the case
of girls, the age is given as 10 to 12 years till marriage, even though the spinster
may be 16 or even 18 years old. When the girl looks well developed,
the parents are obliged to say she is about 15 or 16, i. e., within the defini-
tion of a minor given in the Indian Penal Code. But one Seldom hears of an
unmarried girl of over 16. As soon as a grown up girl is married, her age^
jumps straight up to 20 years. The custom of understating the age of an un-
married girl is based, among the Hindus, on the stigma which attaches to a
man whose daughter does not get married between 8 and 18 years of age»
and among the Muhammadans on the necessity of maintaining a control over
an unmarried girl howsoever old she may be.
(b) The other cause of deliberate mis-statement of age is vanity. Mid-
dle aged women wish to be considered younger than they are. The tendency
is proverbial amongst Europeans, Anglo-Indians and the other educated classes.
Indian males nearing fifty wish to keep down their age by various devices,
such as dyeing the hair, shaving or close clipping of ihe beard, etc.
In the case of Government servants, the efforts are very conspicuous between
50 and 55 when the time for retirement approaches. Older people both men and
women who huve no inducement for understating their age, would rather over-
state it and add to their prestige owing to the respect attaching to age. The
effect of the conditions above enumerated should be that the even years should
* Ayurvitfam grihuch^hhidram mantra mdithuna bheshajiim. Tapoddndpamanancha, nava gopydni yalnatah, —
Hi<opade»ha, I— 143. (Age, wealth, theft in one's house, counsel, seiual intercourse, medicine, austerity, charity and
disgrace, these 9 must be carefully concealed).
.1
<
199
OENEBAL.
[ Punjab. 1911.
show larger figures generally than the odd onefl, that multiples of 5 should include
morepersoDS than the age periods above or below, that the multiples of ten should
be still more favourably placed, that in children, the figures in the first age period
(under 1 year), should be exaggerated and that the age period 1 to 2 should show
a sudden drop. Then the number of
girls of 10 and 12 should be very
large, while both males and females
at 20 should a ppear more numerous
than in the luwer age periods, and
that the middle-ages, particularly
in multiples of 5 and 10, should be
somewhat exaggerated. Ihe dia-
gram printed in the margin which
is based on the special ages given
in Subsidiary Table I, will illus-
trate the above conclusions so far
as the population of both sexes
taken together is concerned.
289. The diagram also shows the popularity of certain age periods. The (3> Popularity
figures are arranged ^^X^,",
1000
DIAOR«M SHOWING TOE ACTUAL NUMBER OF
PERSONS RETURNED AT EACH ACE PER 100000
-REFERENCES-
UNDER 50-"
Mill
M
Jl
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
Age.
Proportion.
Age.
Proportion.
Age.
Proportion.
Age.
Proportiou.
40
4<)
40
60
6
28
8
29
30
47
30
57
18
27
12
28
25
47
25
49
3
26
4
28
50
40
0
48
4
25
45
27
0
40
20
45
7
24
7
27
20
39
50
43
16
23
2
26
12
37
35
38
15
23
18
25
35
35
5
31
22
23
22
21
10
31
G
30
14
22
16
21
8
31
60
30
9
21
9
20
45
30
3
29
2
21
5
80
10
29
m the margin ac-
cording to numeri-
cal strength, per
mille of each sex.
The most popular
ages are multiples
of 10 and 5. The
largest numbers
have been returned
in the ages 40, 30
and 25. Infants
rank fifth in males
and fourth in
females. The ages 50 and 20 come up fairly high in importance. Males are very
reluctant to go above 50 and the figure at this age consequently shows a marked
excess over those of the preceding and succeeding years. The age distribution
of the total population will be described further on.
290. The figures in the Special Age Table (Subsidiary Table I) above smoothing
referred to, haveofg^^jg
been smoothed, with .
reference to the ten- tibie.* "^
dency to mention ages
a few years one
way or the other of
the true mark or in
multiples of 5 or 10,
by Bloxam's method,
and are given on
the next page. They
may serve as a rough
indication of the cor-
rect distribution of a
selected* lot of the
population and the
smoothed curve based
on these figi)re.«i is printed in the margin.
E
T
smddthedCarith)
FINALLY SMDOTHEl
CURVE
^1-
s i s
a ?
3 g :
* The selection was made as follows : —
District.
Hissar
Kangra
Amritsar
Sialkot
Mianwali
Religion. Hural or Urban.
Hindu Kural.
Hindu Rural.
Hindu and Muhammadan Urban
Sikh, Muhammadan and Christian ... Rural.
Muhammadan Rural.
Census Report]
200
QEMEBAL.
Chapter'
to
<
0
1
2
3
4
5
t>
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
So
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
4,446
1,867
2,284
2,765
2,731
3,089
2.969
2,603
3,066
2,090
3,067
1,500
3,375
l,'l29
2,020
2,038
2,235
945
2,540
672
4,073
507
2,151
589
1,009
4,707
1224
837
1,472
304
5,035
206
1,829
380
477
3,570
726
187
522
182
5,347
166
534
125
188
2,878
225
118
368
98
4,070
■5 «
00 -^
4,446
2,866
2,819
2,547
2,768
2,831
2,892
2,763
2,759
2,465
2,620
2,292
2,278
2,072
2,219
1,733
1,956
1,686
2,093
1,747
1,989
1,598
1,686
1,793
1.936
1,673
1,850
1,709
1,774
1,571
1769
1,551
1,585
1,292
1,396
1,068
1,096
1,037
1,393
1,281
1,350
1,271
1,272
778
790
707
755
737
976
955
990
•c
w
«2 a g
• l-i
4,446
3,377
3,089
3,02*
2,966
2,889
2,693
2,639
2,572
2,542
2,448
2,368
2,258
2,198
2,106
2,062
1,969
1,912
1,868
),856
1,806
1,»^17
1,795
1,803
1,755
1,757
1,717
1,716
1,682
1,646
1,567
1,515
1.441
1,412
1,367
1,347
1,302
1,276
1,203
1,157
1,095
1,066
1,034
1,028
988
962
924
893
811
775
733
4,445
3,375
3,090
2,955
2,875
2,775
2,690
2,625
2,535
2,450
2,380
2,300
2,230
2,175
2,100
2,025
1,950
l,9l5
1,870
1,840
1,800
1,775
1,755
1,736
1,725
1,700
1,670
1,650
1,620
1,575
1,550
1,490
1,425
1,390
1,360
1,300
1,260
1,210
1,190
1,130
1,090
1,060
1,035
975
9.50
900
840
830
810
780
740
S
BO
51
52
53
54
65
66
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
and over
122
291
67
131
1,243
140
65
115
57
2,696
81
134
35
42
658
44
37
60
26
1,095
23
39
7
II
168
11
3
10
7
480
6
15
3
e
43
2
1
6
10
no
2
4
18
2
14
3
2
1
2
80
•o a ,
o a
a
CO
930
936
371
374
329
339
324
61*
603
GI6
600
597
190
J 83
163
166
163
250
246
247
238
235
60
47
40
41
40
102
101
104
102
102
14
14
11
U
12
26
26
26
29
27
8
8
8
4
4
2
2
*30
CQ
699
660
649
615
584
549
518
451
434
41*
400
384
377
343
311
277
243
191
181
168
157
145
140
126
113
lOO
88
68
64
61
58
56
54
48
41
34
27
19
18
17
17
IG
16
13
10
S
4
3
2
*30
mas
If
700
665
610
580
525
600
480
460
435
415
400
380
315
280
270
220
210
160
160
150
130
120
100
80
75
75
70
60
55
45
30
35
25
25
25
25
20
20
IS
15
15
10
10
10
10
5
5
3
3
30
Provincial
CgQies,
Where the
Age
No. per
10,000
Smooth-
ed
Smooth,
ed from
period.
of popa-
latinn.
figares.
corves
by hand.
0.5 ...
1,365
1,365
1,365
6-10 ...
1 ,358
1,280
1,262
10.15 ...
1,118
1,116
1,116
15-20 ...
871
952
986
20-25 ...
867
872
892
25-30 ...
879
851
828
30 35 ...
807
737
751
35-40 ...
E26
652
644
40-45 ...
624
505
469
45-50 ...
364
485
437
50-55 ...
467
333
375
55-60 ...
16S
30
280
60-65 ..
261
196
225
65-70 ...
139
195
183
70 and
over ...
183
167
167
figures will give some
mis-statements of age are confined to a margin of five years,
their effect can be minimised by the device of
grouping the ages in quinquennial periods which
has been adopted in Imperial Table VII. The
only smoothing necessary in their cases is that in
respect of the abnormality of age periods "which
are multiples of ten. The source of error is
confined to the quinquennial age period next
preceding^pr succeeding that which may liave to
be dealt with. Following the principle of Bloxam's
method ; I have smoothed the figures of the
quinquennial periods (Subsidiary Table II) by the
formula X = t"-i> +n-^ (n-fi). ^ \)Q\^g the age period ;
and after a further smoothing of the curve by
hand, have given the result in the marginal table.
The difference between the first and the last set of
indication of the extent to which irregularities in
* Not smoothed.
201
DISCUSSION or THB FIGCBG8.
[ Punjab, 1911.
RErERENCES
ACTUAL
SMOOTHED Car I TH)
FINALLY SMOOTHED
CURVE
U3
I
o
2 !2
1/3 o
I
U3
age statistics exist in
Imperial Table VII in
spite of the grouping of
figures in quinquennial
periods. The actual and
smoothed curves, drawn
according to these sta-
tistics are printed in
ti)e margin. Grosser
mis-statements, whether
deliberate or uninten-
tional, are apparently
beyond correction. It
will be noticed that from
the age-period 30 to 35
onwards, the figures of
each quinquennium of
life, vary alternately, in
about equal proportion,
above or below the
smoothed curve. For
reasons already stated,
the variations are not
so even in the earlier
periods.
DISCUSSrON OF THE FIGURES.
291. The detailed examination of the age statistics for the Province is l^ft^^j^ ^
to Mr. T. G. Ackland, F. I. A., who has been supplied with the Imperial Table VII j-gm^j^g^
and the Special Age Return by annual age-periods, above alluded to, for a little
over 200,000 persons, representative of all religions and tracts in the Province,
and his memorandum will, if received in time, be printed as an appendix to this
Report. The remarks which fellow are only intended to supply information
which might elucidate the technical discussion of the subject by Mr. Ackland and
are based upon unadjusted figures.
292. Table XI A which deals with the details of immigrants to the Chenab Effects of
and Jhelum Colonies, shows that the majority of the immigrants to those Colonies j^igj-g^^iQ^^
from without the Province are between the ages of 15 and 40. In the Chenab
Colony the proportion of persons aged 15 — 40 to every 1,000 immigrants from
without the Province is 643 while in the Jhelum Colony it is 576. Immigration there-
fore adds chiefly to the strength of adults. But on the other hand, the emigrants
belong also to similar ages and the number of immigrants and emigrants being
about equal, the effects are neutralized. The proportion of extra Provincial migra-
tion to the total population being very small, the figures cunnot affect the age
distribution of the Province to an appreciable extent.
293. From the age distribution of the total population given in column 2 of Age distri-
the marginal table in paragrapli 290, it will appear bntion.
that the numbers decrease steadily from the first quin-
quennium of life up to the period 35 — 40, with the excep-
tion of the age-peiiod 25 — 30 which shows a slight rise ;
and that the disturbing causes mentioned in the preced-
ing paragraph are counteracted by other influences.
From 35 — 40 onwards, when tlio middle age is past, the
tendency to state ages in multiples of 6 and 10 be-
comes manifest and the greater popularity of the
decade standard raises abnormally the figure of the
age-periods 40 — 45 (which means 40 — 44), 50 — 55 and
60 — 65 as compared with the intermediate age-periods
of 45 — 50 (i.e., 45 — 49), etc. As regards the first seven
quinquennia, the figures given in Subsidinary Table I, by annual age-periods
Proportion per 10,000.
Age-period.
0—5
6—10
10-15
15—20
20-25
25-30
30—35
3=-40
40—45
45 — 50
50—55
55—60
60-65
65—70
70 and oTer
Persons.
1,365
1,358
1,118
871
867
879
807
526
624
304
467
168
264
139
183
Census Report-]
202
SISCDSSION OF THE PIQDBE3.
1
Chaftgb
Imperial
table.
for a selected population of 200,000, when compared with the above distribution,
afford an illustration of the manner in which the errors arising out of mis-state-
ment of ages have been eliminated in Imperial Table
VII, by the adoption oi quinquennial age-periods.
The tendency of the total Provincial figures in the first
five annual age-periods of life (Imperial Table VII) is simi-
lar to tbat in the special age table (Subsidiary Table I) — i.e.,
the figures of infants under 1 year are the largest and of
those 1 — 2 years old, the lowest, the order being : — under 1,
3, 4, 2 and 1 (see margin).
0-1
8-4
4—5
8-3
1—2
990,181
672, 6H0
663,345
5 91,987
382,125
Special
age (able.
8,793
5,449
5,294
4,607
3,607
J
Variations
in age dis-
tribution.
294.
The age distribution of the total population of the Province is compared
in the margin with the figures of 1901.
The henviest losses have occurred in
the age-periods 30 — 45 and 10 — 15 and
plague is responsible for the greater
pare of them. Decreases in the last
two age-periods (55 and upwards), due
mostly to fever, though not quite so
heavy, are yet considerable. The losses
among tlie old people will not affect
the future growth of population, but the
decrease in adults (10 — 15) will weaken
tlie child-bearing population of future
years, and the thinning down of
the present child-bearing generation
of 30 — 40 years should retard the im-
mediate growth of population. Fevers
have also carried off a number of
children, causing a drop in the age-
POPDLATION.
Variation.
Age.
1901.
1911.
Actual.
Per cent.
0-1
774 111
9r.0,l81
+ 216,070
+279
1—2
415,u52
382,125
— 32,927
- 7-9
2-3
6*9,987
591,987
— 68,000
— 8-9
3-4
664,557
672,680
4- 8,123
+ 1-2
4-5
695,399
663,345
— 32,054
— 4 6
Total... 0—5
3,199,106
3,300,318
+101,212
+ 3-2
5-10
3,361,93b
3,283,6U
— 78,326
- 2-3
10—15
2,880,313
2,701 767
— 178,546
- 6-2
15-20
2,176,776
2,107,361
— 69,415
- 3-2
20—25
2,029,283
2,097,73S
4- 68,450
+ 3-4
25—30
2,112.490
2,125,068
+ 12,579
+ -6
30—35
2,' 73,465
l,952.95i
—120,513
— 5-8
35—40
1,351,941
1,272,470
— 79,471
— 5-9
40-45
1,623,627
1,509,487
—114,140
— 7-0
45—50
858,211
879,957
+ 21,746
+ 2-5
SO— 55
1,150,458
1,130,97'!
— 19,488
— 17
65—60
426.026
408,046
— 17,980
— 4 2
60 & over
1,487,018
3,418,010
— 69,008
— 4-6
Profortion per mille.
period 5 — 10, but m the first quinquennium of life, the large gain registered iu
infants lias, in spite of losses at the periods 1 — 3 and 4—5, resulted in an advance
of over 3 per cent, on the whole.
Proportion 295. The comparative immunity from plague and fever in 1909 and 1910
of children appears to have accelerated the birth-rate. In 1910, births (859,432) exceeded
ofboth the infant deaths (171,763) by 687,679 in British Territory alone. Adding the
sexes. similar excess in Native States and allowing for the ex?ggeration of the figures of
the age-period alluded to in paragraphs 287 and 288, the favourable results appearto
be in accordance with facts. The slight increase in the age-period 20 — 25 although
counterbalanced by about an equal decrease in the period 15 — 20 appears to be an
imf-ortant factor in the revival of the recuperative power of the population, for,
taken collectively, the child-bearing period 15 — 40 has shown a decrease of only
r9percent. (see Subsidiary Table VI). That the fecund-
ity of the population has pot suffered much on the whole,
is also shown by the fact that the proportion of children
to persons 15 — 40 years old and to married females of
that age is somewhat better than in 1901 (see margin).
The unproductive element has also not increased as the
proportion of the old (over 60) to persons 15 — 40 and of
married females to the total number of females of all
ages also remains practically unaltered. The
migration of large numbers of young women
to the Canal Colonies has, however, reduced the
fitrength of married females 15 — 40 years old in
the districts which have supplied large numbers
of colonists, although it does not affect the vitality
of the Province as a whole. The more noticeable
figures are given in the margin.
Tear.
To persons
15-40.
to married
females
15-40.
IPOl
1911
67
69
168
179
District.
1911.
1901.
1891.
Jullundur
34
35
39
Ludhiana
84
35
39
Lahore
34
85
38
Amritsar
34
35
89
Ambala
35
36
39
Hoshiarpur
34
85
38
Gurdaspur
33
35
86
Sialkot
32
34
39
* The Bgares of 1601 do not ioclode the Bilooh Trane-froittier.
203
DISCUSSION or THE FIOUBES.
[Punjab, 1911.
296.
3fean age.
Year.
Male.
Female
1911 ...
1901 ...
189'. ...
lS8ti ...
25 2
250
230
250
24-7
240
22 6
247
The mean age of the total population, calculated ronjs'hly in the ''^c^''' »&*•
manner referred to in the India Administration Volume, 1901,
page 390, for the present and three preceding Censuses, is
noted in the margin. The decrease from 1881 to 1891 was
considerable, owing to an enhanced birth-rate due to
general prosperity following upon years of famine and
scarcity. The figures appear, however, to have reverted to
the normal in 1901 and the variation during the past
ten years has been but slight. The prosperous conditions
•of the past decade should have resulted in a large number of births and reduced
the mean age, but the heavy mortality from fevers, which affected the two
extremes of life and that from plague which occurred mostly among persons of
middle age, neutralized the divergent effects, leaving the mean ase practically at
the same figure as in 1901. Nevertheless, there is a slight drop in the mean
age of females, which would have looked a little larger, if, in the statistics nf 1911,
the last age-period had been 60 and over as at the previous Census, instead of 70
and over. On the other hand, there is an equal rise (•2) in the case of males.
By the provision of two extra quinquennial age-periods (60 — 65 and 65 — 70) in
the present Table VII, it has been pos^sible to get somewhat nearer the true mean
age. It is noticeable that the mean age of males is slightly in advance of that
of females. This is apparently due to the fact that the proportion of female
children to the total female population is larger than the corresponding figure
for males, and that males are as a rule more long-lived than females.
The mean age for the main
religions is set forth in the
marprin for the last four de-
cades. The figures for the
Sikhs are the highest and
those for the Christians the
lowest. It is noteworthy that,
whereas amongst all other
religions, the mean age of
females is below that of males,
it was higher in 1901 and is now equal to the latter,
stand somewhat lower than the figures of mean age for
the Sikhs and Hindus, in consequence of a higher proportion of children. The
table in the margin
shows the number
per mille, in certain
ape-periods, of the
population of each
of the four main re-
ligions. From this
table it appears that
the Sikhs have the
higliest proportion
of elderly persons and a fairly low proportion of children. The Christians, on the
other hatid, have a large proportion of children and a very small proportion of the
aged. The effect on the mean age is obvious.
The Muhammadans have the smallest proportion of persons aged 15 — 45
because their proportion of children is the highest. The Hindus have a popula-
tion somewhat proportionately divided between the different age-periods. Judging
■from the proportion of Hindu children, which is the lowest, one would infer that
they are not a progressive community. The Christians have the largest propor-
tion of persons aged 15—45.
297. In point of lonj^evity, the Kanets come first, having 252 per mille Age distii-
of population at or above 40 years. They are found mostly in th« Himalayas or in bntion by
the sub-montanetracts, where the climate is moderate (see paragraph 4, Chapter I) castes,
and favourable to prolonged life. The Brahmans who seldom starve and are rarely
•exposed to privations except when they are self-imposed, (in which case they do
Hindus.
Sikhs.
MCHAH-
madans.
Cbbistians.
Tear.
ea
B
s.
250
251
22-7
25 0
o
■5
a
S
a
S
6
B
1911
1901 ...
1891
1681
255
253
231
25-2
257
261
23 9
260
25-7
26-7
238
258
24-9
246
22-7
24-7
24-2
24-4
22-2
24-3
23-7
24-4
23-3
25-4
22'9
22-5
20-7
20-6
amongst the Sikhs
The Muhammadans
0-15
15-45
45 and over.
Eeligion.
2
m
cn
a
0
3
a
0
i
■3
a
a
1^
g
xa
©
i
la
a
1
Hindu
365
359
372
478
479
476
157
162
152
Bikh
369
370
369
456
453
458
175
177
173
ft) uhammadan . . .
401
398
405
443
440
446
156
162
149
■Christian
396
364
441
486
621
437
118
115
122
Census Report. ]
Urth-rate.
204
VITAL STATISTICS.
CHAPTB&
not begin to deteriorate physically till after their fortieth year) come next with a
proportion of 246 per mille. The Dagi-Kolis with a proportion of 245, again, have
the advantage of residence in the hills, and Kashmiris (237) are long lived owing to
the climatic and other advantages of their favoured country. Of the other castes,
the higher or affluent one3 have a fairly large proportion of old people, while the
labouring classes engaged in occupations noxious to health or the criminal tribes
have a comparatively smaller
number of persons over 40 years
old, partly because exposure
and strain undermines their con-
stitution before they grow old
and partly in consequence of their
returning themselves as under 40,
in order to be considered 6t for
manual labour long after they
are past -work. The castes with
fewest old persons, particularly
some of the criminal tribes and
labouring classes, have the larg-
est proportion of children, as
is shown in the margin. On the
other hand, the castes with an
abundance of old people have
a comparatively smaller number
of children (0 — 12), the Kanets,
in the inverse order to that
Number per miUe
Number per mille
aged 40 and OTsr.
Caste.
aged 40 and over.
Caste.
Males.
Females
Males.
Females.
Kanet
259
246
Criminal tribes.
Brahman ...
24b
248
Bawaria ...
204
171
Dagi and Koli
251
286
Harni
212
197
Kashmiri ..
235
238
Pakhiwas ...
239
205
Higher and
uiell-to-do classes.
Sansi
225
210
Ahir
232
239
Labouring classes.
Biloch
232
217
Chamar ...
209
201
Jat
225
227
Chuhra ...
189
182
Khatri
231
238
Dhanak ...
197
185
Ehokhar ...
231
206
Mahtam ...
191
168
Moghal
233
227
Meo
193
206
Pathan
227
225
Musalli ...
209
182
Qureshi
236
220
Qasab
201
aoo
Eajput
227
224
Teli
209
208
Sayad
232
229
Mahtam
Bawaria
Musalli
Chuhra
Proportion of children per mille both sexes,
384 iFakhiwas ... 346
368 J Kanet ... 267
367 IBrhaman ... 272
352 I Dagi and Koli 279
Brahmans and
given above.
Dagi-Kolis standing lowest
VITAL STATISTICS.
Year.
Birth-rate
per mille.
1901
... 35
1902
... 44
1903
... 42
1904
... 42
1905
... 44
1906
... 44
1907
... 40
1908
... 42
1509
... 35
1910
... 42
Average
40 8
298, Complete vital statistics being available only for British Territory,
the remarks in this and the next paragraph will be confined to that tract, to the
exclusion of the Native States. For the whole Punjab (British Territory) the
birth-rate has varied during the past decade from 85 (18 males and 17 females)
to 44 (23 males and 21 females) per mille of the population,
of 1901 (see diagram printed in the margin of paragraph 48,
Chapter II). The figures are reproduced in the margin for
facility of reference. In consequence of the unfavourable
conditions prevailing in 1900, the rate was very low in 1901
throughout the Province (see Subsidiary Table VII). In
the Indo-Gangetic Plain West and the Sub-Himalayan tract,,
excessive mortality in 1908, brought the birth-rate still lower
in 1909, but in the other two Natural Divisions it never went
below (he figures of 1901. The birth-rate for the Province
during the last decade has been 408 (214 males and 194
females) per mille of the population, which gives a crude annual average birth-
rate of 40-8 per mille, against a similar rale of 41-5 during the decade 1891 — 1901.
The shght fall duiing the decade need not, however, cause the apprehensions
which a decline of birth-rate has been creating of late in America, France and
Germany. The unfavourable results are due to exceptional causes, and the
fecundity of the population is already showing signs of revival under more
favourable sanitary conditions.
For the first four years of the decade, the Indo-Gangetic Plain
West and the Sub-Himalayan tract contributed the largest number of
births, but in the last six years, the North-West Dry Area recorded the
highest proportion. The birth-rate has been lowest in the Himalayan
Division. In the face of numerous disturbing causes, it is very difficult
to ascribe the rise or fall of birth-rate to any particular circumstance, but
since the births depend upon married females of child-bearing ages, vari-
ations in their numbers subject, however, to conditions influencing proh-
ficness, should correspond more or less to the variations in birth-rate. The-
V.
20S
VITAL STATISTICS.
[ Punjab, 1911.
Females 15—40.
Year.
1901
1911
Difference per
cent.
Total.
3,711,390
3,506,074
5-5
Married.
3,209,630
3,009,422
C-2
o
2
CO
o
c
2
CO
2
g
1— I
1
0161
6061
Average.
35
41
49
49
47
36
61
50
31
33
43-6
favourable results
Deaths during the fast decade.
Males
Females
Total.
4,459,990
4 383,718
COM
^'^ CO ^
P Q. O) ^^
marginal figures will show that the female population
aged 15 — 40 (for BritisliTerritorj) has decreased 5'5 per
cent, and the number of married females of the same
age-period by 6"2 per cent. A decrease in the birth-rate
calculated on the total population was, therefore,
to be expected. The total births of the past decade
(8,286,261) give an average annual birth-rate of 275,
per mille, calculated on the number of married
females of child-bearing ages (15 — 40 years old) enumerated at the present
Census, which is fairly high. Tlie similar proportion with reference to
married females 15 to 45 years of age is 237. But it has to be remembered
that the number of child-bearing married females is less now than it was
during the years of which the births have been taken into account. The cal-
culation cannot be accurate unless the number of births in each year is compared
with the number of married females of child-bearing ages alive in that year.
299. The crude average death-rate for the Provmceduringthe past ten years Death-rate.
Death-rate per mille. has been 43-6 per annum per mille
of the population, against the cor-
responding rate of 34"5 during the
previous decade. The two closing
years ot the decade showed the most
when only 31 and 33, respectively, were lost per mille of
population (1901), and thus saved the situation
which would have been created if the high death-
rate of the preceding years — particularly the record
mortality of 1907 — had continued. The deafh-rate in
1907 was as high as 61 per mille and even neglecting
the deaths among infants, it was no less than 52 per
mille. The deaths amongst males were larger but
females suffered more, proportionately, as shown in the
margin, losing 467 per mille during the past decade
against 409 males. Relatively too, they were in a far less favourable position for
the excess of deaths over births was as high as 46 amongst them against 10 in males.
Subsidiary 'I'ablo VIII will show that the death-rate was highest in the Indo-
Gangetic Plain West and lowest in the North- West Dry Area. The heavy
mortahty in the Indo-Gangetic Plain was caused by epidemics. The small
proportion of deaths in the North- West Dry Area is due to the liealthy chmate
of this hot sandy tract, and to the fact that it suffered very little from the
ravages of plague.
The percentage of deaths which occurred in each age-period during the
past decade, is indicated in the marginal table. Infant mortality has been
very high, and while the total deaths represented 44
per cent, of the total population of 1901, deaths among
infants under one year alone wiped out 10 per cent, thereof
and those occurring in the next lour years of lifn accounted
for no less than 7 per cent. But while these losses neutrahzed
apart of the biiths, neither they nor the deaths over 60 years
of age amounting to 6 per cent, of the total population,
directly affected the future growth. The deaths amounting to
4 per cent, m each of the age-periods 20 — 30 and 80—40
are however likely to handicap the recuperative powers of
_ the population on the whole. From Subsidiary Tables
IX and X it will appear that in 1907, when plague was at its worst, children
under 5 years were not affected, while deaths in all the higher ages
went up, the losses in tlie age-peri.,ds 15—40 being the heaviest in
comparison with the death-rate of any other year in the decade. The
old people were affected by fevers which also wrought considerable destruc-
tion. To quote the remarks of the Sanitary Commissioner, Punjab,* "it
is evident from these figures that plague proved considerably more fatal among
409
467
Age-period
0—1
1—5
5—10
10-15
15-20
20-30
30—40 ..
40-50 ..
50-60
60 and o»er
oi
^
m
< a
o
a,
10
a
5
7
4
3
1
2
1
2
1
4
2
4
2
3
2
3
2
6
3
* Report of SaDitary Administration, Punjab, 1907, page 7, paragraph 22.
Census Report. ]
206
VITAL STATISTICS.
Chapteb
Births and
deaths by
religions.
Religions.
Hindu ...
Muhammadan ,
Christian (.Indian)
Births.
3,580,135
4,675,097
20,712
Deaths.
4,123,998
4,695,877
14,104
persons in the best years of life than in (he case of children and old persons
particularly infants under one year." On the other hand iu 1908, which was
the worst year for fever, the mortality among; children under 5 years generally
and that among infants under 1 year particularly, rose high and the improve-
ment in the last age-period of life was but slight. The other age-periods, however,
showed much better results. It would probably be safe to conclude from this
that fevers affect the extremes of life more than the intermediate stages.
300. The vital statistics do not distinguish between the Hindus, Sikhs and
Jains, all of whom have been treated as Hindus. In considering the births and
deaths by religions, it is therefore necessary to deal with all three together. The
total births and deaths of the past decade are given by religions in the margin.
The average annual birth-rate with reference to
the total population of 1901 is: — Hindus 38,
Muliammadans 43, Christians 55, the death-
rate being 44, 43 and 37, respectively. Births and
deaths among the Christians are registered only
for Indian Christians. They show the highest
birth-rate and the lowest death-rate. This is due
to most of the conversions having taken place from among the proliOc castes
like Chuhras* and Meghs. It will be seen from Subsidiary Table IV, that the
Ohuhras have a higher proportion of females from 15 — 40 years of age and that,
their children of both sexes under 12 years are about the most numerous, propor-
tionately.
Of the other two religions, the Hindus have a lower birth-rate and a
higher death-rate. The birth and death-rates among the Muhammadans are about
equal. In comparing the birth-rate of tlie different religions we have to
bear in mind the conditions affecting females of child- beaiing ages. The
Hindus have 35 married females of the ages 15 — 40, while the Muhjtmmadans
have only 33 and the Christians, 30 per cent. But the Hindus marry earher and
while on the one hand the very young wives are incapable of child-bearing, and
early conceptions often result in abortions, on the other, the children born of
very young mothers are more delicate and loss able to stand the attacks of
disease in infancy. Muhammadan females wlio marry at the child-bearing age
enter at once into motherhood and with less risk of abortions. So even with a
slightly lower proportion of married females at child-bearing ages among the
Muhammadans, their birth-rate is higher. But taking th^ married females
20 — 45 years old, the Muhammadans are better off. They have 320 married
females of these ages per mille of total population against 31S among the
Hindus, who are handicapped by their increasing number of widows as
years advance. The system of enforced widowhood places
Hge of 40 — 45 at a distinct disadvantage. An exammation
birth-rate for each district shows ihnt, with the exception
very healthy district, where the Hindus have a birth-rate of
women of the
of the average
of Mianwali, a
42 against one
Births and
deaths in
towns.
of 40 for the Muhammadans, the latter show a higher birth-rate everywhere
than the Hindus. It is a pity that statistics of births by religion are not available
for the previous decades, and it is, therefore, not possible to judge whether the
results commented upon here, are normal incidents or are peculiar for the last ten
years ; and if the former is the case, wliether the Muliammadans have been
gaining gj'ound for any considerable time.
301. 'i he birth-rate for the urban and rural areas (in Btitisii Territory)
as compiled from vital statistics is shown in the margin.
The births in the rural area are slightly in excess of
those in the urban tracts, which is in a measure
due to a higher proportion of women to the total
population, in the former area.' The conditions of
urban life described in Chapter II are also likely to affect
the fecundity of females in towns, and it is believed that the laxity of morals
there, goes a long way to cause sterility. On the other hand, the death-rate i?
somewhat larger in the urban than in the rural tracts, aa is shown in the margin.
Birth-rate per mille of the
population of 1901,
Rural 408
Urban 404
Death-rate per mille of the
population of 190).
Rural ... 432
Urban 469
• A sneeper woman at Lahore was confined of four children bt one birth, in 191 .
207
V. VITAL STATISTICS.
[ Punjab, 1911.
Here again the open-air life of the niral population stands in good stead in spite
of the advantages of medical aid more readily available in towns.
302. A rough estimate of births and deaths can be framed from the Census Compari-
figures. The total population under 10 years of age is 6,500,497 (British Territory) son of cal-
which represents the births of the past decade less the deaths which have culated
occurred in the newly born population. These may be estimated as including fignres of
Present population under 10 5,500,497 ^^^ ^'^6 deaths Under one year, births and
4di-Death8 jnder 1 year during the ^^^^^^^ ' half of thoSe flOm 1—5 and One- deaths with
Jot „ '" „ '" ""i— 5.'.'.' '69o;834 fourth of those from 5—10. An vital statia-
*°f " ■ ■• ^~^°"_J!!:!!^ 2.855 119 ^^dition of 2,855J 19 should thus be tics.
- — : — made to the present po pulation unde r
Estimate of births 8,355,616 10 as worked Out in the margin, and
the result 8,355,616 would be an approximate estimate of the births during the
past decade. The total births registered during the decade are 8,286,261,
which figure does not differ much from the above estimate, bearing in mind
that the share of deaths in the age-poriods 1 — 5 and 5 — 10 taken into
calculation, is based upon mere guess-work. The number of deaths during
the decade may, on the other hand be arrived at by deducting the total
PopuiaUon of 1901 ... 20,330,337 population of 10 years and over, now en-
XtSiuoa of 191119,974.956 umerated, from the total population of 1901 and
Less aged under 10 5,500,497 makmg an addition on account of deaths among
^^j_ 1^,474.459 tije children bora in the past ten years. The
Deaths among infants born 5,855.878 Calculation made in the margin would give an
within the decade (estimate) 2.855.119 estimate of deaths amounting to 8,710,997 against
jlatimate of deaths ... 8.710,997 the actual figure of 8,843,708.
Census Report. ]
208
SUBSIDIAEY TABLES.
Chaptee
SUBSIDIARY TABLE I.
Age distribution of 100,000 of each sex by annual periods.
ilALEa.
FEU<t
LEB.
Ma
LES.
fEMjLEa.
a
c
a
Q
a
CO
e)
0]
■o
ta
T3
T3
d
d
a
c9
S
a
a
a
a
B
D
i
a
i
3
a
<
-a
a
S
J5
c5
a
■a
00
a
a
t
o
Eh
<
73
a
5
J3
63
03
p
a
1
•a
£
a
a
a
■s
El
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
3,829
3,905
4,337
4,041
4,641
4,457
5,104
4,751
1
1,988
1,590
1,644
1,786
1,754
1,777
1,916
1,821
56
171
172
175
173
57
206
169
124
2
1,614
2,308
2,431
2,051
2,345
2,475
2,829
2,556
57
100
61
58
77
64
55
74
62
3
2,313
2,579
2,816
2,555
2,709
2,514
3,253
2,894
58
100
172
128
123
62
151
141
107
4
•^,240
2,222
2,892
2,493
2,337
2,784
3,336
2,801
59
63
92
60
67
19
119
40
43
6
2,642
2,910
3,387
2,979
2,863
2,990
3,330
3,067
60
2,511
2,830
2,316
2,488
3,030
3,609
2,614
2,954
6
2,423
2,818
3,206
2,796
2,669
3,046
3,469
2,998
Gl
68
49
136
92
121
16
52
78
7
2,049
2,064
2,756
2,430
2,293
2,824
3,007
2,657
62
145
215
120
147
70
222
117
112
8
2,715
3,156
3,541
3,113
2,566
2,832
3,260
2,877
63
47
24
39
40
51
16
15
32
9
1,778
2,474
2,332
2,112
1,770
2,086
2,236
2,003
64
61
74
60
63
5
16
49
24
10
2,887
3,389
3,324
3,143
2,693
2,927
3,097
2,888
65
488
1,093
749
692
532
865
584
603
11
1,591
1,694
1,411
1,538
1,495
1,459
1,476
1,482
66
54
74
58
59
19
40
40
30
12
3,B00
3,518
3,929
3,715
2,561
3,180
3,001
2,830
67
79
43
24
51
30
24
15
23
13
1,441
1,627
1,701
1,575
1,306
1,277
1,278
1,288
C8
40
98
73
63
6
56
49
30
14
2,15a
2,229
2,248
2,202
1,708
1,777
1,842
1,7V1
69
14
43
42
30
11
24
19
16
16
2,S92
1,922
1,866
2,327
2,258
1,356
1,605
1,862
70
727
1,848
1,102
1,062
1,279
1,198
919
1,124
16
2.602 2,345
2,062
2,347
2,269
1,864
1,996
2,099
71
19
13
13
3
16
28
15
17
1,437
909
722
1,068
1,114
690
624
855
72
28
* ..
68
39
5
71
58
36
IS
2,957
2,204
2,581
2,683
2,833
1,904
2,276
2,470
73
9
13
9
...
...
9
4
19
850
731
681
764
569
444
60b
565
74
12
""l8
8
11
• •.
32
9
9
2*.
4,791
2,984
3,350
3,923
5,518
3,038
3,844
4,475
75
126
37
196
139
81
389
203
176
2]
766
424
437
580
599
301
415
481
76
12
12
21
15
16
15
9
22
2,614
1.995
2,052
2,290
2,471
1,991
1,833
2,145
77
5
*■■
6
4
• .>
9
4
23
C59
786
610
661
685
468
449
558
78
9
• ■■
10
8
3
...
28
12
24
1,030
8C6
1,008
9S4
i^-so
896
1,205
1,088
79
5
13
7
5
...
15
9
25
5,069
4,169
4,415
4,66:^
5,577
4,410
4,293
4,890
80
321
1,050
605
554
240
833
286
849
2t
1,252
1,351
1,139
1,224
1,171
1,340
1,362
1,273
81
21
8
...
8
12
6
27
981
1,056
759
907
898
872
735
830
82
"la
• ••
21
13
5
40
12
13
2t
1,420
1,737
1,432
l,47t
1,417
1,800
1,461
1,493
83
14
>•■
...
6
...
...
...
..>
2£
20B
436
377
311
183
357
329
268
84
2
10
6
5
3
4
31
5,121
4,003
4,455
4,672
6,613
4,687
4,966
5,066
85
28
71
40
3
'"79
65
39
31
203
141
215
197
273
143
209
228
86
...
8
3
...
...
3
1
3i
1,686
2,179
2,057
1,871
1,284
2,47a
1,863
1,696
87
"" 5
■ •>
2
• *•
31
428
3n9
526
462
224
333
351
29J
88
12
...
'" 3
6
...
'" 8
8
2
34
329
645
612
493
227
65f
532
412
89
10
4
...
8
43
IS
3J
3,957
3,315
3,099
3,513
3,990
3,545
3,558
3,751
90
""ei
"288
154
136
40
174
62
68
36
633
1,(44
858
79(
483
808
707
622
91
5
...
9
6
■i1
224
301
170
2)6
132
198
188
164
92
■■■ 7
...
"10
7
..t
8
...
1
3>'
500
571
492
SOS
399
793
572
628
93
2
68
24
3
...
37
16
3£
143
246
181
175
100
293
221
178
94
2
• ..
3
2
3
...
3
2
4C
5,121
4,144
4,905
4,87r
6,411
5,512
5,655
5,974
95
19
...
21
16
8
24
12
12
41
217
67
141
162
227
48
185
183
96
7
...
6
5
3
...
• *•
1
4!
577
700
497
5ti7
359
714
572
498
97
2
3
2
3
...
6
4
43
222
141
105
162
67
111
111
91
98
...
...
• ••
5
...
3
4
44
287
190
147
216
140
167
148
U7
99
"" 2
' " 8
4
,,
...
3
1
45
2,922
3,082
3,167
3,045
2,544
3,117
2,724
2,703
100
49
" 31
16
33
16
79
12
24
4f
285
307
154
237
192
270
200
207
101
...
3
I
...
• ••
...
...
47
222
129
81
151
70
143
83
86
102
...
3
1
...
8
...
1
48
397
473
288
867
213
682
394
356
103
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
4S
89
166
97
105
40
159
102
83
108
...
...
...
3
...
...
1
6C
4,287
3,911
3,829
4,044
4,625
4,283
3,822
4,255
116
"' 2
...
...
1
...
...
&1
140
117
138
136
132
71
114
116
S£
378
344
288
336
175
333
234
223
53
114
123
50
9(
40
63
62
49
54
107
141
267
176
57
143
120
95
65
1,285
1,793
1,214
1,342
1,071
1,713
1,030
1,153
209
EDBSIDIABT TABLES.
[ Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IL
Age distribution of 10,000 of each sex in the Province and each Natural Division.
A8B.
1911.
1901.
1891,
1881.
Males.
Females,
Males.
Females,
Males,
Females,
Males.
Females.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
PUNJAB.
0—1
381
444
301
327
409
466
318
357
1-2
146
172
160
177
288
313
179
201
2—3
229
264
255
272
292
327
205
231
3—4
259
302
256
284
291
309
247
280
4—5
262
290
273
290
323
326
267
287
Total 0-5
i,277
2,472
1^5
1,350
1,603
1,741
1,216
1,356
5-10
1,333
1,388
1,354
1,365
1,364
1,355
1,354
1,353
10—15
1,189
1,029
1,231
1,087
1,054
916
1,216
1,069
15—20
915
817
913
842
1,04£
1,078
902
861
20—25
850
889
794
852
927
948
856
915
25—30
874
884
837
871
942
1,('00
852
882
30-35
790
828
820
861
648
602
833
859
35—40
536
514
551
542
659
708
514
495
40-45
601
652
642
673
356
326
648
693
45-50
377
347
355
337
504
503
354
323
50—55
475
460
468
462
201
163
496
473
55—60
182
152
184
159
372
364
174
146
60—65
236
297
[ 606
65-70
195
71
506
325
•296
585
575
70 aud over ...
J 70
200
Mkan Agb
25-2
247
25-0
219
23'C
22fl
250
24-7
INDO-OANGETIO PLAIN WEST.
0-5
1,243
1,451
1,185
1,274
1,594
1,720
1,160
1,281
5-10
1,255
1,304
1,332
1,342
1,321
1,313
1,286
1,286
10—15
1,199
1,028
1,246
1,U7
1,08C
939
1,236
1,092
15-20
1,022
878
978
876
1,092
1,100
■■-962
893
20—40
3,107
3,150
3,005
3,123
3,204
3,302
3,111
3,207
40—60
1,627
1,648
1,683
1,688
1,419
1,365
1,697
1,691
60 and over
547
541
671
580
290
261
548
550
HIMALAYAN.
0—5
1,089
1,225
1,054
1,195
1,375
1,589
1,053
1,209
5-10
1,191
I,28H
1,177
1,293
1,239
1,282
1,266
1,343
10-15
1,098
1,002
1,212
1,089
1,070
827
1,188
1,022
15—20
904
927
914
912
1,013
1,113
910
928
20-40
3,170
3,246
3,186
3,258
3,388
3,406
3,233
3,304
40-60
1,843
1,659
1,805
1,613
1,532
1,338
1,707
1,568
60 aad over
705
653
652
640
383
345
643
626
SOB-DIMALAYAN.
0-5
1,274
1,460
1,286
1,353
1,562
1,666
1,217
1,350
5-10
1,352
1,39H
1,348
1,318
1,416
1,395
1,406
1,396
10—15
1,208
1,040
1,234
1,054
1,057
917
1,265
1,110
15—20
844
763
881
818
1,026
1,065
887
865
20—40
2,979
3,07H
2,955
3,138
3,155
3,247
3,022
3,105
40—60
1,66 1
1,645
1.635
1,670
1,427
1,377
1,613
1,597
60 and over
682
621
Gtil
619
357
333
590
577
NOETH-WEST DRY AREA.
0-5
1,403
1,604
1,408
1,589
1,812
3,017
1,482
1,690
6-10
1,509
1,576
1,477
1,509
1,467
1,454
1,523
1.497
10—15
1,175
1,029
1,194
1,056
959
834
1,070
936
15-20
779
722
793
7G-I
944
1,015
725
715
20-40
2,975
3.044
2,989
3,081
3,023
3,070
2,844
2,975
40—60 ... ... ... 1,563
1,487
1,531
1,450
1,443
1,295
1,690
1,562
60 and over ... ... ... 506
538
608 5511
352
315
666
625
NoUa. — (1). Fifcures of ago periods 60—65, 65 — 70 and 70 and over are not available for 1881, 1891 aud 1901 and have beea
ooUeoiively worked out for 60 and over.
^2), Figures of 1901 do not inolude the population of llilooh Trans- Frontier.
Censns Beport.]
210
BVBSIDIABT TABLES.
Chapter
SUBSIDIARY TABLE III.
Age distribution of 10,000 of each sex in each main religion.
AOB.
ALL BEIilGIONS.
0—5
5—10
10—15
15—20
20—40
40-60
CO and oyer
Mean Aqb
0—5
5-10
10—15
15—20
20—40
40-60
60 and orei
Mian Age
0-5
5-10
10—15
15—20
20—40
40—60
60 and orer
Mean Age
HINDU.
SIKH.
MUHAMMADAN.
0-5
5—10
10-15
15—20
20—40
40—60
60 and over
Mian Aob
CHEI8TIAN.
0—5
5—10
10—15
15—20
20—40
40—60
60 and over
Mean Agb
1911.
Males. I Females.
1,277
1,333
1,189
915
3,050
1,635
601
25-2
1,189
1,235
1,166
999
3,158
1,695
558
25-5
1,247
1,261
1,189
977
2,992
1,679
655
257
J, 347
1,422
1,209
842
2,970
1,588
622
24-9
1,348
1,293
1,001
744
3,955
1,225
434
237
1901.
1,472
1,388
1,029
817
3,115
1,611
568
247
1,386
1,302
1,028
886
3,189
1,655
554
250
1,417
1,300
975
781
3,136
1,746
645
Males.
1,245
1,355
1,231
913
3,001
1,649
606
250
253
1,157
1,249
1,219
998
2,879
1,767
731
257
261
1,541
1,467
1,040
776
8,059
1,553
564
1,342
1,421
1,233
869
2,940
1,572
623
242
246
1,777
1,572
1,061
792
3,045
1,332
421
949
956
810
608
5,379
1,011
287
22-9
24-4
Females.
1891.
1,350
1,365
1,087
842
3,128
1,632
596
24-9
1,156
1.267
1,304
1,349
1,234
1,102
948
862
3,079
3,158
1,717
1,681
562
581
251
1,151
1,190
1,040
864
3,189
1,863
703
26-7
1,451
1,407
1.083
821
3,093
1,553
598
24-4
1,557
1,472
],U0
879
3,367
1.238
377
225
Males.
1,603
1,364
1,054
1,045
3,176
1,433
325
23-0
1,546
1,294
1.082
1,076
3,274
1,435
293
231
1,545
1,317
1,082
1,006
3,021
1.633
396
Females.
1,740
1,355
916
1,078
3,259
1,356
296
22-6
1,706
1,303
935
1,092
3,327
1,365
272
227
1,542
1,261
942
1,017
3,369
1,520
349
1881.
239
23-8
1,673
1,443
1,028
1,024
3,093
1,397
344
1,806
1,418
894
1,075
3,178
1,321
308
227
22-2
891
786
530
775
6,137
767
114
1,788
1,506
977
1,052
3,503
984
190
233
20-7
Males.
1,216
1,354
1,216
902
3,055
1,673
584
25-0
1,122
1,291
1,217
947
3,191
1,697
635
252
1,184
1,225
1,163
939
3,016
1,809
664
260
1,313
1,440
1,229
854
2,918
1,627
619
247
678
559
414
308
7,095
771
85
25-4
Females.
1,356
1.353
1,069
861
3,151
1,635
575
24-7
1,260
1,312
1,064
887
3,247
1,667
663
25 0
1.291
1,197
1,027
847
3,223
1,788
627
258
1,453.
1,417
1,080
840
3,051
1,582
577
243
1,679
1,477
1,120
956
3,671
908
189
206
i
i
V.
211
BUBSIDIAEY TABLKS.
[Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV.
Age distribution of 1,000 of each sex in
certain castes-
o
ClSTB.
Males. Number per mille aoed
Females. Ndmbeb pee mille
AGED
1
'C
0—5.
5-12.
12—15.
15-40.
40 and
over.
0—5.
5—12.
12-15.
15-40.
40 and
over.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1
Apgarw^l .,, ,,,
116
163
78
430
213
130
167
66
417
220
2
Ahi'r
121
165
72
410
232
150
165
61
385
239
3
Ariin
135
186
77
379
223
161
190
66
377
206
4
Arori
121
184
76
399
220
139
182
70
394
215
5
Aw4n
142
192
76
369
221
150
189
61
383
217
6
BarwiU ...
146
189
75
375
215
167
185
67
372
209
7
Bawaria ...
163
193
68
372
204
J 93
188
57
391
171
8
Bharai ... ...
137
170
78
388
227
152
178
57
389
224
9
10
Biloch ...
Brahman ...
145
105
200
154
79
73
344
423
23S
245
165
124
195
164
56
60
367
404
217
248
11
Chamir ...
129
171
77
414
209
148
172
66
413
201
12
Chhimbi ...
131
160
76
395
238
147
168
63
394
228
13
Chnhra ...
153
190
78
390
189
176
188
63
391
182
14
Pagi and Koli
106
164
64
412
254
122
167
54
421
236
13
Dhauak ...
142
165
77
419
197
154
171
65
425
185
16
Dhobi
131
180
73
386
230
149
186
63
390
212
17
Dogar
125
179
82
413
201
155
182
66
395
202
1«
Diimni
130
175
71
396
228
144
177
61
417
201
19
Fnqir
121
161
73
392
253
153
185
64
384
214
2U
Ghirath ...
131
175
74
390
230
145
183
61
409
202
21
Gujar
120
167
82
400
231
141
171
68
394
226
22
H4rni
146
180
63
399
212
162
175
85
381
197
23
■lat
125
176
80
304
225
144
175
66
388
227
24
Jhinwar ... ^,,
124
169
74
410
223
148
176
63
400
213
25
Jogi-Rawal
152
190
79
363
216
147
182
64
376
231
26
JnlAlia ...
134
174
73
384
235
154
179
63
393
211
27
Kamboh ...
135
183
76
390
216
185
184
69
385
207
28
Kanet
104
155
71
411
259
113
163
59
419
246
29
Kashmiri
124
173
86
382
235
139
176
68
379
238
30
Khatri ...
112
164
78
415
231
136
168
66
392
238
31
Khoja
152
184
90
365
209
153
185
75
383
204
32
Khokhar ...
129
187
73
380
231
148
195
63
388
206
33
Kumhir ...
139
177
77
300
217
154
177
64
390
215
31
Laban4 ... ,,,
147
190
96
351
216
147
187
65
380
22!
35
Lobar ...
135
178
76
387
224
147
180
68
391
214
36
Michhi ...
152
190
76
364
218
165
189
63
875
208
37
Mabtam ...
170
211
73
355
191
196
211
65
360
168
38
Mali
119
159
78
432
212
141
164
64
426
205
39
Mnliiir
139
aoo
75
357
229
147
187
60
393
213
40
Mallah ...
131
208
76
369
216
153
203
59
377
208
41
Mf^o ... ...
119
190
98
400
103
128
182
79
405
2C6
42
Mirasi
138
178
73
384
227
151
177
62
384
226
4:<
Mochi
142
186
76
373
223
16J
185
65
378
211
44
Moghal
126
172
75
394
233
139
176
65
393
227
45
Mussallf ...
163
191
74
363
209
183
198
C4
373
182
40
Niii
127
175
76
396
226
148
175
62
395
222
47
[•akh«w4ra
139
195
81
346
239
171
191
58
375
205
48
PatliAn ...
113
159
71
430
227
144
181
65
385
23S
4;<
Qaasib ... ... . .
139
193
82
385
201
150
192
66
392
200
50
ynreshi ...
132
182
76
374
236
139
179
64
398
220
51
Rijput
125
174
78
396
227
145
170
63
398
224
5:i
^-nini
117
165
75
390
253
132
167
64
393
244
53
Siiisi
150
193
81
351
226
162
182
70
376
210
54
Savail
124
170
74
391
232
135
178
65
393
22P
55
Sheikh ...
114
!58
75
428
225
137
172
65
410
216
56
Snnar
132
178
79
398
213
148
183
65
386
218
57
T..rkh4n ...
131
175
75
390
229
151
176
64
388
221
58
Tell
13T
182
77
396
209
157 175
64
396
208
Census Report. ]
212
BUBSIDIABY TABLES.
Chaptbb
SUBSIDIARY TABLE V.
Proportion of children under 10 and of persons over 60 to those aged 15
and also of married females aged 15-^0 per 100 females.
-40
;
Natoral Division, Dis-
trict oa State.
Pbopoetion
OF CHILDREN, BOTB SEZBS.
PER 100.
PttOPORTION OF PERSONS
OVER PER lUO AQED
kGBO 60
15-40.
AMD
Ndmberof hakriku
females acbd15 —
40 pkk 100 feualbs
cf all aob8.
Persons agtd 15— 40.
Married females
aged 15—40,
1911.
1901.
1891.
1911.
1901.
1891.
to
s
00
EL
ce
B
to
El,
CD
V
"a
i
a
to
"a
1911.
1901.
1891.
1911.
1901.
1891.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
n
12
13
14
15
16
TOTAIi PROVINCE ...
69
67
71
179
168
176
15
14
15
15
8
7
34
34
37
1. Indo-Gangetic Plain
Wkst-
64
64
68
170
159
169
13
13
14
14
7
6
35
35
38
1. Hissar
2. Loharu Slate ...
3. Rohtak
4. Dujana State ...
5. Gurgaoa
64
75
62
74
61
58
55
67
66
71
77
80
67
76
61
166
176
153
169
150
150
139
154
150
16d
191
200
160
175
149
11
16
13
19
12
12
is
12
17
12
12
13
13
17
12
14
17
14
17
13
7
7
6
8
4
6
6
5
6
4
36
35
36
35
3a
34
34
38
34
35
36
35
39
37
41
6. Pataadi Slate ...
7. Delhi
8. Karnal
9. Jullundar
10. Kapurthala State
63
53
57
68
70
69
61
59
67
70
60
54
60
70
72
147
141
174
185
161
151
150
157
166
150
140
156
168
180
16
10
10
19
17
16
11
9
19
16
15
11
10
19
18
16
12
10
19
17
6
4
5
8
8
4
4
4
8
7
35
36
37
34
33
36
37
36
35
35
39
41
39
3:1
37
11. Ludhiana
12. Maler Kotla State
13. Ferozepore
14. Faridkjt State ...
15. Patiala State ...
63
56
67
68
61
64
6.1
65
66
57
66
70
76
82
64
171
154
187
185
165
154
153
172
180
147
160
167
191
208
163
15
15
12
12
13
14
14
13
13
13
18
20
13
12
14
18
18
13
13
15
8
7
7
7
6
6
6
6
7
5
34
35
34
35
35
35
35
33
33
35
39
38
37
36
38
16. Jind State
17. Nabhi State ...
18. Lahore
19. Amritsar
20. Gujranwala
61
63
63
67
78
59
61
66
70
72
67
67
73
75
70
156
168
184
180
208
148
157
171
167
179
171
169
1^4
178
173
12
15
12
16
16
13
15
15
16
15
13
15
14
18
18
14
16
14
16
15
6
6
7
8
8
6
5
6
7
7
37
35
34
34
32
35
35
35
35
34
3S
38
3.S
39
2. HlMAHYAN
58
57
61
141
139
151
17
16
16
15
9
8
36
36
38
2L Nahan State ...
22. Simla
23. Stmla Hill State$
24. Kangra
25. Mandi Stnle ...
26. Suket Slate
27. Chamba Stale ...
57
32
53
63
61
47
59
57
30
52
61
! -
59
59
35
57
65
67
60
63
137
121
129
150
144
119
I3h
l3i
11-
12G
149
i 139
13S
150
129
1-19
163
15^
l.i2
14K
15
8
16
18
19
14
24
14
11
16
16
16
12
19
14
7
15
16
1 "
24
13
11
15
15
15
20
6
3
9
9
11
7
13
5
5
8
7
9
6
10
39
37
36
35
36
38
36
39
38
37
35
1 36
35
42
4('
39
36
37
37
38
3. SOB-HlUALAYAN
71
68
71
182
166
176
18
16
17
16
9
8
33
34
37
28. Ambala
29. Kalsia State ...
30. Hoshiarpur
HI. Gurdaspur
32. Sialkot
53
57
68
75
82
54
60
66
71
75
58
65
71
74
73
l3l
158
168
199
209
141
156
154
17:<
176
154
167
167
19 :<
170
12
13
21
16
20
12
12
19
15
18
12
13
19
16
19
14
14
19
15
IH
6
6
9
7
9
6
5
9
6
S
35
35
34
33
32
36
35
35
35
34
39
38
38
36
39
33. Gujrat
34. Jhelum
35. Rawalpindi
36. Attack
79
69
65
80
72
72
G8
4
78
78
72
193
17"
lti6
194
17rt
172
173
•
186
191
187
20
21
17
17
17
17
15
15
18
21
16
•
17
17
14
10
12
9
•
8
11
8
•
32
33
34
32
32
32
34
»
36
34
36
•
4. Nobth-We a t D r y
AEBA—
81
78
81
209
202
212
16
14
16
11
9
8
32
32
35
37. Montgomery ...
38. Bhahpur
39. Miaiiwali
4C. Lyallpur
84
76
90
85
79
78
82
72
91
86
•
•
22T
204
22.'
229
214
206
198
195
2r.^
213
*
•
17
111
17
15
15
14
15
15
17
21
16
15
14
17
14
12
11
12
•
*
9
10
•
•
30
31
.30
S2
30
29
33
34
33
33
*
•
41. Jhanc;
42. Multan
43. B'th'iiralpur State
44. Muzaffarirarh ...
4b. Dera Ghazi Khan
83
79
74
78
84
81
77
77
78
86
91
78
80
80
85
22' ■
20«
189
190
2 2
210i
2)1
20'>
193
809
22'i
205
204
197
2)9
19
15
15
15
17
16
It
13
13
15
21
14
15
14
16
16
13
IS
13
15
13
7
6
7
8
10
7
6
6
7
30
32
34
34
34
30
33
33
34
34
32
35
37
37
36
* Figures not available.
Y.
213
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
[ Punjab, 1911.
\
STJBSIDIAEY TABLE VI.
Variation in population at certain age-periods-
District oe State and Natceal
Division.
TOTAL PROVINCE ...
Inoo-Gangbtio Plain Webt
Hissar
Loharu State
Rohtak
Dujana State ...
Gnrgaon
Pataudi State ...
Delhi
KarDal •••
Jollundar
Kapurthala State
Lodhiana
Maler Kotla State
Ferozepora
Faridkot State ...
Patlala State ...
Jind State ...
Nabha State ...
Lahore
Amritsar
Gajranwala ...
Himalayan ,,.
l}ahan State
Simla
Simla Hill Stales
■1
Period.
Variatiou per cent, in population {increase -(- decrease — ),
(
1881-
1891-
1901-
IbSl—
1S91—
1901—
1881.
1891—
1901
1881 —
1891
1901—
1881—
1891-
1901—
1881—
1891 —
1901—
1881—
1891—
1901 —
1881—
1891—
1901 —
1881—
1891
1901
1881—
1S91—
1901—
1881-
1891--
1901 —
1881-
1891—
1901
1881
1891—
1901-
1881—
1891—
1901—
1881-
1891 —
1901-
1881-
1891 —
1901-
1881—
1891—
1901-
1881-
1891-
1901-
1881-
1891-
1901-
1881-
1891-
1901-
18K1-
1891-
1901-
1881-
1891-
1901-
1881-
1891-
1901-
1881-
1891-
1901-
1881
189
1901
1881
1891
1901
2
1891
1901
1911
1891
1901
1911
1891
inoi
1911
1891
1901
1911
1891
1901
1911
•1891
1901
■1911
■1891
1901
1911
1891
1901
1911
1891
1901
1911
1891
1901
1911
1891
1901
1911
1891
1901
1911
1891
1901
1911
1891
1901
1911
•1891
■1901
•1911
1891
1901
1911
1891
1901
1911
1891
1901
1911
■1891
-1901
■1911
-1891
■1901
IPU
-1891
-1901
-1911
-1891
-1901
-1911
-1891
-1901
-1911
-1891
• 1901
-1911
— 1891
—1901
—1911
—1891
1901
1911
All ages.
+101
+ 8-2
— 22
-flo-8
+ 63
— 7-9
+ 2 4
+ -7
-t- 3'0
— 2-f4
-f22-l
+ 6 7
4- 6-8
-14-1
-fl30
— 8'
+ 54
-h 4-2
-f-irs
—13-8
-t- 65
+15-4
—10-1
— -7
+ 7-9
— 4-6
+ 9-8
4-29-2
— 9-4
-fl4-9
+ 11
-12-6
+186
+ 4-9
—14-7
+ 4-8
+ 3-8
— 232
-f 66
+ 2-3
_ 8
-f36-3
+ 81
-f- 02
-fl8-6
+ 8-6
+ 4-3
-f 7-9
-f
— 11-8
+ 13-9
— -9
— 3-6
+ 80
+ 5-4
—16 5
4-16 4
4- 81
— 10-8
4-111
4- 3-1
— 140
4-11-9
+ 9
4-22-0
4- 6-9
4- 2-7
4- 2-0
4-10-5
4- 9-3
4- 2-1
4- 4-0
— 9-6
— 2-6
+ 3
4- 5-2
4- 3-9
0—10.
10—15.
15—40.
-f26-3
— 51
+ 3
4-31-5
— 8 2
— 6-2
4-22-1
—24-7
-M8-0
4-84-6
—47-3
4-57-6
4-28-6
— 5-2
—15-7
-f 46 5
—2Th
-t-18-4
-f-29-2
4- 8-6
— 23-0
4-4-11
4-13-0
— 19"3
4-16-9
4- 4-5
—14 4
4-27-5
4-15-4
-10-6
4-i3-5
— 133
—11
-^49-8
— 8-0
—15-2
4-17-8
— 9-4
-21-5
4-30-2
—19-0
—12-2
-F57-3
— 11-6
4- 6-7
4-31-2
—132
4-10-7
-Tt-24-8
—16-1
— 4-3
4-32-2
—19-1
+ 3-2
4-25-1
-11-6
— 12-0
+38-5
— 8-1
—11
4-39-7
— 12-1
—15-5
4-22-6
4- 4-3
4-27-0
4-20-4
—11-7
4- 3-7
4-19-6
— 6-6
4- 4-2
4-18-9
-26-7
-f 4-1
4-25-7
—10-4
+ 6-2
— 50
4-272
— 6 2
— 3-8
4-24-3
— 12-H
+ 1-7
-F24-3
— 233
4-44-9
— 56
-14-7
— 4-5
4-25-1
—16-9
— 50
-fl5-5
-15-8
—20-4
4-23-2
-f -4
—25-0
-+32-8
+ 2-9
—17-9
4-16-4
+ 9-6
— -8
4-49-0
—13-6
—16-6
+30-0
— 15-7
—10-5
+ 31-0
— 9-0
— -a
+11-7
-24-4
— -7
4-20-7
—19-8
-Jj-24-0
+30-4
—16-3
-f20-6
+24-0
—13-6
-f 6-5
4- 9-0
-•20-9
+ 5-9
+16-5
-17-^
4- 3-6
+16-6
--24-3
— 4-1
+36-6
—21-5
—11-4
+33-8
—13-7
—1-2-7
+10-9
—32
— 3-5
+ 18-2
— b'-9
-i- 5-4
-f-23-2
-14-2
— -5
— 3-1
+ 1-2
+ 3-9
4-150
— 3
40—60. 60 and over
+18-2
— -2
— 1-9
+17-8
— 2-4
— 5-8
+ 4-0
+ -0
+ 6-3
+47-2
—22-5
+15-1
+11-4
— 4-7
— 9-7
+13-5
— 15-8
+ 5-1
+12-4
— 6-1
—11-0
+13-6
— 2-7
-11-6
+11-7
— 6-9
— 1-7
+20-6
+17-3
— 6-7
+15-8
— 9-1
—12-8
+21-3
— 5-8
—15-2
+10-2
— 5-6
—20-7
+U
— 8-0
+ 1
+42-2
+ 4-0
+ 2-8
4-20-8
+ 8-4
+ 7-1
+16-2
— 6-3
— 9-4
+22-8
— K-4
+ -5
+15-6
— 3-2
—14-4
+25-0
+ 1-7
— 7-2
+ 15-2
— bS
—12-3
+31-1
+ -3
+17-G
+ 13-8
— 4-7
+ 1-7
+23-2
— 1-7
+ 4-1
+ 9-8
-13-9
— b-6
4-14-2
— 1-9
+ 3-2
7
— 7 0
+271
— 3-2
— 8
+28-5
—10-6
— ie-6
+'26-1
— 3:2
+19-5
—11-6
+19-2
—12-1
+33-5
—19-1
— 5-1
+13-4
+ 1-1
—17-7
+ 47-3
—14-4
— 16'6
4-36-3
— 4-5
-24-3
+39-6
— 3-9
—16-7
+64-5
-10-7
+ 6-5
+14-2
— 11-1
+ 1-2
+23-1
—15-4
— 7-7
+22-4
— 25-4
— 11-0
+2\
— 9-9
+ 14-8
-f-32-0
— 3-6
4- 3-0
+32-7
+
—13-5
+26-2
— 18-6
— b-
■f26-2
-11-7
— 9-5
-1-29-8
—20-9
— 6-6
4-26-1
— .9 6i
— 8-2
+ 18-1
-13-6
— 4-6
+20-3
+20-2
— 6-2
+22-3
+ 4'5
—10-7
+45-3
4- 2-5
-12-9
4-13-4
— 4-6
— 3-6
+27-7
+ 6-1
+
+
+
+
+
+
8
— 40-9
+1089
— 46
— 44-1
4-120-9
— 12-9
— 46-7
853
3-9
35-1
09-0
34-.2
46-9
11-8
17-0
39-5
96-3
12-0
54-2
4-185-1
— 14-1
— 49-4
+224-2
— 8-9
— 62-7
4-166-3
— 1.1 -a
— 52-7
+ 159-1
— 13-0
— 21-5
+ 116-2
— 14-2
— 24-0
+112-6
— .17-9
— 43-1
+ 135-4
— 35-Q
— 52-7
+ 176-6
— 23 •§
— 27-0
+ 94-4 I
— 1-3,
— 34-6 '
+ 103-1 I
+ 41'
— 51-2
+ 125-9.
— 19-0
— 52-4
+ 121-4
— 5-2
— 54-CI
+ 153-2
— 18-.*<
— 40-0
4-104-0
— 13-0
— 3b-9
+ 115-5
— JS-i( .
— 46 1
+ 109-3
+ 13-4
— 38-7
+ 82-0
+ 7'*.
— 50-2
+ 133-9
+
+
■<-
-f
•7-
S'5
49-3
74-8
11-6
34-5
76-0
6-6
Census Report. ]
214
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
Chapter
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VI.
Variation in population at certain sige-j^erioAs— concluded.
DisTBiCT OE State and Natdbal
Period.
Variation per cent, in population {increase
+ decrease — )
Division.
All Ages.
0—10.
10—15.
15-40.
40—60.
60 and over.
1
2
3
4
5
C
7
8
1881-1891
4- 4-4
+ 17-3
— 9-2
+ 10-4
— 81
— 347
Kangra
1(>91— 1901 ^
+ •'r
—12-9
+ 18-8
— 7-6
+21-0
+ 82-5
1901— 19U
+ -3
+ 2-2
—10-5
— -3
+ 3-6
+ 8-0
18»1— 1891
+13-5
+26-7
+ 40
+ 19-3
+ 5-9
— 320
Mandi State ... ... 3
1891— 19U1
+ 5-1
— 7-3
+17-5
+ 1-1
+137
+ 67-9
19U1-1911
+ 3 2
+ 2-4
— Vo
+ 31
+ 71
+ 5-4
1881—1891
— 15
+le-3
+ -8
+ 4-t5
—15-6
— 50-9
Suket Slate ... ... )
1891—1901
+ 1-6
-19-9
+171
+ 1-8
+11-2
+ 88-1
19C1— 19U
+ 3-2
+ 2-4
— 1-5
+ 3-1
+ 7-1
+ 5*
1881-1891
+ 7-1
+21-6
_ 5-8
+26-5
— 6-4
— hai
Chamba State ... ... J
1S91— 1901
4- 31
— iri
+29-5
— 5-4
+12-5
+ 770
1901-1911
+ 63
+ 7-7
+ 2-2
+ 7-7
+ 50
+ 37
IgHl — 1>>91
+ 7-8
+21-3
—10-4
+ 161
— 5-8
— 36-2
SCB-HlMALAYAN ... )
1801 — 1901
— 4 1
— IS'V
+ 11-2
-120
+128
+ 817
1901 — 1911
— 5-9
— 32
— 7-4
- 7-4
— 5-8
— 6-0
1881 — 1891
— 3-2
+ 5-6
— ST
+ 6-7
-21-5
— 52-8
Ambala ... ... )
1891—1901
—211
-32*7
-16-1
-271
+ 1-4
+ 67-2
1901-1911
-15-4
—14-9
— 20!t
-13-3
—16-8
— 10-3
1881—1891
— 1-4
+10-4
+ -6
+ll-(i
-17-0
— d5'8
Kalsia Slate ... ...J
1891 — 1901
— 21
-17-3
+ 71
— 9-6
+251
+ 122-6
1901—1011
-16-8
—17-0
—221
—13-7
—19-7
— 17-9
1881—1891
+ 12-2
+32-3
— 8-5
+ 14-2
+ 5-4
— 25-2
Hoahiarpar ... ... )
1891— 1S.01
— 2-2
—167
+ 16-2
— 10-5
+14-5
+ 85-2
1901—1911
— 7-2
— 4-8
—J 0-1
— 8-3
— 77
— 3-4
1881—1801
+ 146
+44-5
—17-8
+ 19-8
— 4-2
_ S.-i-C
Gurdaspur ... ... J
1891-1901
— -4
-13-9
+31-2
— lo-i
+170
+112-9
1901—1911
—110
— 7-3
—12-2
— 12-0
— 131
— 13-8
1881-1891
+ 103
+25-6
— 19-6
+23-9
— Vi
— 37-6
Sialkot ... ... J
1891— 19ul
— 3-2
-10-2
+1.0-6
-12-8
+ 7-0
+ 91-2
1901-1911
-- 9-6
- 6-0
- 2-5
-141
— 8-9
- 127
1881—1891
+ 10-4
+169
— 2-0
+22-9
- 1-2
— 37-8
Gujrat |... ....
1891-1901
— 1-4
—14-1
+ 7-7
— 6 9
+147
+ 8(;-2
1901-1911
— "7
+ 4-1
— 3 3
— 4-6
+ 1-0
+ 2-5
1881-1891
+ 3'3
+ 7-6
- 2-6
+11-0
— 43
— 30 3
Jhelum ... ... J
1891—1901
— 2-5
— 14-8
+ 11-9
— 77
+11-5
+ 52-2
ISOl- 1911
— 13-9
-16-5
-17-3
-127
—10-2
— 13-4
1881 — 1891
+ 81
+17-8
— 7-5
+ 167
— 8-0
— 28-9
liawalpindi ... ... J
1891-1901
+ 4-9
— 8-3
+25-6
— 2 8
+ 27-1
+ 76 7
1901-1911
-411
-43-2
—43-0
— 40-]
—400
— 38-t
1881—1891
Attock ... ...)
1891-1901
Kot av
ailable.
1901— IRLl
+ 100
■4-100
+ ICC
+ 100
+ 100
+ 10(
1881-1891
+ 14-1
+24-4
+ 1-9
+2'3-6
— 3-8
— 41-(
NoKTn-Wi;ST Dey Arsa ... •
1891—1901
+39-7
+ 23-7
+ 75-2
+-324
+517
+-142-4
inoi— 1911
+ 15 1
+ 17-1
+12-9
+ 13-6
+ 17-8
+ 12-7
1881-1891
+ 171
+30-2
+ 5-3
+ 27-8
— 3-2
— 3:*'2
Montgomery ... ... i
1891 — 1901
— 7-2
-21-4
+ 221
— 9-6
+ 1-4
+ 449
1901—1911
+15 5
+21-2
+ 5-2
+ 143
+lb-3
+ 158
1881-1891
+171
+281
+11-3
+29-6
+ -2
— 37-0
Sbahpnr
1891—1901
+ 6-2
— 8'0
+25 0
+ 12
+ 19-4
+ 74-2
1901—1911
+311
+332
+ 28 2
+ 36-3
+ 276
+ 82
1881-1891
Kot nv
ailable.
Mianwali ... ... 3
1891 — 1901
+ ino
+ 100
+ 100
1 +100
+ 10C
+ IOC
1901 — 1911
— 19G
—16-8
-182
-23-8
— 17;2
— 16-7
1881-1891 ;;;
Not av
lilable.
Lvnllpur
1891 — 1901
+ 100
+ 10fi
+ 100
+ 100
+ 100
+ IOC
1901--1911
+ 8-3
+21-3
+ -6
+ 3-2
+ 2 1
+ 10-?
1881 — 1891
+105
+15-6
+ 1-6
+246
+ I
— 38-4
Jbang ... ...}
1801-1901
-13-3
-24-9
+ 5-f
-16-2
— 6-4
+ 40-6
1901 — 1011
+ 36 1
+38-3
+ 36-4
+ 35 6
+36-9
+ 273
1881- 1801
-^14•4
+ 24-5
+ b-2
+252
— 4-4
— 42-3
Moltiin ... ... )
ISOl- loni
+ 12-5
+ 4-3
+ 33-8
+ 59
+ 17-6
+ 1081
1901 — 1911
+ 147
+140
+ 18t!
+ 107
+233
+ 16 6
18S1-1891
+ 133
+260
- 29
+ 26 5
_ 0-5
— 47-2
BaTiatooJpur State '... J
1891 — 1901
+ 100
— 24
+ 510
+ 1-3
1-245
+ 1437
19(11 — 1011
+ 8 3
+ 5-2
+• 60
+ 95
+ 15-6
+ 12
1881 — 1891
+ 12 5
+ £1-5
_ G-3
+ 26 5
— 2-8
— 47 2
ifuzaffargBrh ... ... <
1891-1901
+ G4
— 31
+38-9
-p
+ 124
+ 087
1901-1011
+ 40-4
+ 37-0
+361
+382
+510
+ 49-2
ISSI — 1891
+ 128
+23 1
_ 46
+26-0
— 4-5
— 43 6
Dcra Ghazi Khan
1S91-19(;1
+ 14-9
+ CO
+443
+ i-^
+25-4
+ 110 5
1901-1911
+122
+ 8-7
+ 13-7
+118
+ 182
+ 149
V.
215
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
[ Punjab. 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VII-
Reported birth-rate by sex and Natural Divisions-
(FOR BRITISH TERRITORY ONLY.)
NOUBBR OP BIRTHS PFE 1,000 OF TOTAL POPDLATION (CbNSD3 OF 1901).
Yeab.
1901
19U2
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
Province,
IS
23
2l'
22
23
21
22
18
22
Indu-Garigetic
Plain West.
17
21
20
20
21
21
19
20
17
20
19
23
23
23
23
22
21
22
18
22
17
21
21
21
21
20
19
20
16
20
Bimalayan,
16
18
17
18
19
19
18
16
17
19
15
17
16
17
17
18
17
15
16
18
Suh-Himalayan.
CS
m
cS
a
a
a
pa
19
24
22
21
22
22
20
20
17
21
17
21
20
19
21
21
18
18
16
20
North -West Dry
Area.
a>
m
03
<D
s
a>
a
Ui
10
18
22
22
21
24
24
23
25
20
25
11
16
20
20
18
22
21
20
22
18
22
Note. — Fignrea of popalHtion are those aivpii in Iinperi.il Table I of 1901 and do not include fisnres for Biloch TrntisFnirjtier.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VIII.
Reported death-rate by sex and Natural Divisions.
(Fob. BKITISU TERKITOKY ONLY.)
Ybab.
1901
1903
l:ii)3
1904
1905
1906
1907
190H
1909
1910
Ndmbkb of dsaths per 1,000 of total population 'Cenbds of 1901).
Province.
34
41
45
44
44
31
58
47
30
32
38
47
53
54
51
39
65
54
31
35
Indo-Gangetic
Plain We>t.
n
a
3
It
41
46
53
45
53
36
64
54
31
36
46
54
64
55
64
42
71
62
33
40
Himalayan,
28
30
33
28
48
29
30
37
25
30
a
S4
30
34
36
30
56
33
32
39
27
82
Siii-B imalayan.
a
31
43
43
53
41
37
68
43
27
28
a
35
52
51
68
47
42
78
47
28
30
North-West Dry
Area,
3
10
24
26
32
33
27
27
37
41
32
28
S
11
25
28
36
37
29
2c
41
4'
34
30
NoTB. — Fifjures of popuUtion are th' so given in Impirial T.ible I di lOOL and do not include figures for Biloch Trans-Frontier.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IX-
Reported deatli-rate by sex and age in decade and in selected years per
miile living at same age according to the Census of 1901-
(FOR HHinsiI TEhRlTORV ONLY.)
Age.
All ages
V nder I year
1-5
D — 10
10-15
15—20
21—30
30—40
40-50
50—60
00 and over
Avkkaob
OF
DECAIIE.
41
306
66
19
17
19
21
2+
33
46
95
S
47
310
71
23
25
24
24
2>»
36
50
105
1903.
45
340
72
20
18
19
22
26
36
5
102
53
351
81
2i
2h
26
2s
34
4
57
121
l;i04.
6
44
286
5i
21
23
L6
27
31
41
54
97
54
2SS
56
29
37
36
33
41
50
66
116
1905.
41
321
57
20
23
2
25
28
37
47
9
^
51
319
61
26
34
32
31
35
42
55
105
1907.
10
58
308
76
31
33
38
39
43
50
72
1241
U
65
306
81
3b
47
44
41
48
59
77
135
1908.
Cfl"
tn
03
Ol
a
OS
a
12
47
394
111
23
15
16
17
20
29
44
111
13
54
409
122
26
20
20
21
24
30
44
119
1009.
09
o
CD
B
a
i2
14
30
247
40
11
8
10
13
10
25
37
84
15
31
246
48
13
11
11
14
18
23
85
81
NoiK — Fif;uri-8 of population arc those {(iveii in luipuriul Table 1 of 1901 and do not inL-ludo ligurus for Biloch Trana-Frontior.
216
Censas Report. ]
SDBSIDIABT TABLES.
Chapter
SUBSIDIARY TABLE X.
Reported
deaths frnrr
I certain diseases per mille of each sex-
Year.
Wholk Pkovinob. I
ACTUAL NUMBER Ot DBATUa IN |
Actual number of
deathe.
Ratio per
mille
of each sex
Indo-Oangetic
Plain West.
flimai
ayat.
Sub-Himalayan.
North- West Dr y
Area.
"a
o
EH
J
■3
00
S
m*
a!
S
a
"5
a
S
DQ
"a
a
e
m
a
B
3
d
s
1
FEVEUS
190]
2
4,503,761
508,035
3
2,282,103
259,090
4
2,221,658
248,945
5
209
24
6
237
26
7
1,122,422
148,987
8
1.081,154
142,337
9
77,714
8,387
10
77,779
8,130
11
630,048
62,977
12
635,881
63,090
13
451.919
38,739
14
426,814
35,382
1902
473,352
210,444
232,908
22
25
128,868
121,873
8,717
S,930
62,350
64,975
40,509
37,130
1903
509,307
254,358
254,949
23
27
123,294
121,028
8,709
8,807
72,712
76,381
49,643
48,673
1904
378,405
191,042
187,363
17
20
88,003
85,640
7,034
6,908
57,429
59,417
38,576
35,398
1905
370,047
186,409
183,63t<
17
20
87,191
85,887
6,722
6,883
53,483
54,250
39,013
36,618
1906
407,878
203,765
204,113
19
22
91,102
92,728
6,827
7,273
61,678
64,229
41,158
39,883
1907
405,481
206,856
198,625
19
21
99,106
94,806
7,464
7,119
58,807
57,687
41.479
39,013
1908
697,058
347,828
349,230
32
37
177,364
176,787
9,654
9,582
93,523
94,924
67,284
67.937
1909
410,273
214,612
195,661
20
21
98,900
88,973
6,297
6,22 6
56,859
62.826
52.556
47,63S
1910
343,925
177,699
106,226
16
18
76,607
71,095
7,903
7,855
50,227
48,102
42,962
39,174
PLARDE
1901
2,025,220
14,959
958.705
6,043
1,058.515
8,916
88
1
114
1
564,253
1,899
614,232
2,577
163
180
333,827
4,141
394,595
6,339
58,462
59,478
1902
171,302
75,783
95,519
7
10
41,150
50,673
10
6
34,486
44,735
137
105
1903
205,462
89,348
116,111
8
12
67.440
85,981
7
4
20,236
28,127
1,665
1,999
1904
396,357
178,433
217,924
16
23
79,030
92,984
23
17
79,469
102,587
19,921
22,336
1905
334,897
158,534
176,303
15
19
115,297
127,391
14
10
39,511
45,076
3,712
3,886
1906
91,712
43,836
47^876
4
5
25,535
27,469
34
50
17,975
20,106
292
251
1907
608,685
306,193
302,492
28
32
157,299
147,330
43
45
123,149
131,508
25,702
23,609
1908
30,708
15,014
15,694
J
2
12,239
12,873
...
1,448
1,475
1,329
1.346
1909
35,655
17,631
18,024
2
2
11,668
11,889
14
16
2,989
3,246
2,B60
2,873
1910
135,483
65,890
69,593
6
8
52,706
55,092
18
32
10,422
11,396
2,741
3.073
SMALL-POX
1901
107,103
6,154
55,913
3,277
51.196
2,877
5
5
26.663
947
24 182
793
264
48
128
15
15.227
301
14.402
322
13.759
1,981
12,484
1.717
1902
11,629
6,099
5,530
1
1
1,830
1,651
45
25
1,820
1,688
3,398
2,163
1903
15,635
8,026
7,609
1
1
2316
2,655
14
12
3,098
3,086
2,068
1,856
1901
9,624
5,018
4,606
...
3,308
3,062
9
3
1,323
1,185
378
356
1905
4,723
2,442
2,281
...
...
1,715
1,6U8
7
3
334
283
386
387
1908
13,239
6,892
6,347
1
1
4,135
3,719
12
11
1,389
1,330
1,35b
1,281
1907
11,082
5,768
5,314
1
1
3,096
2,879
31
^
1,439
1,387
1,202
1,039
1003
28,652
15,074
13,578
1
1
7,470
6,675
86
45
4,567
4,161
2,951
2,697
1909
3,352
1,720
1,632
...
...
669
585
9
4
44b
474
596
569
X910
3,ni9
1,597
1,422
...
641
552
a
1
510
480
443
389
OHOLEUA
1901
38,765
181.
22,388
95
lti,374
8c
2
...
2
14.908
55
10.574
3b
235
207
1 ■■*
4,793
3'i
3,793
38
2452
2
1,800
y
1902
371
19S
17:
...
8a
86
2S
13
90
74
...
...
1903
14,6««
( 8,582
6,10(
1
1
6,48fl
4,199
55
I 47
1,516
1,196
521
3C1
1904
71(
i 3^e
) 321
...
260
2:1J
2)
19
96
61
7
5
1905
2,19'
J 1,321
87
...
1,1H
71.-
11
I 7
32
29
167
123
1906
*,23S
S 2,493
1,73!
...
1,742
1,2C7
691
496
60
36
1907
43:
r 265
Vi
190
121
1
3
32
22
32
23
1908
12,29:
' 6,892
5,40;
1
1
3,521
2,687
81
98
J, 923
1,808
1,351
1,012
1909
1,515
881
632
...
...
715
624
i
3
68
41
96
61
1910
2,131
l,262l 86<i
...
...
721
459
21
17
»07
228
210
165
CHAPTER VI.
Sexes.
INTRODUCTORY.
303. Tlie proportion of sexes in this Province is of special interest, in General re.
consequence of the abnormally low proportion of females, particularly in marks,
comparison with European countries, where females preponderate. Difficult
as the subject is, owing to the uncertainty of the physiological causes which re-
gulate the production of sex, the excessivemortality among females during the past
decade, particularly from plague, has made it a very difficult task to deduce
any reliable conclusions from the statistics of the present Census.
304. The statistics connected with this Chapter are contained in Table Keferenceto
VII, which gives the age distribution by sexes and Table VI which furnishes statistics.
the distribution of both sexes over the different religions. The proportion
of sexes in the actual and natural population is compared for the last
4 Censuses, by Districts and Natural Divisions, in Subsidiary Table I and
the proportion of females to males in each religion is compared for the whole
Province by age-period.«, in Subsidiary Table II. Subsidiary Table III indicates
the proportion of females by age-periods and religions, for each Natural
Division, and the proportion of females in certain selected castes is noted in
Subsidiary Table IV. The births and deaths among each sex reported during each
of the past 20 years (in British territory only) are given in Subsidiary Table V and
the number of deaths of each sex at different ages will be found in Subsidiary
Table VI, for the years 1905-1909.
PROPORTION OF SEXES.
30-5. The population of the Punjab consists of 13,814,975 males and Sexes inac-
10,872,775 females. In other words tual popula-
there are 817 females to every 1,000 tion.
males. The proportion of females in
this Province is lower than in any
other Province of India except the
two minor Administrations of
Baluchistan and Coorg; and the penal
settlement of the Andamans and
Nicobars, as the figures given in the
margin will show. ~
countries which
hand, are also given
position for the sake of
parison. For all practical pur-
poses, the Punjab may be treated
as the most unfavourably circum-
stanced Province in the country.
The situation is not uniform
throughout. The proportion is 817
for British Territory and 814 for
the Native States, i.e., in British
, ^ , . Territory, the number of females is
somewhat larger fcr every 1,000 males than in the Native States. Tho Natural
lDdo.G»ns e t i c 795 Di visions again show still greater disproportion. The figures
^^^ch are given in the margin are unfavourable everywhere,
but relatively, the Himalayan Division possesses the largest
^, . , proportion of females (9()] per mille) while the Indo-Gangetic
Plam has only 795 females to every 1.000 males. The other two divisions
though considerably better than the latter stand very much lower than the
Himalayan tract.
o
Other C(mntries.
a
•S2g
o
o
c
Province.
o
o
S ^'
5 « QJ
Country.
o
.2 M
o.'3'a
>-« r^
o « E?^
£ a a
CO -3
O o t' a
1,043
>S""
a.
Bihar aad Orissa
EngUnd and
1911
1,068
Afadras
1,028
Wales.
Central Provinces
1,008
Scotland
1011
1,083
and Bihar.
Burma
959
Ireland
1911
1,004
Bengal
945
Bombay
933
Holland
1909
1,015
United Provinces
915
of Agra and
German Empire
1910
1,C26
Oudh.
Raj putana Agency
909
Denmark
19H
1,061
Kashmir Stite
«86
North-West Froa-
865
Swedeu
1910
1,046
tier Province.
Punjab
817
Greece
1907
986
Coorg
799
Baluchistan . ...
78S
Egypt
1917
992
Andaman and
352
Nicobar.
Bulgaria
1905
962
have
Figures of other
come to
in jnxta-
com-
Himalayan
Sub-Himalayan...
N.-VV. Dry Area
901
827
825
Cenms Report- ]
218
PEOPOBTION 0? SEXES.
Chaptee
The map printed in the margin shows the proportion of sexes in each
" ~" district and state. Fe-
males are most numer-
ous in the Mandi State
(C'33 per 1,000 males),
tlie Cbamba State
(P24) and the Kangra
District (921). The
lowest figure is that
of the Simla District
(591). It is curious
that the highest and
lowest proportions
should be met in the
Himalayan Natural
Division. But the low
proportion in Simla is
due to a large immi-
gration of males as
will be noticed far-
ther on. In the map,
the Simla District and
Hill States appear as
one unit and consequently the low proportion in the former is not ex-
hibited. A glance at the map will show that from the point of view of actual
population, the whole of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, except the small States of
Pataudi and Dujana, indicates a deficiency in the proportion of females. The
central districts together with Delhi in the east and the Native States in general
show the lowest figures, thinning down to 752 in Maler Kotla and 741 in Lahore.
In the Sub-Himalayan tract Ambala, Gurdaspur and Sialkot stand in the lowest
class, while in the North-West Dry Area the Bahawalpur State and the Lyallpur
District show the greatest deficiency in females. With the exception of Attock
(902), Jhelum (904) and the small States of Pataudi (925) and Dujana (904), the
whole of the Province outside the Himalayan tract shows a marked disproportion
of sexes, the number of females to every 1,000 males being nowhere more than 900.
Effects of 306. If the proportion of females in the actual population of the Province
migration, is low, that in the natural population is still lower. Of tlie persons born and
(Proportion enumerated within the Province (23,527,531), there were 10,564,595 females,
in natural giving a proportion of 815 to every 1,000 males. The proportion of females
population.) to 1,000 males among the immigrants who numbered 660,219 was 875. But
there were over 500,000 emigrants from the Punjab among whom there, were only
641 females to every 1,000
males. The proportion of fe-
males in the natural population
of the Province was therefore
only 811. The figures are noted
in the margin. Both immigration
and emigration have thus helped
to raise the proportion of females
in the actual population. Among
the immigrants from the adjoin-
of females over males (1,229 to
1,000) while the proportion of female im-
migrants from the contiguous districts of
the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh
was still higher, being 1,292 to every
1,000 males, as the figures given in the
margin will show. In the former case,
large numbers of Bagri women come in
for manual labour in connection with
agricultural operations but mainly on construction works and a certain proportion
Males.
Females.
ToUl.
Propor-
tion of
females to
males.
Actual population
Deduclimmigrants
Add emigrauts ...
13,314,fl75
362,039
314,789
10,872,775
308,180
201,823
24,187,750
6S0219
516,612
817
875
641
Natural popula-
tion.
13,277,725
10,766,4lt*
24,044,143
811
ing parts of Raj putana, there was an excess
Immigrants from
Mftles.
Females.
Females
per 1,000
males.
Contiguous Dis-
tricts of United
Provinces.
Contiguous States
of Rajpuuna.
51,562
102,550
66,732
126,001
1,292
1,229
VI.
219
PEOPOETION OP SEXES.
t Punjab, liaiU
Division.
Emigrants
from
252,018
25,138
312,070
31,465
Immi-
granis to
indo-Ganpetic
Plain West.
Himalayan
8nb-BimaIayan
North- West Dry
Area.
202,867
20.945
132,331
264,742
MAP
SHOWIiVC
females per 1000 males
Cnatural population]
" ASK
<)f them marry Hindus in the western Punjab, where they find comfortable homes.
Moreover the social relationship of the people residing on either side of the bound-
ary of the two Provinces results in large numbers of females from Rajputana bejng
married into the villages lying in the Punjab. Impiigration of females from tjie
United Provinces is two-fold. The inhabitants of the eastern districts of the
fun jab lying on the boundary line intermarry with the members of their brother-
hood across the border and the custom of marrying a wife preferably
from the east brings in a comparatively large number of females. On the other
hand a considerable number of women , belonging to the Kahar or other menial
servant classes come over to this Province in search of livelihood and.
added to the females of the natives of the United Pi-ovinces who reside in
the Punjab on acpount of Government service, trade or domestic service, raise
the proportion of female immigrants. The only tracts to which females are
known to go from this Province are those of Sindh (Bombay) and Baluchistan :
where they are in great demand, and although the systematic traffic in women,
whicb was in the old days carried on between the central districts of the Punjab
and those tracts has been practically stopped, yet a
certain number of females do find their way out of
the central Punjab districts to those pnrts, by means
licit or illicit. The migration of females between
the Natural Divisions is indicated in the margin.
'|l he North-West Dry Area draws on ^11 the other
Divisions, but the flow is mainly into the canal colo-
nies. The Himalayan is the only Natural Division,
which has a comparative abundance of females and is
able to send out more females than males, although
the greater part of tbe emigration is to the adjacent Sub-Himalayan tract.
30?. A map showing the proportion of females to every 1,000 males in Propor-
\ I the natural popula- tioiiof
tion is printed in the females in.
margin. The propor- natural
tion is largest in the population
Simla District (923 ), by districts
in British Territory and states,
and in the Mandi
State (942) among
the Native States. A
comparison of this
map with that given
in the margin of para-
graph 305 indicates
the flow of female po-
pulation. The dis-
tricts of Lahore, Am-
ritsar, Gujranwala,
Jullundur, Ludhiana,
Ferozepore and Delhi
in the Indc-Gangetic
Plain and Sialkot,
Gurdaspur and Am-
bala in the Sub-Himalayan tract as well as the Native States of Patiala, Nabha,
Faridkot, MalerKotIa, Kapurthala and Kalsia stand lowest us regards the propor-
tion of females in both the natural and actual population. But the excess of
male immigrants into the Lyallpur District and Babawalpur State has reduced
the proportion of females m their actual population, while the immigration of
females from the United Provinces has raised the proportion in the Karnal and
Bdhtak Districts from the lowest class to the higher ones. Gurgaou has bene-
fited similarly, Multan, Montgomery and Shahpur^ with a low natural popula-
tion of females have profitted by immigration, while the districts of Attock,
Rawalpindi, Jhelum and Gujrat have drawn females from the adjoining State of
-Kashmir and the ^orth-West Frontier Province. In the Himalayan tract, tho
Census Report. ]
220
PEOPORTION or SKXEa.
Chapter
Beligioa.
Actual
Natural.
All religions
817
811
Jain
850
839
Mubammadan
833
835
Hindu
20
816
Sikh
746
738
Christian ...
707
806
Kargra District receives a large supply of women from Kanawar in the Bashahar
State, while Simla sends down a considerable number to the plains. The lowest
proportion of females in natural population is found in the Ludhiana District
(724) in British Territory and the Kalsia State (704) in the Native States.
The proportion of females in the Pataudi and Dajana States is very high, being
925 and 904 respectively ; but it works out to 722 and 787 respectively, on the
natural population, which shows that a large number of men in these smaller
States marry outside. The disproportion is also accounted for, partially by the
absence of a large number of men who, at the time of the Census, were engaged
at Delhi in connection with the Coronation Durbar.
Effects of 308. The high proportion of females throughout the Himalayan tract
climate on -would lead to the inference that the cold climate of the hills is more congenial to
proportion an abundance of females compared to the dry or wet heat of the plains, but it is
of sexes. doubtful whether the statistics of the similarly circumstanced tracts in other
Provinces would support this theory. The variation of the proportion fiom
place to place in the three Natural Divisions of the plains is not large enough to
justify the establishment of any relationship between the slight differences in
climate and the variation in the proportion of females.
Proportion 309. The proportion of females to every 1,000 males in the actual and
of sexes by ^==^===== natural population of each religion is indicated in the
religions. Belision. Actual Natural, margin. The order in respect of both sets of figures
is — (1) Jain, (2) Mubammadan, (3) Hindu and (4) Sikh.
Tlie Christians stand lowest with reference to actual popu-
lation but their proportionate strength of females in the
natural population is higher than that of the ^iikhs.
The Jains, Hindus and Sikhs have gained by migration
(mainly by marital relations across the border), the
Muhammadans have suffered a slight loss, while the
Christians show a much lower strength of females in the actual than in the
natural population, which is due to an
excessive immigration of males (sol-
diers) among the followers of that
religion. The proportion of females
to male>< in natural population is indi-
cated by Natural Divisions in the
marginal diagram. The Jains who
top the list are found nnainly in the
cities and are generally well-to-do
people. On principle they are extremely
humane and take as much care of their
female children as of the males. Their
abhorrence of destroying life, in any
form, would naturally prevent the neg-
lect of female infants. This is sup-
ported by the fact that the number of
female children under one year of age
in this religion out-numbers the males
(1,059 to eveiy 1,000 males). Another
possible factor in the comparatively
high ratio of Jain females, is that a
number of them (usually widows) lead
an ascetic life and being freed from
worries and cares, hve longer than the
females of other religions, as will
appear from the proportion of Jain females at the ages of 50 to 60 and over 60
(838 and 958 respectively, per mille) which is liigher than that in any other
religion. The high proportion of Jain females in the North-West Dry Area (909)
is only nominal as the total strength of Jains in that tract is not more than 611.
The proportion of females among the Muhammadans, though somewhat
higher than that among the Hindus, is quite low enough. But the proportion
at birth is lower, being :— Hindus 913 and Muhammadans 907. The only-
NUMBER DF FEMALES PER '
lODO MALES DF EACH RELIDIDN
IN EACH NATURAL DrVISIDN
XUNS
MUHD!!
JAINS
SIKHS
HINDUS
INDO iHIMA- • SUB | NORTH
CANGETIC \ LAYAN ! HIMA- ; WEST
PLAIN WEST] ; LAYAN iORY ARtA
VI.
221
PBOFOBTION OF 8EXE9.
[ Punjab. 1911.
causes that can be ascribed for their advantage over the Hindus are : — (1) that
they do not neglect their female children, so much as the Hindus (indeed the
custom of charging a bride price being more common amongst the ATuhammadans,
the chances of tlie neglect of female iofants are smaller) ; (2) that the majority of
the Muhammadans being connected with agriculture, the females lead a more
out-door life and consequently the death-rate of females amongst them is lower.
Unfortanately the figures of deaths according to religion are not available by sexes.
The deficiency of females is greater among the Hindus and still greater
among the Sikhs. Owing to the complicated mutual relationship of the Hindus
and Sikhs explained by Mr. Rose at page 202 of his Punjab Census Report, 1901,
and to the refurn as Sikhs, at the present Census, of a large number of persons
formerly classed as Hindus, it would not be safe to deduce conclusions from
the separate sex statistics of the two religions. Similar causes probably affect
the two communities. The desire to have a male offspring, the awkwardness
caused by the birth of a girl and other considerations which are discussed further
on in paragraph 329 affect the Hindus and Sikhs more th^n the Muhammadans,
and the persistent desire for the continuance of the male line of descent is per-
haps the strongest element in the paucity of females amongst the Hindus. Nature
is frugal and will not give more than is needed. The rule of universality of
mari'iage applies to females, but several males enter celibate orders from child-
hood or youth and a number of them are disabled in early life from earning their
livelihood. No mates are needed for these. So far, therefore, as the Hindus
and Sikhs are concerned, Nature would not appear to be much besides the
mark in keeping the population of females low. The comparative abundance of
females in the Himalayan tract which is mainly Hindu, is an exception.
The low proportion of females amongst the Christians (707) is by no
Europeans ... 323 nieaus a startling feature as the examination of figures
by nationality given in the margin will show. The
reasons for paucity of females among Europeans have
Anglo-Indians have more females than the followers of
"while the Indian Christians do not differ much from the
Hindus and Sikhs from among whom they are mostly recruited.
310. The causation of sex is a vexed question and the theories advanced ProBor-
about the circumstances which influence the accelerated production of one sex tion of
or the other are so conflicting, that it would be unsafe to deduce any conclusions sexes by
from
Anglo-Indians
Indian Christians
930
807
been stated above
any other religion
Name of
Females to 1,000 males.
Name of
Females to 1,000 males.
S m
'« .
Caste.
;-< 00
a
Caste.
"§
p
s d
d
c
_.-5b
.g
a
d
a'S>
-a
c
.a
a"
'3
3-0
5zi
<
a
CC
•-^
a
30
<
CO
>-s
a
1
JogiRawal...
1,005
**•
1,035
LfOhar
836
836
809
...
841
2
Kanet
949
947
...
...
31
Khokhar ...
835
...
...
835
3
Dagi— Koli
933
934
...
...
...
32
Mihtam ...
830
868
897
..■
...
i
Ghiralh ...
916
917
>..
*.•
...
33
Mochi
830
...
...
...
831
5
Qassab
906
"9O6
34
Barwala ...
828
• *•
831
6
Dhanak
900
900
...
...
35
Machhi ...
828
...
...
828
7
Qureshi ...
h9G
...
"896
36
Nai
822
805
842
8
Kboja
886
...
886
37
TeU
822
...
>..
822
9
Meo
883
• ••
*..
883
38
Kamboh ...
821
827
825
815
10
Maliar
883
...
...
883
39
Kajput
819
756
...
...
841
11
Harni
880
...
880
40
Bharai
816
...
816
12
Bawaria
879
868
...
...
...
41
Khatri ...
814
802
861
13
Awan
S76
...
• •>
"876
42
Sinsi
813
814
14
Sayad
875
>>.
875
43
Tarkhan ...
813
804
784
836
15
Dumna
873
873
...
...
...
44
Chuhra ...
812
812
797
822
16
Mallah
866
...
861
45
Jhinwar ...
812
794
831
855
17
Mirasi
864
...
864
46
Clihimba ...
810
786
809
831
18
Jlusalli
863
...
863
47
Brahman ...
8O9
811
...
19
Kashmiri ...
859
...
859
48
Mali
808
809
...
20
Arora
857
853
872
...
49
Sheikh
8O7
...
807
21
Aggarwal ...
851
850
...
876
...
50
Arain
806
...
807
22
Sunar
850
833
<••
• «•
..•
51
Gujar
802
763
...
819
23
Labana
846
813
838
...
52
Dogar
801
'.'.'.
801
24 Dhobi
843
839
...
• ••
847
53
Ahir
792
792
...
...
25| Mu-bal
841
...
..*
,,
841
54
Saini
787
786
793
26 Julaha
830
840
839
55
Pakhiwas ...
773
773
27i Chamar
839
816
800
...
56
Jat
764
774
762
807
28, Biloch
838
• >.
...
"838
57
Hathan ...
757
757
2d Kumhar ...
837 827
844
58
Fakir
710
413 268
...
788
figures
the castes.
of
sex distribu-
t i 0 n by
caste. I
will there-
fore confine
myself to a
mere state-
m e n t of
facts s u p-
plement e d
by an expla-
nation of ab-
normal fea-
tures, where
one is forth-
coming. The
table given
in the mar-
gin shows
the propor-
tion of fe-
mrtles for
each of the
more uumer-
Census Report ]
222
PEOPOBTION OP 8EXB8.
Chapter
0U8 castes wbich are dealt with in Subsidiary Table IV, for all religions, and for
the main religion separately. The only caste in ■which females out-number malea
is Jogi Kawal (Muhammadan). But this abnormality is due to the absence out-
side the Province of a large number of male members of the caste in order to earn
their livelihood asocculists, physicians, astrologers, fortune tellers, merchants, etc.
In all other cnstes, the females are in defect. A glance at the table will show cer-
tain marked features. The Muhammadans generally show a higher percentage of
females than the Hindus or Sikhs. The only exceptions are Kanets, Dagi — Kolis,
and Ghiraths, all mainly Hindu, with a proportion of 949,933 and 91 G respectively;
but they are found solely in the Himalayan Natural Division where, as already
explained, the proportion of females is higher than in the plains, owing probably
to chmatic conditions. In all castes common to more religions than one, this
tendency is apparent in a pronounced manner, the only exception being Muham-
madan Julahas (S39 compared with the proportion of 840 among Hindu Julahas)
and Muhammadan Kambohs who have 185 females per thousand against 827 in the
Hindu and H25 in the Sikh section of the caste. The difference is inconsiderable.
The ELambohs whether Hindus, Sikhs or Muhammadans are equally industrious,
both men and women taking an active
Caste.
3
T3
a
a
Caste.
a
•a
.3
s
00
n
CO
Khalri
802
861
Fakir
413
268
Chbimba ...
786
809
Jat
774
702
Jhinwar
794
831
Chnhra ...
812
797
Mahtam ...
868
897
Tarkhan ...
804
784
Labana
813
838
Kamboh ...
827
825
Arora
833
872
Lobar
836
809
Saini
786
793
Chamar ...
846
800
part in agricultural operations and are
similarly circumstanced. There are
no purely Sikh castes of sufficient
numerical strength, but where a caste
is common to the Hindu and Sikh
religions, the Sikhs appear to show a
higher proportion of females in certain
castes and a lower one in others. The
figures are given in the margin. In
proportion of females, the tendency among
from Hindus of the same caste, but not to
40
0—5
5—12
12—15
15—20
20— 4C
and
Over.
Ebatri
C HinOD
••• ) Sikh
1,022
834
677
690
750
842
898
814
725
80S
949
830
Cbhimba
( Hindu
908
825
691
724
791
'754
- '( Sikh
866
808
618
721
873
792
Jhinwar
( Hindn
964
842
691
644
805
758
- i Sikh
948
822
669
727
838
K56
Arora
« Hindu
987
868
766
749
848
845
- "l Sikh
976
796
885
798
937
815
the case of Sikh castes with a high
the Kesdhari Sikhs, to take a wife
give their daughters to non-Sikhs, would appear to affect the proportion of sexes-
Leaving out the Labanas who are mostly Sikhs, Mah tarns amongst whom the
strength of Hindus is very small compared with that of the Sikhs and Sainis of
whom all but 3,405 are Hindus,
the figures for the remaining four
castes in question are given in the
margin for the two religions, by
age-periods. The Khatri and
Arora Sikhs amongst whom girls
are married at an early age show
a larger proportion of females
than the Hindus, at the age-peri-
ods 12 to 40, while the Jhinwara
whose girlsusnally marry later exhibit a rise in the proportion of females at the ages
15 to 20 and over and the proportion among the Chhimbas rises still later, i.e., from
20 years onwards. During the first 5 years of life, however, all the 4 castes show a
distinctly higher percentage of females amongst the Hindus than amongst the Sikhs.
As regards the castes which show a comparatively smaller proportion ol females
amongst the Sikhs than among the Hindus, the case of Fakirs is exceptional. Among
the Muhammadans, the proportion of females is 788 per mille because the male men-
dicants belonging to religious orders and the females reduced to begging by sheer
poverty are often treated equally a.s Fakirs by caste. On the other hand the Hindu
and Sikh Fakirs almost always belong to some religious order and there are more
such orders amongst the Hindus which admit females or allow the Fakirs to lead a
married life, than amongst the Sikhs. Of the other castes in question, the difference
in Chuhras, Lobars, Kambohs,
and Tar khans is small. The
only noticeable castes, therefore,
are Chamars and Jats and for
these castes the figures for the
two religions by age-p e r i o d s
are compared in the margin^
0-5
5-12
12-15
15—20
20—40
40
and
over.
Chamar
Jats
5 Hindn
••• ( f-ikh .
< Hindu
"• I Sikh ...
964
941
904
784
851
818
781
667
729
667
653
556
785
665
626
527
868
826
798
744
810
777
780
753
223
VT. PROPORTION OP SEXES. [ p,uijab, 191L
Among the Cliaraarg the difference in Ihe first two age-periods is small, nor is it
considerable in the last two. It is large only in the age-periods of 12 — 15
and 15 — 20, which would lead, obviously, to the conclusion that Chamar
boys are inclined more and move to take the pahol, which is usually done between
the ages of 1 2 and 20. It is for this reason therefore that female Sikhs of these
age-periods are in defect. But when the initiated Chamar boys get married,
their wives who might have been Hindus also become Sikhs, and we see that the
proportion of Sikh females at the age-period of 20 — 40 and over again approaches
that among the Hindus. The case of Jats is peculiar. The low proportion of
females among them is proverbial and the disparityis more marked in the Sikhs
than in the Hindus. The former show a lower proportion in all the age-period.
The proportion at birth is very low and that in the age period 5 — 12 is no better.
There is only a slight improvement in the ages 12 to 20 but the difference be-
tween the sex proportions of Sikhs and Hindus is smaller in the ages above 20.
The only reason that can be ascribed for the low proportion of females in the
first quinquennium is the neglect of female infant life and the deficiency in the
uext three age-periods would be a natural consequence. The somewhat favour-
able results in the higher ages are probably due partly to emigration of males of
those ages and partly to the admission by marriage, of females from the Hindu
Jats of the pame brotherhood or from other castes. It will thus be seen that
with the exception of the Jats, the difference in the strength of females between
Hindus and Sikhs belonging to the same caste is only artificial.
One would believe that the proportion of females should vary inversely with
the position of the caste in society, for the higher castes who generally observe the
purdah system and do not allow their females to go out of their houses for either
work or recreation, should show a lack of fertility, a smaller proportion of female
births and consequently a small proportion of females. But the figures given above
would not appear to bear out this conclusion, for castes like Jat, Pakhiwara, Saini,
Ahir, Arain and Mali show a lower proportion of females than Brahman,
Sayf.d, etc., and Chhimba, Jhinwar, Chuhra are worse off than Khatri and Raj-
Pathan ••■ 757 put. The proportions for some of the higher castes are repeated
B^^'hman '" 8**3 ^" ^^^® margin, for facility of reference. The paucity of females
Khatri ... 814 amongst the Pathans is the result of excessive immigration
Biioch ".. ^38 f f males, (Pawinda traders from Afghanistan or sepoys employed
Moghal ... 841 in the army, who belong to the North-West Frontier Province),
sf^ad^^' •■■ S75 The Sheikhs are a mixed caste consisting partly of Sheikhs of
Qureshi ... 890 foreign origin but mainly of converts from Hinduism, who
among many ('ther Hindu social customs, retain endogamy within certain sections.
Next in order of deficiency of females come the Brahmans and Khatris, both Hindu
castes. Then follow Rajputs, among whom the Hindus have a proportion of 756,
the lowest of any caete in any religion, except Sikh Jats and B'akirs (Hindu and
Sikh). Ihe pride of birth probably results in the hatred of female infants
amongst the Rajputs as much as among any other caste, although the secret adop-
tion of the custom of accepting a bride price amongst some of the poorer Rajputs
has apparently counteracted to some extent, the above mentioned tendency. But
the circumstance which probably afi^ects all these three castes alike is the restric-
tion of not marrying outside the endogaraous group. The rule is of course gene-
ral, but while some other castes make up the deficiency of females amongst them
by marrying wives from lower castes, the Brahmans, Khatris and Rajputs will
not do so. The Muhammadan Rajputs, on the other hand, do not, in cases of
necessity, hesitate to admit women of other castes into their social group. The
other castes namf d in the margin have a proportion of females well above the
average, the highest Muhammadan castes of Sayads and Qureshis showing the
decent figures of 875 and 89G respectively. The fact that a Sayad or Qureshi
may marry a woman of any caste but that a Sayad girl may not marry any one
except a Sayad or Qureshi, tends largely to raise the ]n'oportion of females
amongst these Muhammadan castes. The other high and well-to-do castes,
amongst the Muhammadans (e. g., the Biloches and Moghals) gain similarly by
marriage of women from lower castes, while the sanctioned system of polygamy
doubtless retains a large number of females within the caste and raises the pro-
portion of females. The Aggarwals abound in the eastern Punjab and the
Cenaas Report ]
224
PEOPOKTION OP BEXKa.
Chaptbe
augmented
by marriage relations with
Sexes by
ages-
(a) General.
Proportion of females to every 1,000
mates.
Group
Group
a
Religion.
of
t-,
o
Eeligion.
of
s
Castes.
e
Castes.
£
Hindu
I
811
Muhammadan
Ill («)
841
II
778
III {b)
843
UI
850
m(c)
829
IV
7H1
Sikh
II
861
V
866
IV
702
VI
828
V
8C3
VII
834
VI
790
Mubammadan
I
817
VTl
800
" -
u
827
Jain
Ul
876
proportion of females amongst them is
the United Provinces.
The marginal figures, excerpted from Subsidiary Table IV. in which castes
have been arranged according to the
grades of social precedence drawn up
at the Census of 1901, indicate clearly
the untenability of the view mentioned
above, owing to the influence of otber dis-
turbing causes. Among the Hindu?, class
II (Khatri and Rajput) has the lowest
proportion, while class IV (Ahir, Gujar,
Jat, Mali, and Sunar) has fewer females
than class I (Brahman) and cla.ss III
(Aggarwal). Similarly among the Sikhs
class IV (Jat) shows the smallest figure
and class VI (Chhimba, Fakir, Kamboh,
Labana, Lobar, Mahtam, Saini and Tarkhan) has less females proportionately than
classes II (Khatris) and V (Arora and Jhinwar). The proportion among the
Muhammadans alone would appear to stand in the inverse ratio to status if the
figures are taken by classes, although the groups included in class III show no
order. The Bharais, Barwalas, Chhimbas, Ohuhras, Kambohs, Machhis, included
in class IIIC, for instance, have fewer females proportionately than the Mirasis
or Mochis of class IIIB and the Tarkhans, Qassabs, Julahas, Nais, Lobars and
Kumhars included in class IIIA.
311 . The proportion of females to 1,000 males at different age-periods is
giveo by religions in Subsidiary Table II and by castes in Subsidiary Table IV.
The marginal figures show that the proportion of females in the Province
is highest at the age of 0 — 5 in
every one of the religions. Taking the
whole population together, tie pro-
portion of female children under 1
year is 954 and it rises to 959 in the
case of children of 1 — 2. The teething
period is the most critical time for
children all the world over and the
canine teeth which give most trouble
generally begin to appear in the second
year. The girls are known to stand
the crisis better than male children
who often succumb to it. This is
obviously due to the roujiher bringing
up of female childien. The anxiety of
the parents about the safety of male infants during the teething period is clear
from the popular saying — ' Ntkle sue te Putare hue ' (A son is a son only after he
has cut his canine teeth). The proportion of female children of 2 — 3 years drops
again to 9 41. This is perhaps due to the neglect of female children at this parti-
cular age by the mother, who in her anxiety to secure a male issue after the birth
of a girl stops suckling the baby girl as soon as she can be fed on ether diet, i.e.,
when she is less than a year old, the idea being that suckling is prejudi-
cial to conception. The effect of premature cessation of this natural nutrition
opens the way to attacks of illness and the effects usually appear in the third year
of life. The proportion of females in the next annual age-period 3 — 4 again rises
to 952 but that at 4—5 falls to 903. This fluctuation
of the proportion of sexes from year to year may be
explained by the popular behef that like the periodical
fruiting of gardens there are years in which male births
are plentiful and years when girls are born in abundance.
1'his theory would appear to be corroborat-d by the
vital statistics given in the margin, and allowing for the
fact that children up to 2 years old are stated to be
under 1 year of age (see paragraph 288, Chapter V)
a
Age-period.
CD
a
o
■§;
o
m
a
a
es
a
a
a
B
i
S
o
0-5
941
95G
848
994
953
933
5-10
851
864
769
896
859
860
10—15
707
723
612
776
717
750
J5— 20
729
727
596
791
768
753
20-25
854
851
754
888
898
410
25—30
826
820
782
796
850
6U
30—40
826
817
802
797
840
725
40—50
834
825
812
840
847
799
50-60
759
761
726
838
765
. 716
60 and over...
772
814
734
858
755
687
Proportion of female
Year.
births to every
1,000 male births.
1910 ..,
913
1909 ...
909
1808 ...
911
1907 ...
905
1906 ...
911
1905 ...
911
VI.
225
PHOPORTION OF BBXES.
L Punjab, 1911.
PROPORTION OF FEMALE BIRTHS TD MALE
BIRTHS IN EACH DF THE YEARS 1905-1910
AND IN POPULATION OF EACH OF THE
{ ACE PERIODS D-I-'J-S
-RE^ERgNCFS-
POPULATION
BIRTHS
the fluctuations ia the recorded birth-rate would fit in very well with
those shown by the Census returns, as
illustrated by the chart in the mar-
gin. The proportion of females in
the age-period 0 — 5 is the largest in
all Natural Divisions without excep-
tion, but in the Himalayan tract,
females actually exceed males at these
ages, as will appear from Subsidiary
Table III, the proportion being 1,013
to every 1,000 males. Between the ages
of 5 and 10, there is a sudden fall in the
proportion of females. This may be due
partly to the ages of girls above 5 hav-
ing been understated, although it would
r be counterbalanced to some extent by
the similar understatement of ages above
10. It has also to be remembered that
the liberties of female children begin to
Tse restricted about the age of 7, which, coupled with the results of the neglect of
the female in the first quinquennium, thin down the ranks of the fair sex to
some extent. In the next quinquennial period, i.e., 10 — 15, we find a still lower
proportion of females, which is lowest in all religions except the Sikh and Christian,
where the lower figures of certain other age-periods are obviously artificial.
This age-period suffers in three ways. The ages of unmarried girls above 10 are
•usually put down as under 10, while married girls under 15 are, ofteaer than
not, stated to be over that age. Thirdly the death-rate in females of
this age-period is very high, and the high proportion of female deaths
of the preceding age-period 5 — 10 d\iring the past deoade also affects
the females recorded at the recent Enumeration as belonging to the age-period
10 — 15. At 15— 20, the proportion of females rises a little higher amongst the
-Hindus, but considerably amongst the Muhammadans. Among the Sikhs, the
proportion of this age-period is abnormally low, 596 to every 1,000 males. This
illustrates the tendency mentioned iu paragraph 288, Chapter V, of understating
the age of unmarried girls over 15 and in most cases giving the age of a murried
girl as 20 and is consistent with the practice amongst the Sikhs, of marrying girls
usually between the ages of 15 and 20 years. The figures of the age-period 20 — 25
are high in all religions except the Christian. The tendency to state the age
of married young women who have become mothers as over 20 years is the
principal cause of the exaggeration of the figures of this age-period, and the
proportion in the higher age-periods is generally lower. The age-periods 25 — 40
have been affected by the high mortality of females from plague and the
progressive proportion of Sikh females from 20 — 50 may be ascribed to the
emigration of a number of males of those ages to other Provinces and
over seas. Among the Christians, t,h« smallest proportion of females is to
be found at the age-period 20 — 25 and the next higher quinquennial period
(25 — 30) also shows a very low proportion, the figures being 410 and
614 to every 1,000 males respectively. This result is due mainly to the im-
migration of a large number of British soldiers of these ages and of other
European bachelors, and partly to conversion, from other religions, of adult
males in larger numbers than females. The absence of European ladies —
wives of officials, who may happen to be at home, for purposes of health
or to see to the education of their children when the Census ia taken can
hardly have any appreciable effect on the figures ; and the understatement
of age by middle aged ladies can but slightly affect the issues hero. The
Jains show the highest proportion (958) of females over the age of 60, the
reasons of which have already been exphuned in paragraph 309. The Hindus
who have a large percentage of widows have the next highest proportion
(814) of females living to highly advanced ages. The Sikhs and Muhammadans
who go in for widow marriage have a comparatively small strength of females
.above 60, i.e., 734 and 755 respectively per thousand males, and the Christians
Census Beport. ]
226
VABIATION IN BEX PEOPOBTION.
Chaptee-
JBy castes.
— T
CONSTITiniON DF lOQOD OF THE P0PULAT1DN
BY ACES AND THE RATIO DF MALES AND
FEMALES IN EACH ACE-PERIOD
Dagi-Kolis (Hindu)
Mahtams (Sikh)
Bawaria (Hindu) .
Kanets (Hindu)
Khatns (Hindu) .
Dhobis (Hindu)
Ghiraths (Hindu)
have the lowest proportion of all (687).
This seems to encourage the theory that
unrestricted ■widow marriage reduces the
longevity of females by exposing them to the
risks of parturition. The proportion of
sexes at each age-period in the tt>tal popula-
tion (all religions) is illustrated by the dia-
gram printed in the margin. The only notice-
able feature is the excess of females over
males in the age-period 60 — 65 and the
almost equal proportion at 70 and over.
In all the other age-periods, the proportion
of males is higher tban that of females.
In the 8 castes named in the margin, the number of females under 5'
years exceeds that of males. The two sexes are
equal in strength in Julaha (Hindu) and Mallah
(Muhammadan). In all other castes the females in the
first 5 years of life fall short of males. The case of
appear
2 a ° ? ? T
III O lO Q
■o S a S u ra
^ ^ lo u5 <o CO
1111-
1,074
1,067
1,052
1,037
1.022
1,015
1,013
Jogi Rawals is peculiar. It would appear tbat they
Jogi Rawals (Muhammadan) 1,005 have a fairly high proportion of females at birth, but
the proportion becomes artificially exaggerated in the age-periods 20 and over
Labanas
Fakir
( Hindus
1 Sikhs
Sansi3 Hindus
Jats Sikhs
Bajput Hindus
being those named in the margin
hills appears to be high, but
871
851
784
836
J Hindus
( Sikhs
Chhimba Sikhs
Lobar Sikhs
Saini Siklis
760
478
866
848
866
Castes.
6 B .
S- a
Uahtam
Ehokbar
Anan
Qurcshi
Maliar
Sayad
Pathan
Biloch
Bairaria
Unsalli
Vacbbi
Mughal
Uallab
Hirasi
Kboja
Uochi
Dogar
Bajpnt
Arora
Julaba
Easbmiii
Dhobi
KbaUi
Nai
Chuhra
Pakhiwas
Jat
Pansi
Qassab
o .
O tii
0_v-l
o c!i
a M
O C3
■-S CO
Castes.
SO
o I S
1-1
"13 y
o <&^^
17
777
22
714
2a
700
27
764
27
708
88
766
28
690
29
587
31
746
31
746
3l
688
32
722
34
669
34
734
36
740
37
712
38
640
39
663
40
797
40
717
41
686
42
729
43
687
44
675
44
661
44
553
44
631
45
709
45
733
Tarkhan
Dagi-Koli .
Sheikh
Kumbar
Labana
Jogi Kawal
Eanet
Kan boh
A rain
Teli
Chhimba
Harni
Barwala
Lobar
Bharai
Fakir
Sunar
Ghirath
Brahman
Gujar
J bin war
Mali
Meo
Dwnna
Abir
Aggarwal
Saini
Chamar
Dbanak
for reasons already explained. In the-
other castes, the strength of females in
the first quinquennial age-period is fairly
close to that of males, the only exception
The proportion in the castes found in the
the figures of Khatris and Dhobis would pre-
===^^ elude any general inference being
drawn. As regards other age-
periods, the marginal table will
show the proportion of married
females aged 12 — 15 to those
of all ages given in the order of
numerical strength and compared
with the proportion of females to
males at those ages. The figures
create the impression that the
castes given to early marriage
have a small proportion of females
at the age of 12 — 15, but it would be
unsafe to attach any importance to
this coincidence owing to the deli-
berate mis-statement of ages at
this period. It has been noted
above that unmarried females
between 1 2 — 1 5 are usually put down
as under 10 or 12 , and that the age
of married females under 15 years
is usually exaggerated when they
become mothers. The obvious re-
sult of these customs would be that
the number of married females
stated to be 12 — 15 years old would
be consideiably understated and a
low proportion of the total number
of females of this age-period to the
males would te the natural result.
It is also evident that the castes
'^^=^^'=^==^====^ given to early marriage w^onld ha-ve
greater inducement for a double mis-statement of the ages at this particular period
than those amongst whom the females are married at a more advanced age.
47
694
47
791
47
699
47
694
48
578
49
819
49
792
49
747
49
699
51
682
51
674
52
1,184
52
733
62
751
54
600
54
616
54
700
57
751
58
664
60
669
60
702
60
666
61
713
64
756
64
667
64
716
68
673
75
720
85
756
1
227
VI.
VARIATION IN SEX PROPORTION.
[ Ptmjab, 1911.
Variation In
Proportion of females per 1,000 mules.
sex pr<
Total.
Indo-
Gangetio
Plain.
836
839
842
795
Hima-
layan.
Sub-Hi-
malayan.
856
863
880
827
N.-W.
Dry
Area.
1881
189L
1901
1911
84-1
850
854
817
878
890
892
901
835
847
838
^25
tion of female to male births during the
312. The proportion of
females (actual population) at the
different Enumerations is noted
in the margin. The relative
strength of females rose steadily
from 844 per 1,000 in 1881 to
854 in 1901, but the figures of
the recent Census show a heavy
drop to 817, although the propor-
past decade rose to 909 per mille
Actual
population.
compared with 906 in the preceding 10 years. The shortage of females
which has been caused by excessive mortality, particularly from plague is
therefore not the result of any permanent forces working in this direction.
The Himalayan tract which was not attacked by plague has shown an improve-
ment in the proportion of females, while the Indo-Cilangetic Plain as well as the
Sub-Himalayan Division which suffered most
from that epidemic have recorded heavy de-
creases. The N orth-West Dry Area enjoyed
comparative immunity from plague, and the
loss in the proportional strength of females,
there, is much smaller. It should also be noted
that the wholesale immigration into the Canal
Colonies lying within this tract contains a
large element of male workers and is a factor
which is bound to result in raising the per-
centage of males. That a similar result was
noticeable in the decade preceding 1 901, makes
it clear that the present decrease in the
proportion of females in the North-West
Dry Area is also largely influenced by
migration. The diagram printed in the
margin compares the proportion of female
mortality from plague to the decrease in the
relative strength of females to males in the
districts which suffered heavily from plague.
It will be seen that in the worst afflicted dis-
tricts of Hoshiarpur, Jullundur and Sialkot,
the latter has varied inversely to the former.
But in all cases where the losses from plague
were heavier among females than among males,
there has been a considerable drop in the
313. The figures given in Natural
the margin show the proportion population,
of females in the natural popula-
tion. The results are similar to
those for the actual population
except that the proportion of
females has fallen in the Hima-
layan tract as well, which may
bo ascribed to death from plague,
other tracts, of females born in this Division. The Pataudi State which
showed an increase of proportion in the actual population, owing to the effects of
emigration of males has exhibited the correct variation, i. e., a decrease in the
natural population. The cases of Simla and Muzaffargarh are similar. Here the
immigration of males has upset the balance in the actual population.
314. The proportion of females to every 1,000 males in 1901 and 1911 is
ReiifiioD8. 1911. 1901. shown in tho margin by religion.
Muimmmadans 833 878 With the exception oftho Christians,
all rehgiona havo a smaller propor-
REFERENCES i
PROPORTION OF FEMALE TO-i
IDOD MALE DEATHS f
\ FROM PLAGUE J
\
s. DECREASE IN
1200
]\ PROPORTION OF
++-t-4
\ FEMALES TO
\
^000 MALES 1
irso
\j;OMPARED
"~~
\ WITH
\ ISOl
1100 '
\
losa •
V
I0E6
84
80
BO
m
0
1
' ♦., ^
.••"
w
HO ,
= o: 5 = _ " ^ 5
1 1 H i 1 1 i 1
S ^ <n 3 5 y
proportion of the fo
rmer sex.
Decade.
Pro-
vince.
Indo-
Gange-
tio Plain.
Himala-
yan tract.
Sub-
Himala-
yan tract
N.-W.
Dry
Area.
18S1
1891
1901
1911
814
844
845
811
828
825
829
787
900
909
913
906
8G3
855
862
810
843
855
859
847
m
Religions
Hindus
Sikhs ...
Jains
1911.
Sao
746
850
1901.
845
779
853
Cliristians
707 580
Variation
by religion
at diflferent
age-periods.
Census Report. ]
228
VARIATION IN SEX PROPOETION.
Chaptbb
REFERENCES
HINDUS •■-
SIKHS
JAINS
MUHQ« - — -
CHRISTIANS • • • • •
800
tiou of femaleslnow than they had 10 years ago, the Jains, who live mainly
in towns and now possess the large^it proportion, having suffered the least. Tho
conversion of an enormous number of families to Christianity has gone a long way
to increase the proportion of females in tbat community, in spite of the large number
of bachelor European soldiers, although the figure is still low compared with the
other religions. The variation of the proportion since 1881 is shown by decades
in the marginal diagram. The strength o£
females has grown remarkably among Christians
ever since 1881, owing to conversions, but
although the growth from 1881 to 1891 was
fairly rapid, the rate has been largely accelerat-
ed during the past two decades. The Jains
have declined steadily nlthough they have fared
better than the lEindus or Muhammadans in the
last decade. The Hindus showed a compara-
tively smaller pi'oportion of females in 1891,
but regained some of the lost ground in 1901,
although they have now gone somewhat lower
than where they stood at the last Census. The
gains of the Muhammadans were large in 1901,
but they now show a considerable decrease in the
proportion of females. The Sikhs are on about
the dame level as in 1881, their proportion of
. females having been only slightly better at the
two intervening censuses.
Looking at the figures given in Subsidiary Table II, it will be noticed
that the proportion of female infants has increased in all religions except the
Christian, but in the age-period 1—2 years, the proportion in Christians has more
than made up for the deficiency in the youngest age. Perhaps the year 1909 was
not favourable for female births among Christians or the ages of infants under one
year may have been generally overstated by the low caste converts zealous to imitate
the western custom of taking pride in the health of a baby which is so opposed to
local usat^e. Taking the ages up to 5 years together, the proportion of female
children has steadily increased from 923 in 1891 and 926 in 1901 to 941 in 1911.
All religions except the Muhammadan and Christian had shown a drop in 1901,
but with the exception of the Christians whose figures are affected by conversions,
the improvement during the past ten years has been very marked. It may be
taken as a sign of the increasing vitality of the people. In the age-period 5—10,
there is a general decrease except among the Sikhs and Jams, and at the ages 10—1 5
and 15—20 all religions appear to have suffered without exception. The Hindus,
Muhammadans and° ^ikhs show a decrease in all the higher age-periods. The
Jains and Christians have shared in tiie general tendency with exceptions at
certain age-periods, , j c ■ c r i u
The probable effect, of a more or less general defacieacy of females above
the age of 5 would be to check an increase in the birth-rate during the next decade.
315. The figures of births and deaths given in Subsidiary Tables V
and VI deal with British Territory only, as complete vital statistics are not
The total births and deaths during the past two
~ decades are noted in
the margin. It will
be seen that the last
decade was favour-
in 1891—1900 by
yet during the past
Compari-
son with
vital statis- available for the Native States
tics.
1891-1900
1901-1910
Births.
Males.
4,048,998
4,340,338
Females
3,668,T(J.3
3,945,923
Total.
7,717,761
8,28(5,261
Dbaths.
Males. Femles. I Total.
3.342,579
4,459,990
3,067.397
4,383,718
6,409,970
8.843.708
exceeded those
still in defect,
able one with regard to births which
568,500 and, although female births are
decade 909 females were bom to every 1,000 males compared with 906 in the
preceding 10 years. But as regards deaths, the decade 1901 — 1910 was very
disastrous, particularly for females. The number of deaths rose from 6,409,976 in
1891-1900 to 8,843,708 in 1901-1910, showing an excess of 2,433,732 or 3S per
cent. But females suffered 'more than males, and the proportion of female to male
deaths went up from 918 in 1831-1901 to 933 per 1,000 in the past decade.
On the whole, the total deaths exceeded the total births by 557,447 (male 119,652,
i
I
YI.
229
VARIATION IN SEX PEOFOETION.
[ Punjal), 1911v
female 437,795) during the decade, resultinsf in a decrease in the total populatioa
and particularly in females. The highest proportion of females at birth is shown
by the Himnlayan tract (939), and the lowest by the Nortli-West Dry Area (887).
Female deaths were highest proportionally in the Sub-Himalayan tract (1,019) and
lowest in the North-West Dry Area (927). Subsidiary Table VI shows tliat the
propoi'tion of deaths among females was highest at the age-period 10 — 15. This
accounts for the proportion of females being abnormally low at that age-period. The
high mortahty in females is asoribable, mainly to the ravages of plague. Of the total
•deaths from this epidemic (2,025,220) noted in Subsidiary Table VI to Chapter II,
1,068,515 or 528 per mille occurred among females, causinga loss of 114per milleof
the female population of 1901. The deaths among males numbering 956,705, the
corresponding proportion of losses for males was 88, i.e. much less. Fevers, which
accounted for 4| million deaths, were more impartial and carried away jnales and
females in the proportion of 209 and 237 per mille, respectively. The following
remarks of Lt.-Col. Bamber, I. M.S., in the Sanitary Administration Report of the
Punjab for 1905, afford a good explanation of the high mortahty of females from
plague.
" The abnormal excess in the female mortality from plague is attributed to follow-
ing causes, it being assumed that the cause of the pestilence is present in the floors of
infected houses, (a) The assemblage of a large number of women in a sick room, and this
to a tjreater extent than is customary among men, and their nursing the sick without taking
sufficient food, exercise and sleep. The handling of soiled clothes, [b) When a death
occurs in a house a still larger number assemble for purposes of mourning and sit round
and near the corpse. A greater number of women as compared with men, join mourning
parties. They sit sometimes the whole day on the ground inside houses, generally badly
ventilated and badly lighted iu which deaths from plague have occurred, crying and
beating their breasts, while on such occasions men sit outside. Most of the females of
deceased's relatives sleep on floor during the first few days of mourning. Some of the
nearest female relatives keep fasts,* only eating once a day during the earlier period of
mourning, (c) Females, in the case of the poorer classes, do all the menial work of the
house, such as cleaning, leeping floors and making cowdung cakes for fuel. All the daily
sweeping of the interiors ot dwelling places is done by the women themselves and not
by sweepers. The latter clean up the open enclosures but are not permitted to enter the
house for caste reasons. Women are in this way exposed more to dust than men. (d)
Women seldom wear shoes or stockings and generally go about bare-footed, (e) Women
generally live a much more in-door life than men. They are generally confined to their
houses, particularly in towns, and are more exposed to the infection from rats and fleas
than men. They spend most of their time, when working sitting or resting, on the floors
of their houses. (/) In the case of the poorer classes, women generally handle corn for
threshing or grinding. On most mornings of the year they remove from their stores in a
corner of the living room a quantity of grain sufficient for the day, which thsy grind and if
the grain is infected, they are more liable to catch the infection than men."
The diagram printed in the margin illustrates the co-relation of deaths
from plague to the high mortlity among females,
in the year 1902 — 7 and 1910. Female deaths
from plague have varied more or less, in the
same way, as the total mortality from the
epidemic, but the curve of the foimer runs
almost parallel to that of the total female deaths.
As noted above, the vital statistics show a
net loss of 119,652 males and 437,795 females
during the past decade. But the Census 6gure3
show rtn increase of 46,672 males and a decrease
of 402,979 females. Th^ difference in the two
sets of figures is not large considering the effects
of niii^ration noticed in paragraph 74 of Chapter
II, and although it cannot be denied that hero
and there omissions, mostly unintentional, are
made in reporting births and deaths, yet the
system now in force in this Province for check-
ing the returns of vital statistics described in
paragraph 72 may for all practical purposes be
taken as almost perfect. In any case there is no
• The sleeping on the floor and kee()ing of fasts is not contineJ to women. The nearest relations whether
male cr female obaorvo the rules equally. This argument is, therefore, not very forcible-
REFERENCES
TOTAL FEMALE DEATHS
TOTAL DEATHS FROM PLAGUE -
FEMALE :__:
Census Report. ]
23Q
CAD8E9 OF DISPAEITT OF SEXES.
Chapteh
True pro-
portion of
females-
reason to believe that births or deaths of females are concealed more than those
of males. Unintentional omissions cover both fexes and deliberate omissions^
to report illegitimate births or deaths from plague also apply equally to both sexes.
If there are any deliberate omissions to report female births in castes and tribes
given to female infanticide they can hardly affect the proportion for large tracts
or for the whole Province. The suspicion that the low proportion of females exhi-
bited by Census returns may be due to omissions of entries relating to females may,
on the other hand, be safely treated now as groundless. During the Preliminary
Enumeration, I personally checked a large number of entries relating to respectable'
families where the chances of suppressing entries relating to females were con-
siderable. In most cases, I found no omissions of feraales. In solitary instances
there was an omission of a girl but this happened only where there were too many
girls in a house and the principal occiifant either felt ashamed to own that he had
su many daughters or got tired of dictating particulars about the less important
constituents of his family. The Enumerators were, however, very patient as a rule,
and made use of the information given by the neighbours in supplying such omis-
sions. The only tract in which the record relating to females could not be thoroughly-
reliable is the Biloch trans-Frontier where, according to custom, an Enumerator
dare not question a man about the vromen folk. Here the record is based on the
statement of the headman, a person of advanced years and patriarchal standing,
whose personal knowledge has to be taken as Gospel truth. The proportion of
females here is 767 per 1,000, which is about the lowest in any district or state in
the Province (^^ee Subsidiary Table I). But the total population of the tract is not
much more than 28,500 and so the errors, if any, cannot have far reaching effects.
316. The proportion of females to every 1,000 males according to the pre-
sent Census figures is 817, while adding the births to and subtracting the deaths
from the population of 1901, we get a population consisting of 927 females to
every 1,000 males. The latter figure cannot be corroborated unless the effects-
of migration are eliminated. The proportion shown by the figures of Natural
population is 811 per 1,000. But the true strength of the Natural
female population of the Province must be still less, because the number of
emigrants to several foreign countries is not known, and it is obvious that males
largely preponderate in this class of emigration. It would not probably be far
from correct to say that as now constituted, the Natural population of the Pro-
vince has not more than 8J0 females to every 1,000 males, a state of affairs
which places the Punjab in rather a sorry predicament in regard to fecundity.
CAUSES OF DISPARITY OF SEXES.
317. The disparity of sexes noticed iu the preceding paragraphs can be
ascribed to causes restricting the production or accelerating the losses of the female
sex. It has been explained above that the unfavourable results as regards the
proportion of females to malen, shown by the statistics of the recent Census, are
due not to a variation in the proportion of birth, which bas in fact increased (from
906 to 909 per miHe of males) but to the comparatively heavy mortality among
females. I will therefore deal with the latter cause first.
318. The high death-rate among females, cannot be ascribed to any single
but it appears to be the joint result of various processes working
simultarec'usly towards the same result.
319. female Infanticide is supposed to be the most important cause of the
paucity of females and the question has attracted a great deal of attention. The
subject has been discuf-sed in detail in a note which is printed at the end of this
chapter. The conclusions there arrived at are briefly these : —
That female infanticide which evidently prevailed to a considerable extent
at the time of annexation of this Province, has dwindled down to insignificance ;
that wherever it now exists it is confined to individual families, or groups of fami-
lies and that its extent is not pufiBcient to influence the proportion of sexep in any
particular caste or locality as a whole, much less, that of any caste or religion in
the whole Province.
320. But if female infanticide does not prevail to any noticeable extent,
female infant the neglect of female infants has been the general rule, except in tracts and
life. communities where a bride-price is charged. Even there, the force of custom
prevents the equal treatment of boys and girls, although the fact that the girl is
General
xenarkg.
Causes of
high mort- cause,
ality in le- . ^'
males.
Female Infan
ticide.
i
4
Keglect of
231
VI. CAtrsKs OP DisPABiTT ojF SEXES. [ Punjab, 1911
a valuable asset, saves her from actual ceglect. The motive for neglecting female
infants, is the same as that explained in the note on female infanticide appended
to this Chapter. The birth of a female* is usually considered to be an occasion
for condolence rather than a cause for congratulation. The disappointment at the
birth cf a girl to the midwife, (who gets a larger fee at the birth of a son), to
the mother and to the women in attendance is equally great, and the consequence
is that all in attendance become more mindful of the safety of the mother and
look upon the requirements of the baby as a secondary concern. In many cases
the midwife or the women in attendance, will feign so much disgust that they
will not touch the baby till after the patient has been dressed and attended to in
every way. The bathing, etc., of the child is also done in a slip-sliod manner,,
and, oftener than not, the first feeding is unnecessarily delayed till, the care of
the neglected stranger appeals to the solicitude of some of the females present.
The disappointment of the mother, howsoever great, cannot, however, detract
from natural affection, and once the girl begins to be suckled, she is fairly
safe ; but ordinarily, custom does not permit the mother to suckle the baby
during confinement or thereafter until she is asked by some female rela-
tion, unless she happens to be all by herself ; and although feedinor at longer
intervals does not, on the whole, reduce the total nourishment of the baby yet,,
as a matter of fact, she does not snck milk as often as a boy baby. As soon as^
the girl baby is able to take some kind of food the mother stops suckling her,
partly on account of the shame to have to suckle a female child and partly owing
to the desire to have a chance of conception in the hope of bearing a male child
next time. A distinction is made except in well-to-do families, between the
food given to girls and that prepared for boys. The latter are usually given more
nutritious and fatty food and delicacies, while the former hardly partake of any
luxuries. Then again girls are usually insufficiently clad and less trouble is
taken to protect them from heat and cold, than in the case of boys. In the
illness of female children, no notice is taken unless tiie ailment becomes serious,
while the slightest indisposition in a boy upsets the whole family and the best
available medical assistance is summoned. This neglect of female infants
naturally results in a large number of female infant deaths, witliin a few-
days after birth or within the first few years of life ; but the parents
though not positively anxious for the death of the female infant, are not dis-
satisfied with the rate of mortality amongst them, as would be inferred from
the popular saying that "mothers look after the boys and God looks after the
girli." The neglect of female infants which has probably been the most import-
ant cause of the disp^irity of sexes is, however, diminishing rapidly, owing partly
to the spread of education and partly to changes in custom. The difficulty of
finding matches for girls is rapidly vanishing owing to the disregard of caste
restrictions and the custom of obtaining a bride-price which was looked upon with
disfavour both by Hindus and Muhammadans, is coming more and more in vogue,,
in consequence of a rise in the standard of living and the hard struggle for exist-
ence. Except in towns, the poorer classes without distinction of caste or creed, do
not scruple to accept money now, avowedly or otherwise, in consideration for
the gift of a girl. Where the practice is adopted, a female infant though not
wished for, is no longer unwelcome, and thfre is no cause for neglecting it.
Indeed in some tracts and in certain communities, for instance, the Niazi
Pathans of Mianwab, ri man with a large number of daughters, is held to possess
a fortune. Tli;.t the neglect of female infant life is decreasing, is support-
ed by the figures for the age-fieriod 0 — 5 given in Subsidiary Table II. The
1- Khatri 1,022 proportion of females to males up to 5 years, was 923 to-
I: cZatr"' l:o"i3 l^very 1,000 in 1891. It rose to 920 in 1901, and
4- Dhobi 1,01.5 in spite of the heavy mortality of females during the past
6.' Bawaria 1,05^ decado, it has now risen to 941. The castes in which the-
7. Mahtam ^ i,'< G7 Strength of female infants up to 5 years exceeds that of
^ agi-Kcu. 1,074 males are given in the margin. The custom of accepting a
bride-price is known to exist in castes Nos. 3 to 6, and in the poorer classes, at all
events, of castes Nos. 1 and 2.
• If the first child happens to be a girl she receives a somewhat better treatment than usuaL
Census Eeport. J
232
CAUSES OF DIBPABITY or SBXES.
Chapter
■Changes in
the life of
females at
certain ages.
Karly mar-
riage.
321. Although neglected, the girl infants move about unrestricted like
boys up to the age of 6 or 7 and their rougher bringing up, perhaps, condones for
their earlier neglect and makes them hardier. At; this age they bes^in to be
gradually brought under restrictions and confined more or less to the house.
The effect of this sudden change is obviously injurious and the proportion of
females to males decreases f lom the first quinquennial age-period to the next
Csee Subsidiary Table II) while, on the other hand, the proportion of deaths of
females rises to 1,037 for every 1,000 mules — i. e., female deaths at this age ex-
ceed male deaths (Subsidiary Table VI)'. The treatment of girls during this
age-period is by no means congenial, and it is during this stage of life that the
children have generally to bear the attacks of measles, small-pox, and other in-
fantile diseases. The neglect of the earlier years begins to tell now and the
female children becooue more susceptible to attacks. The highest mortality 1,073 to
1,000 males amongst, females occurs in the age-period of 10 — 15, when the second
change in the life of an Indian girl takes place — viz., when she shows the signs
of pul)erty, i. e., the transition period from girlhood to maturity. The proportion
of females at this age-period touches the lowest point of 707,
The change from a healthy out-door to an in-door life is generally slow in
producing its effect;;, and by the time she is 10 or 1 2, her constitution is, in many
a case, practically undermined. The culminating point is the appearance of the
Higns ot puberty which cause a great deal of worry to the girl. If she gets married
early she suffers from the evils of an early motherhood. If she does not, the anxiety
of the fumily, as regards her marriage, usually makes her brood and reacts
on a system already weakened. Moreover she is now capable of realizing
her position in the house of her parents where, in spite of the natural love and
affection she commands, she is usually looked upon as an unnecessarily expensive
and troublesome foreign property {pardi/a dhan) or that in the father-in-law's,
where her least faults are severely criticised by the female members of the family
generally, and the husband's sister (nand or nvidn) particularly. The least
ailment in her case, therefore, often assumes serious proportions. This is conse-
quently the most risky part of an Indian girl's life and the danger extend to the
first half of the next quinquennial age-period as well.
Next to this, the period of life most fatal for women is from 20 to 40
years, which is the regular child-bearing time. The high mortality at this stage
is only natural owing to parturition, crude midwifery methods, etc., which are
dealt with in the following paragraphs. The death-rate among females decreases
after 40. At the second change in a girl's life, the risks are much greater thao
at the first.
322. Early marriage which is dealt with in Chapter VII, has degenerated
into child marriage and the consummation of marriage when either one or both
of the parties are still immature. The wife being invariably younger than
the husband, the uuion naturally tells on her health. It has been
shown above that the castes which practise early marriage on an extensive
scale have generally a smaller proportion of females at the age-period 12 — 15.
Statistics of deaths are not available by castes. It would have been interesting
to compare the deatli-rate of females from 12 — 15 and 15 — 20 years in the castes
above referred to. But inquiries into a large number of cases show that where
the marriage of young people is consummated at an early age, say, when
the boy is not more than 10 years or the girl is 12 or 13, a fairly large per-
centa<ye of wives die of phthisis or some other disease of the respiratory organs or
from some ovarian complication, within 10 years of the consummation of marriage.
The general tendency of ths educated classes is, however, to discourage early
marriage or at all events early consummation and most of the reformed religious
societies, particularly amongst the Hindus and Sikhs, are conducting a regular
crusade against this custom. But looking at the figures given in Subsidiary
Table I to Chapter VII, it would appear, that the proportion of married females
in the age-period 10—15 to the total femiles of that age-period has slightly
increased from 283 to 287 per mille, instead of showing a contraction, although
the improvement from 459 in 1S91 to 283 in 190l was considerable. This
would lead to the conclusion that matters as regards early marriage are
* The proportion given in this table have been worked out on the basis of statistics for the years 1903 to 1909 •
VI. CAUSES OP DISPAEITT OP 8EXEB. [Punjal), 1911.
more or less at a stand-still and that the influence of the reformers is
confined to the educated section and baa not reached the masses.
♦ 323. Deaths from parturition and other diseases peculiar to women Deaths from
are also an important factor in reducino^ the proportion of females. Crude P'''^''"'"itioD,
midwifery among the masses is in no small measure responsible for
the high death-rate at the ages 20 to 40. A great deal has been donelUf^j^*
and is being done in the matter of placing trained mid wives within the
reach of the people, but the supply is still so limited that only a part of
the urban population can benefit by their services and the poorer classes in
towns, and the rural population generally have to depend solely on the indigenous
Vdi (midwife) whose knowledge is based upon nothing but personal experience.
The manner in which these untrained midwives injure their patients in the
operations connected with child-birth or by carrying contagion with tlieir dirty
clothes has been fully discussed in standard works on midwifery and in the
passioned appeals of noted Vicerines whose names are associated with schemes
for the protection, elevation and comfort of Indian females. People lead-
ing an out-door pastoral or agricultural life probably needed little medical
assistance at accouchement, for they were not sinners against nature and nature
had no retribution to inflict on them ; but circumstances have changed and
with the growth of population and artificial means of cultivation, the modes
of life have suffered a complete transformation ; and even the rustic now needs
medical assistance at every turn. Oases, are no doubt, still met with in which a
robust Jat, Pathan or Changar woman will take ill on a journey all by herself,
rest in some shady nook on the roadside, where she is delivered of a child,
and after a little while, will resume her journey with the baby, her confinement
not lasting more than a few hours altogether. But such cases which were
common half a century ago are now rare exceptions.
324. During the 11, 13, or 40 days after child-birth, the mother ig Treatment of
usually fed on heating, fatty and nutritive diet, according to the means of the ^hli'dXr/h!'^
family. So it would not be correct to say that women suffer from insuBRcient food
after confinement. "What happens is that the food prescribed by ancient usage
which was quite suitable for the stronger femnles of the old days, is more or
less unsuited to the constitution of the comparatively weaker mothers of the
present day, and in most cases is incapable of being digested and assimilated.
In this way, no doubt, females at child bearing ages do suffer to some extent
from improper food. But during the 11 or 13 days of confinement,
the patient has to remain inside a room which oftener than not is ill-
ventilated and a fire keeps smouldering therein for the purpose of
burning incense, etc. These precautions are taken not entirely in the in-
terests of the patient's health, bat to prevent the interference of evil
spirits. The collection, from time to time, in this small room, of female visitors
who are anxious to enquire after the health of the patient, but in reality
want chiefly to satisfy their curiosity about the child, charges the air further
with obnoxious gases. The patient, therefore, gets anything bat fresh air to
breathe and no won<ler that she should emerge from her confinement altogether
emaciated and worn out. It is unnecessary to mention here the diseases
and complications which result from unskilled midwifery or from unhygienic
treatment and environments of the patient during confinement, nor is it possi-
ble to assert, with any degree of statistical value, their effect on mortality.
325. Compulsory widowhood is a custom peculiar to the Hindus. The Oompulaory
lower cla'^ses allow the remarriage of widows but even amongst them a widow ""^ °" ""'*
does not always remarry. Owing obviously to the influence of Hindu associations
some of the higher castes amongst the Muhammadans, wliether converts from
Hinduism or claiming a foreign descent, look upon widow marriage with
disfavour and the absence of the custom is considered, in some tracts aa a sign
of high breeding. A Muhammadan Jat or Rajput, a Sheikh of Arabian
descent or a Moghal, in the eastern Punjab will, for instance, not think of
marrying a widow. The popular Persian poet Sddi has said " Baha rdst
hirao agarche dur ast, Zane beioah makwi agarche hur ast."
[Tread the straight path safe, although it more distant be,
So take not to wife a widow. E'en if she a Uouri be.J
234
CcDBTis Eeport. ] CAUsis or dispabitt of sexks. CnAPTiit
But this is not in accordance with the Shar'at and the general custom amongst
the Muhammadans does not enjoin enforced widowhood. Among the Sikhs too-,
the higher castes alone follow the Hindu custom. The evils of the procedure if
any, are therefoie confined to the Hindu society alone.
The existence of a large number of widows handicaps the fecundity of a
people, but it should not necessarily reduce the proportion of females. It is the
enhanced death-rate among widows which produces that result. The practice
of Sati (immolation of a wife on the funeral pyre of her husband) has long^
ceased to exist, and the cases in which a widow destroys herself immediately
on hearing of or witnessing the death of her husband, owing to her unbearable
grief, whether by poison or in some other way, though not unknown, are
extremely rare. But a large number of widows are seriously affected by
the shock and shorten their span of life by deliberate exposure to privations
of all kinds. This usually happens in the piously inclined childless widows.
Others are harshly treated by their mothers-in-law or female relations. They
are supposed to be practically dead to the world and are expected not only to
eschew all luxuries, but to lead a life of absolute self-denial in respect of
dress, ornaments and even food. But while, according to the Shastras and the
old custom, a widow duly observing the vows of widowhood was to be respected
even by her elders, was usually given the management of the household and every
effort was made to mitigate her unfortunate position, the present day thouj^ht has
led to a widow being now looked upon as an unproductive encumbrance and even a
scourge to the family. Her presence at certain occasions of rejoicing and at the
celebration of certain ceremonies has come to be looked upon as ominous and her lot
is altogether a hard one. The ill-treatment of widows by the mothers-in-law has
become proverbial, and every now and then ore hears of attempts to quietly put a
young widow out of the way. This may be due partly to the anxiety in safe-
guarding the morals of young widows. A case came recently to my notice
in which a woman who had long been ill-treating her widowed daughter-in-law
took advantage of an occasion when the latter was invited by a female friend
and neighbour and in her absence prepared some confection, which she gave
the daughter-in-law to eat at 10 p. m. on her return from the visit. The latter
was immediately seized with symptoms of poisoning and the mother-in-law gave
out that it was an attack of cholera resulting from the bad food eaten at the
neighbour's house. A friendly doctor happened to be at hand, and he treated
the patient for poisoning instead of cholera, thus saving her from what would
otherwise have ended fatally. It is possible that a widow may here and there
be driven to desperation by the ill-treatment and may commit suicide by poision.
But such cases are seldom heard of. Perhaps when they occur, the cause ia
carefully concealed and no one takes notice of it owing to the general feeling
that a widow is well rid of her life of misery. So whether from deliberate neglect
of themselves or from ill-treatment, the life of the younger widows is usually
shortened, and this is not a negligible factor in the lowness of the proportion of
females amongst the Hindus at all events.
Modes of liv- 326. Females are, as a rule, responsible for all household work, and those
taL^^stoms. ■"^^ cannot afford to keep servants have to do all the sweeping and cleaning
work. The cooking when done in-doors, within badly ventilated rooms,
necessitates the inhalation of a good deal of smoke. The practice of walking
bare-footed and attendance at the mourning assemblages, where women have to
sit on the ground for long hours predisposes them to attacks from plague bascilli
and other bacteria very much more than the males, who take out-door exercise
acd are able to throw off the poisons inhaled or imbibed into the system.
Bisks from 327. Abortions are common among widows of loose morals in all religions
' '°'^ and also in some cases among married women of similar habits who happen to
conceive during the absence of their husbands. Abortion at a third pregnancy
owing to its association with ilUhick is unknown in this Province, nor is an
abortion attempted at a prophesy that the child will be a girl. The faith of th&
masses in the cflBcacy of medicines and charms in converting the sex of a child
in embryo is too strong in the latter case. The usual method adopted for abor-
tion is the administration of a strong purgative internally, the most favourite
medicire being a decoction cf carrot seed, soua (Anethun SoMa), cocoanut and.
235
VI. CAUSK8 OF DISPABITT OP SEXES. [ Punjab, 1911.
Chhuhdra (dried Arabian dates) and the external application of some irritant
such as white rattis (abrua precatorius) reduced to powder. The irritant ia
usually applied to the round end of a quill for insertion into the mouth of the
uterus. The treatment is undergone as soon as pregnancy is suspected and the
idea is that the earlier the means are adopted, the less trouble they cause, and it
goes without saying that there ia less chance of publicity, hut attempts, if
unsuccessful, are repeated persistently even at an advanced stage of pregnancy.
Excessive haemorrhage often causes injury to the patient particularly io
the abdominal region, and there is always the risk of septic poisoning. But
cases of death from abortion are very rare. Indeed a doctor with 28 years'
experience has told me that he has not, in the whole course of his practice, come
across a single case of this nature.
328. A woman beheved to be sterile will run any risks with a view to get a Treatment
son. Ordinarily the worship of the family god, Vishnu, Shiva or the Goddess jg ^""^ ^tenhty.
resorted to. Certain days sacred to that deity are observed as fasts. The wor-
ship of Shiva for this purpose is based upon the same principle as that of Viahnu
or the Goddess and the incident that the emblem which is worshipped in place
of Shiva is the representation of Lingam has no significance in the matter of
granting creative powers. The worship of Vishnu for the purpose is veiy
common. The Purnamasi — i.e., 15th of the bright half of each month — is observed
as a fast, the Kathd of Satya IVarain is recited, or the Satya Narain (Vishnu) is
worshipped, and the following Shloka is repeated every morning on the rosary :
Devaki Svta Oobtmia, Shankh Chakra gadodhara, Dehi me tanayam Krishna,
Twdmaliam Sharanagata (0, son of Devaki, Gobind, the carrier of the conch, disc
and mace, give me a son O Krishna, I have come to thy protection). When
Shiva is worshipped for the purpose, the woman makes eleven or some other
specified number of Uudris (small images of the emblem of Shiva) daily and
worships them. The Amdvas (15th of the dark half of the month) is observed
as a fast and the Bndris are made on that day of cowdung mixed with rice or
barley flour. But the very idea that the Lingam is in any one way connected with
the creative organs is unknown to most of the women who perform the worship.
The prayer is simply based on the omnipotence of the deities. But many
women resort to Fakirs, Sanyasis, Muhammadan saints, etc., for medicines or
charms to cure sterility. All sorts of unknown medicines, mostly metallic
compounds, are freely given by the quacks and eaten with absolute faith.
They often prove injurious to health, but cases in which the treatment of sterility
might have resulted fatally, seldom come to notice and must be very rare indeed.
The use of charms is most common and is least injurious to health.
Black magicians have been known to advise desperate remedies, such as bathing in a
crematorium over a burning pyre, the sacrifice of a boy and bathing in his blood;
but these are things of the past. Other psychic practices are, however, still
adopted. A sterile woman is asked to bathe on a crossing of roads or streets,
or to arrange to throw her shadow on a boy after bathing. In the former case
the suggestions in the minds of males attracted by a look on her bathing form are
supposed to work therapeutically, while in the latter the idea is that if the
process is repeated several times on the same boy, he dies and reincarnates, as that
woman's son.
329. The subject of causation of sex has remained obscure in spite of the Causes of
strenuous efforts of religious leaders, doctors and astronomers from time imme- ^°^ female
morial to determine it. But the potency of thought and will has now come 'Jirth-rate.
to be recognised as a material factor in the determination of the course of Causation of
physical events. The great ambition of the Hindu, based upon his religious ^®''-
teacliings, is to have a male offspring who would not only perpetuate his
name, but who would after his death supply him with the astral nourishment
of which he is supposed to stand in need, at the same time relieving him of his
responsibility in this respect towards his ancestors. The desire to have a male
child is therefore vary strong and persistent, and the peculiar customs of the
country relating to marriage have helped a great deal to strengthen the wish.
The law of inheritance also necessitntes a male issue. The same tendency pre-
vails amongst the Sikhs though not exactly based upon the same principles and
the Muhammadans partly owing to their custom of succession by lenial male
236
Cenjus £eport. ] causes ov dispaeity of sexes. Chapter
descent, and partly perhaps to the necessity of the olden times, of having a
strong body of fighting men, equally prize the birth of a son. The genei-al
desire to have a son in preference to a daughter is therefore probably an important
cause of the higher birth-rate of males than of females. Amongst the Hindus,
co-habitation was supposed to be a sacred duty for the purpose of producing a male
issue. The Qarhlidddn ceremony which is the first of the 16 Sanskdras enjoined
by the Shastras was calculated to make intercourse a sacred gift from the
husband to the wife, in the discharge of a sacred duty. This ceremony has been
practically given up as a ritual, but it still exists as a custom at least amongst
the higher families and is performed at the time of the consummation of marriage.
In tbe Hindu law books and Shastras certain rules regulating the causation of sex
are laid down. Manu, for instance, says, that intercourse on even nights after
menstruation results in male and that on odd nights in female issue. The belief
in this theory is still prevalent in many places. The particulars of the offspring
resulting from conception on the various odd and even days are detailed in
the Garur Puran. A few of the numerous theories on the subject, are mentioned
below by way of example : —
(1) The sex of the child follows that of the stronger parent.
(2) Conception in the bright fortnight results in a male and that in the
dark in a female; a belief common among both Hindus and
Muhammadans.
(3) Conception within 11 days of menstruation results in a boy and
thereafter in a girl.
(4) If at the time of intercourse, the man sleeps on his left and the
woman on her right side, the consequence is that in case of
conception the seed settles down in the right side of the womb
and a male child is tbe result, and vice versa.
Experience however does not show any of the rules to be infallible.
Rich diet and comfortable living probably lead to an iucrease in the propor-
tion of female births. I have noticed that in one and the same caste or community,
the richer families have generally a larger proportion of girls than of boys, while
those having less affluent means are blessed with more boys than girls. If the re-
sults of my observations are correct, than the higher standard of living in Europe
may account for the higher birth-rate of females in the European countries,
jjeaanres 330. The use of charms for securing a male issue is very common amongst
takLD to all religions except the Christian. Many a Fakir is believed to have the power of
b!rth? ""** regulating the sex of children by means of charms. A Fakir in Pundri,
in the Karnal district is reputed to have caused the birth of many male children
by means of charms. The use of drugs is no less common, Sanyasis and other
Sadhus go about giving medicines for procuring the birth of sons and the adminis-
tration of a pinch of aabes from the Dhiini (smouldering fire) of a holy man, for
this purpose is a familiar occurrence. I have known an educated gentleman, a
Government official of high position, who had absolute faith in the efficacy of a
medicine given to him by a ISadliu, by consistently taking which, he had eight
sons, in succession. Besides the medicines given by the Fakii's, certain prescrip-
tions are known to and used by the laymen themselves, f.g.—
(a). The use of hemp seed within 40 days of conception is sup-
posed to ensure the development of the embryo into a male child,
(fc). An entire plant of the shrub known as Chhamak Nimoli (having
white flowers) dried and pulverised with equal parts of the bark
of Mango and Jaman (sizygium Jambolanum) trees, if administer-
ed during the menstrual period pre-disposes the woman for the
conception of a male within the following month.
(c). Genuine pearls eaten within the menstnial period are supposed to
have the same effect.
{d). Use of heating drugs after 40 days of pregnancy is supposed to
result in male offspring.
In this connection may be mentioned the custom of Sdnjhi pdwan (sharing
with others) or Kandgatdn laran (the Bghting of females in Kauyagat)* which
prevails amongst the Banyap, Aroras, and also Khatris and Brahmans vt the
* The sun is iu the Kanya (V'irgo) sign during the Shradhs (ancestral fortnight;.
237
VI. MISCELLANEOUS. [ Punjab, 1911.
central Punj'-ib. According to tins practice, the iraage of Lakshrni or Gaurjan is
painted witb cowdung in the bouse or on some street wall on the 1st day of
Sharadhs (the ancesti-al week). The females of the house or lane go out early in
tlie morning and on their way to the river or some other bathing place abuse other
women who are known to have sons. This leads to great tussles between the women,
and garments are often torn to plecerJ. Men are not supposed to interfere. The be-
lief is that by cursing the sons of others, tke female draws tlie male souls towards
herself through the intervention of the Goddess whose image is worshipped
daily and thrown into the river ut the end of the fortnight. The association of
the custom with the fortnight held sacred to the dead and the spouse of Shiva the
destroyer seems to confirm the theory that the belief underlying is that the souls
of the sons of other females may incarnate as the offspring of the women adopting
the procedure. Married women are also cursed to become widows, in order to
prolong one's own wedlock. The idea is probably the same here, but the curse to
others is evidently supposed to strengthen the vitality of the husband of the
speaker. The abuses poured are of the following type : —
If a son is desired ; " Ori Ori, Margai Kdlcean dijori " (look here, look here —
two of your sous are dead) or when the prolongation of one's wedlockisdesired," Swdh
paojurdldhu" (throwashesonyour head, unfasten your hair)* or " Heva rand i" {jnB,j
you become a widow). Regular fights take place between large gangs of women on
the Amdwas day on the road to the liver and the affair is treated as a festival.
MISCELLANEOUS.
331. In connection with the causation of sex may be noticed the methods Divination
adopted for finding out the sex of the child during pregnancy. The following of sex.
tests are usually apphed : —
A pregnant woman is expected to get a male child if —
1 she is slow to raise her right foot and if the heels are of natural colour,
(in the case of a female child they grow red) ;
2 she loses the colour of her complexion and becomes languid ;
8 her right breast is fuller than the left ;
4 the foetus is prominent on the right side ;t
6 she likes sweet articles of food ;
6 she invariably puts her right fuot forward when starting on a walk ;
7 she does not desire sexual intercourse ;
8 milk flows out of her breasts ;
9 the milk from her breasts is thick.J heavier than water, and is yellow
in colour (if the milk is thin, light and white in colour, the child
will be a female) ;
10 the abdominal regions remain unusually warm and also the palms
and soles ;
1 1 the nipples are red with an areola round them ;
12 she desires to eat good food (if she is inclined to eat clay or other
inferior substances she will bring forth a girl) ;
13 in the advanced sta^e of pregnancy, the discharge (from vulva) is
of blight yellow colour ;
14 the breasts get full of milk in the sixth month (instead of the fourth
in case of a female) ;
15 the foetus moves in the sixth month (instead of the fourth in case of a
female) ;
16 the abdomen is not unusually enlarged ;
17 the right side of the pubes and the vaginal canal are hard and she
grows lean ;
18 a boy is usually born in the ninth month after pregnancy and a girl in
the tenth ; the sex of a child is also divined by astrologers with
reference to the time of impregnation; and various omens, which
need not be dctailtjd, aio supposed to give an iiidicatioji of the
sex of the child in the womb.
' • Mark of becoming a widow.
t According to another account a protubi>ranco on the right cr left in 1icat.es a boy and that in the centre a girl.
J According to some, it the milk from the right breast ia heavier than water, a male child will be boru, if
that of the left breast is heavier, the oCfpring will be a female; and if the milkfroai both breasts gives the same resiilt
he child will be a eunuch.
Census Report]
238
SUBSIBIABT TABLKS.
-[ Chapter
•
STJBSIDIAEY TABLE I.
General Proportion of the Sexes by
Natural Divisions, Districts and States-
Districts or States and Natdbal
Number of Females to 1,000 Males.
1911.
1901.
1891.
1881. 1
■Divisions.
Actual
Natural
Actual
Natural
Actual
Natural
Actual
Natural
population.
population.
population
population
population.
population.
population
population
1
2
3
4
5
B
7
s
9
TOTAL PROVINCE
817
811
854
846
850
844
844
^4
I, Indo-Gangetic Plain West— ..
795
787
8i2
829
839
825
836
828
1. Hiesar
836
840
870
860
870
860
843
935
2. Loharu State ...
863
909
866
925
829
852
824
838
3. Rolitak
859
816
893
858
884
844
869
832
4. Dujana State ...
904
787
637
897
921
863
870
773
5. Gurgaon
6. Pataudi State ...
878
846
911
868
910
810
894
875
925
722
905
750
909
761
877
690
1. Delhi
810
813
853
8bb
852
819
871
849
8. Karnal ••■ •••
827
814
844
814
843
825
852
826
9. JuUandur
783
743
847
802
841
810
830
819
10. Kayxtrthala State
785
746
851
860
834
823
822
767
11. Ludhiana
762
724
823
786
830
805
822
815
12. Maler Koila State
752
757
8.49
836
859
867
843
845
13. Ferozepore
782
791
827
815
826
833
822
829
J4. Faridkot State ...
765
772
802
785
800
796
802
763
25. Patiala State ...
776
780
820
846
817
826
818
810
16. Jind State
812
825
839
838
825
862
825
865
17. Nabha State ...
786
786
802
818
815
809
804
791
18. Lahore
741
775
815
823
816
821
811
796
19. Amritsar
774
759
829
799
828
803
820
803
20. Gujranwala
782
781
846
834
821
842
849
834
2. niMALAYAN —
901
906
892
913
890
909
878
900
21. ^'ahan Stale ...
822
849
798
845
792
836
775
800
22. Simla
591
923
542
1,025
589
883
556
1,000
23. Simla Hill States
907
917
888
911
«76
900
850
867
24. Knngra
921
897
925
915
922
913
919
921
25. Mandi State ...
933
942
915
936
933
950
945
920
26. Suket State
893
901
888
889
887
920
793
861
27. Ohamha State ...
S24
927
923
924
921
927
917
930
3. SUB-HlMALATAN — ...
827
810
880
852
863
855
856
863
28. Ambala
750
755
807
814
821
826
814
853
29. Knhia Slate ...
786
704
817
738
S24
748
835
630
30. Hoshiaipur
832
806
8S2
850
873
864
872
864
31. GurHnspur
783
776
844
843
838
839
848
845
32. Sialkot
807
782
891
854
871
852
876
853
33. Gujrat
861
843
927
897
900
846
903
876
34. Jhelum
904
85F,
979
911
918
888
880
8£7
35. Rawalpindi
848
866
819
900
854
894
836
892
36. Attock
902
879
Notav
iilable.
4. North-West Dry Abea—
825
817
838
859
847
855
835
843
37. Montgomery ...
828
848
Ki;3
85fi
853
851
831
832
38. Shahpur
824
869
!U9
899
912
903
901
S9e
39. Mianwali
898
877
895
Not available. |
40. Lyallpnr
41. Jhaii}^
761
860
745
506
Not av(
lilable.
860
846
889
852
870
840
841
826
42. Multan
832
846
829
854
819
850
813
846
43. Bahdualpur Stale
814
829
822
833
830
845
824
834
44. Mu/:i£far(zarh ...
847
842
842
848
842
854
835
842
45. Hera Ghazi Khan
831
832
835
838
817
837
811
828
(1) District and Divisional figorea in column 7 exclade the emigrants to other Provincea except N.-W. Frontier.
(2) Figures for the Province in column 7 include emigrants from N.-W. Frontier to other Provinces of India except Punjab
VI.]
239
SUBSIDIARY TABLE8.
[ Panjab, 191J.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IL
Number of females per 1,000 males at different age-periods by religions at each
of the last three Censuses-
Age.
All UeligionsJ Hindu.
0— I
1-2
2—3
3—4
4—5
Total 0—5
5-10
10-15
15—20
20-25
25—80
Total 0—30
30—40
40-50
50—80
CO ftnd over ...
Total 30 a7id over ...
f Actual popula-
I lion.
1
2
970
3
927
922 945
952 908
903
851
923
845
4
954
959
921
941 969
948 952
90S
926
861
739 755
ft
2 I Natnrol po|iii-
lation.
877
K70
'.103
863
853
820
783
773
822
850
'841
787
917
892
853
874
865
814
840
855
851
816
903
941
851
707
729
6
928
938
7
966
975
Sikh.
902 951
904
861
930
849
729
956
911
926
874
?54
855 7G8
854 fc53
826
822
826
834
759
772
SO
817
811
893
856
834
807
794
784
814
813
977
914
956
864
723
881
859
844
858
842
803
873
846
815
Not available.
851
820
826
817
825
764
814
809
820
816
845
746
794
772
734
782
751
6S3
793
853
915
789
at OD
792
764
10
884
Jain.
Mbhammadan. I Ohribiian
747 832
858
77C
774
741
665
674
836
784
846'
769
612
596
754
873 782
751
861 873
74'
70G
690
775
784
865
762
749
825
779
Not available
729
802
812
726
734
777
746
11
971
908
874
1,045
877
935
832
809
916
874
930
883
846
880
807
838
848
872
la
930
893
888
941
957
925
876
825
814
884
832
861
815
810
825
1,000
838
853
738] Not availa-
ble.
13
1,059
898
1,082
973
888
994
896
776
791
14
982
15
950
947 978
964
922
879
940
05
16 17
963 867
05 03
969
93H 959
966
926
949
856 869
796
858
797
840
838
058
83'
850
839
759
914
904
919
885
871
848
788
781
839
871
771
956
923
953
859
717
963
904
18
948
865
1,012
I
962 986
829 768
972
934
882
889
88'
836
833
870
878
898
850
844
840
997
935
892
857
632
153
286
435
567
847 587
Not avnilttblo.
765
755
814
833
835
G18
772
591
465
936
952
893
795
838
280
254
540
668
700
731
762
695
580
Not availa-
ble.
19
871
1,074
905
987
905
933
86C
750
753
410
614
695
725
799
716
687
73s
707
806
(1)
* Kignres of Ni.tural population in colnmna 7,10,13,16,19 o.\i!lmlH tbo cniigratits to other PiovincCB of ludioi except
N, W. P, C2) Kaahiiiir, (3) Bnlucbistnn, (4) Kujputana Agency and Ajmere-Marwara and (5) Uniied rrovineea.
See footnote (2) to Subsidiary Table I of tbia Cliapter.
Censtis Report ]
240
SUBSIDIABT TABLES.
[ Chaptkr
SUBSIDIARY TABLE III-
Ifumber of females per 1,000 males at different age-periods by religions and
natural divisions (Census of 1911)-
Aqb.
0—1
1—2
2—3
3—4
4-5
Total 0—5
5-10
10—15
15-20
20—25
25—30
Total 0-30
30—40
40—50
50—60
60 and over ...
Total 30 and over ..
1^ f Actual popn-
•» oj I lutioii.
iNnO-'iANGETlC PLAIN WEST.
a
m
I Natural popn-
l_ latioD.*
946
it54
i,22
941;
S71
927
K26
681
683
812
792
789
811
8?5
780
787
804
795
787
3
963
971
931
963
8S9
944
833
C98
683
828
796
799
810
832
771
819
SIO
803
795
E •
= 5
872
855
819
842
7(i3
633
751
592
570
735
765
708
804
818
733
752
784
785
718
1,074
908
1,073
948
867
987
882
774
799
893
801
856
815
861
851
989
S56
856
853
Himalayan'.
(J
961
8KG
987
958
901
874
968
929
904
905
954
905
853
841
703
715
741
755
837
477
806
569
820
700
816
728
850
732
762
743
774
724
S08
731
816
709
819
841
B
in
983
988
1,029
1,073
996
1,013
974
822
924
985
941
942
878
845
762
835
840
901
906
981
987
1,026
1,072
997
1,012
973
822
927
999
953
946
890
855
769
845
850
907
10
926
977
928
1,1*0
798
942
894
634
724
705
678
765
635
644
598
657
634
711
990 j 1,033
11
SCO
1,000
5,()00
3,5C0
IJiU
1,136
1,043
550
591
737
S67
633
429
1,1(0
412
576
746
708
a
i«
12
1,018
1,011
1,088
1,091
994
1,040
984
795
840
783
713
864
644
653
569
603
626
13
1,491
1,136
1,405
843
1,273
1,234
1,389
1,207
1,506
632
973
1,147
954
821
902
847
8.07
1,055
885 , 1,093
Age.
0-1
1 — 2
2—3
3—4
4—5
Total 0—5
5—10
10—15
15—20
20—25
25—30
Total 0—30
30—40
40—50
50- 60
CO and over
^Total 30 ond ovtr ...
;j fActnal popn-
^ ^- I lution.
f < I Naturnl popn.
^ i^ iHtion.*
SlIB-HlMALAYAN.
14
962
959
950
943
925
94S
853
711
748
874
848
833
848
850
773
754
15
962
975
932
944
889
939
844
704
G99
818
804
805
790
804
746
766
817
827
810
7Si
796
776
16
905
893
852
897
816
874
810
644
656
821
812
77i
805
801
721
696
766
a
a .
a a
^ a
768
17
1,009
838
1,045
952
961
980
942
775
739
881
767
S5i
707
797
775
840
766
813
759
18
971 I
955 I
974 I
942
955
960
861
724
790
951
896
861
887
883
797
761
846
856
19
943
1,192
928
1,186
912
1,014
865
773
720
327
404
6B4
665
772
718
660
700
667
777
Kortu-West Dry Arka.
i> a
20
955
959
945
950
913
943
861
722
764
895
841
844
817
812
741
745
790
82b
847
a
21
965
971
976
952
948
961
888
731
715
809
751
821
759
762
743
825
766
802
851
22
918
898
871
889
843
886
800
677
685
774
842
784
788
797
688
708
759
775
839
23
857
800
15,000
3,(i00
M8
1,486
1,171
765
1,07*
895
846
i,050
V39
469
706
1,571
672
949
24
959
962
946
956
913
946
862
724
781
928
861
853
829
S21
745
738
796
833
848
o
688
964
873
762
875
805
840
693
750
576
732
748
821
936
654
Us5
807
766
8S0
• Fi(rnre8 of Niitnral popnliition exclade the emigrBnta to other provinoea of India except (I) N. W- F., (2) U. P., (3) Kashmir
<4)Balachistanand (5) Rgjputana AgeDc.y and Ajniere-Marwara. > . • ,
VI.
241
SUBSIDIAET TABLB8.
[ Punjab, 19U.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV.
Number of females per 1,000 males for certain selected castes.
Caste.
Number of females per 1,000 males.
Casts,
Number of females per 1,000 males.
•a
a
■t3
aj
ifi
o
o'
d k.
to
19
.
fl ,
60
U3
e^'
1-4
C>)
^
s
60
trt
o
2
^
C3
1
1
1
1
J
a
a
l/i
t-H
1
1
>
<
2
o
1
IM
in
6
7
8
<
1
o
1
1
1
in
6
1
o
o
o
-11
1-1
3
4
5
1
2
3
i
5
7
8
HISDU.
JAIN.
CLisa I — Brihman ...
811
96"^
8t)C
665
702
797
82]
CLA83 11
778
92S
795
651
699
757
804
Clabs III— Aggarwi,! ...
876
974
874
t 753l 8371 87C
907
Khatri
802
1,0 22
834
677
690
750
84i:
liijput
75b
836
754
625
707
763
773
MUHAMMADAN.
Class III— Aggarwal ...
850
m
87a
713
774
837
879
Class IV
781
91£
78£
663
641
795
790
Class I
817
958
86£
7181 7611 791
797
Ahir
792
982
790
666
641
779
818
Gujar
763
882
757
713
668
760
775
Jat
774
904
781
653
626
798
780
Moghal
841
931
865
722
81S
846
817
MAli
809
962
828
666
692
836
783
Pathaa
757
964
861
69C
65£
684
751
Sunar
833
938
880
675
703
821
870
Qareshi
896
945
88C
764
873
973
835
Say ad
875
953
86S
766
831
895
862
Class V
866
989
893
739
776
885
838
Sheikh
807
967
876
699
771
77S
778
Aror4
853
987
80S
766
749
848
843
Ghirath
917
1,013
958
753
934
970
807
Class II
827
951
821
667
745
860
802
Jbiowar
79i
964
842
691
644
805
75b
Kanet
947
1,037
992
791
927
976
897
Kumhir
827
931
831
674
697
861
834
A win
876
927
863
700
844
929
859
Nai
805
970
8n
640
676
838
79)
Biloch
838
959
818
587
800
914
780
Dogar
801
997
817
640
684
791
805
Clabb VI
828
961
862
707
754
856
768
Gajar
819
964
852
657
736
835
786
Jat
807
936
808
674
706
829
783
Chhimb4
786
908
825
691
724
791
754
Khokhar
1535
961
872
714
82C
862
745
Dai<i and Koli
934
1,074
948
792
892
971
870
Meo
883
951
845
713
766
945
939
Dhobi
S39
1.015
948
698
752
866
729
Ki,jpat
841
976
817
674
759
880
823
Damui,
873
969
883
758
920
920
767
Faqir
413
760
607
381
342
406
314
Kamboh
827
958
861
775
700
851
772
Class III. A
841
947
841
721
790
871
796
Labini
8)3
871
845
684
735
857
774
Lohir
836
934
844
706
762
863
818
Mahtam
868
967
8i»9
737
997
874
743
.Tnliha
839
961
854
720
803
877
759
Saini
786
909
790
693
662
825
757
Kamhir
844
936
840
711
780
868
824
TarkUii
804
944
830
664
690
825
782
Uhir
841
915
851
782
782
863
792
N4i
84.2
943
842
709
774
870
812
Class VII
834
953
834
697
758
963
797
Qaesib
906
982
899
733
862
938
901
Tarkh&n ...
836
949
830
736
785
872
775
Bawaria
868
1,052
832
717
049
900
734
Teli
822
943
792
679
709
842
817
Chamar
846
964
851
729
785
868
810
Chuhra
812
936
804
655
697
850
786
Dhaoak
900
975
931
756
836
947
843
ClA38.I1I.;b
843
942
836
719
793
869
813
Jul4b4
840
1,000
940
690
8S7
837
740
Sinsi
814
874
763
693
873
885
755
SIKH.
Miriei
864
944
860
732
787
887
860
Moohi
832
941
823
713
707
858
788
Class II— Khatri
861
898 8U
725
808
949
836
Clabs IV— Jat
702
784 667
556
527
744
753
Class V
863
970
801
812
781
915
823
Clabs III. C
829
951
844
713
778
854
771
Arori
872
976
79ii
885
798
937
815
Ardin
807
963
826
699
726
824
742
Jhinwar
831
918
822
669
727
838
856
Barwali
831
934
810
758
777
852
795
liharii
816
905
850
600
689
859
804
Class VI
790
911
801
654
674
828
758
Chhimba
831
938
899
697
763
836
782
1
Chuhri
822
955
782
681
789
893
721
Chhimba
809
866
80 K
618
721
873
792
Dhobi
847
955
865
734
786
879
786
Faqir
268
478
424
237
155
365
227
''^aqir
788
926
849
G«5
731
804
7il
Kamboh
825
931
8ao
730
69U
872
787
Ilarni
880
981 852|
1,184
869
831
816
Labini
838
851
816
546
788
948
868
Jhinwar
855
972
868
759
708
903
782
Lohir
809
848
769
676
791)
882
784
Jogi R4wal
1,035
1,005
953
794
982
1,102
1,162
Mahtam
897
1,067
884
804
839
919
784
Kamboh
815
949
812
752
821
786
790
Saini
793
86ii
803
650
741
827
771
Kashmiri
859
9R3
873
686
834
860
869
Torkhan
784
924
781
653
616
811
787
Khoja
886
890
891
740
867
946
HH7
Miichhi .„
828
901
823
G8S
855
850
793
Class VII
800
929
815
683 665
822
778
Maliir
683
933
823
708
889
991
824
Mallah
861
1,000
845
604
788
901
831
Charair
800
941
818
667
665
S2G
777
Musaalli
863
971
895
746
867
892
731
Chuhri
797
896
808
740
664 812
784
Pakhiwiri
773
951
75S
553
908
817
6CI
Census Beport ]
242
SUBSIDIARY TABLtS.
Chapter
SUBSIDIARY TABLE V.
Aetna! number of births and deaths reported for each sex during the decades
1891—1900 and 1901-1910.
(FOK BRITISH TERRITORY OKLT.)
TSAB.
Number of births.
-a
a
TOTAL 1891—1900
1891
1893
1893 ^
18«
1895
1896
1897
1R98 ^
1899
1900
2 ' 3
1,048,998J3,668.763
Number of deaths.
a
4 5 6 7
7,717.761 3,342,579 3,067,397 6,409,976
341,158
»80,672
350,215
433,731
428,727
420,759
415,410
403,231
474,937
400,158
TOTAL 1901-1910 ... 4,340,3383,945,9238,286,261
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
190S
1907
1908
1909
1M.0
Indo.Gangetio Plain
West.
Himalayan
Sab-Himalayan
North- Wpst Dry Alfa—
301,911
338,240
314,068
391,359
391,148
385,258
379,559
367,488
435,672
364,060
643,069
718,912
664,283
825,090
819,875
806,017
794,969
770,719
910,609
764.218
373,466
461,952
452,622
436,678
467,536
459,329
430,253
439,539
369,694
449,269
1,985,716
143,388
1,273,910
4,459,990 4,383,7188,843,708
339,067
418,525
410,240
397,371
425,824
418,677
389,31H
400,522
336,216
410,163
1,813,013
134,708
1,166,917
937,3241 831,285
712,533
880,477
862,862
884,049
893,360
878,006
819,571
840,061
705,910
859,432
289,770
475,422
280,423
363,881
289,446
305,698
289,543
296,188
284,385
467,823
251,414
432,814
247,095
332,545
258,868
276,591
275,733
278,620
266,602
417,115
00 b
a S I
o to
■° .a
S" s
p a u
<o [>
itt« o
5
541,184
908,236
527,518
698,426
548,314
582,289
565,276
574,808
550,987
914,938
OS h
C3 ® i*
s -a '
a S -^
rr ti
o *■ (D
5 SSq
2 °A-
3,798,729 2,294,751
278,096
2,440,827
1,768,609
372,350
443,473
486,802
480,250
475,973
374,880
637,357
517,219
326,613
345,073
135,405
1,340,754
689.080
354,261
443,500
49»',674
506,208
480,135
368,026
611,372
502,906
294,470
324,166
2,245,444
133,549
726,6 U
886,973
985,476
986,458
956, lOS
742,906
1,248,729
1,020,125
621.083
669,239
4,540,195
268,954
1,365,664 2,70(;,418
639.0H1 1,32s, 141
8
-380,235
— 39,247
— 42,432
— 36,147
— 42,372
— 37,5
— 35,501
— 35,8511
— 35,743
— 39,265
— 36,098
-394,415
— 34,399
— 43,427
-- 42,382
— 39,307
— 41,712
— 40,652
— 40,935
— 39,017
— 33,478
— 39,106
—172,703
— 8,680
— 106,993
— 10(3,039
9
-275.
a a I
B °"S
S O -f-
83^
10
1821+1,307,785
'a .5
a-a
- 2
£ 3
a o
a2-
11
_ 38,356
_ 42,608
_ 33,328
_ 31,336
_ 30,5
_ 29,107
— 13,810
— 17,568
— 17,783
— 20,708
— 76,272
+
18,089
+27
11,872
25,958
4,162
6,854
25,985
14,313
32,143
20,907
101,885
189,324
136,765
128,664
271,561
223,728
229,693
195,911
359,622
150,720
- 557,447
13 •M
s s
-a
is.
<t
■(
— 49,307
— 1,856
+ 24,910
14,078
6,496
122,614
152,409
62,748
135,100
429,158
180,064
84,827
180,193
— 741,466
+ 9,142
- 265,591
50^019!+ 440.468
906
885
889
897
902
912
916
914
911
917
910
909
908
906
906
910
911
911
905
911
909
913
913
939
916
887
12
91S
668
910
881
914
891
905
952
941
937
956
951
1,000
1,024
1,054
1,00S
982
959
972
902
938
973
088
1,019
927
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VI.
Number of deaths of each sex at different ages-
1905.
AG.:.
TOTAL
0—1
1—5
5—10
10—15
15—20
20—30
30—40
40—50
50—60
I 60 and ovor
a
2
475,973
109,359
60,499
30,388
30,73b
25,081
44,994
1906.
1907.
39.099
33,041
61,152
3
480,135
100,627
59,797
33,861
34,867
25,203
49,331
a
41,625 46,454
39,750
31,910
58.335
4
374,880
105,739
74,034
21,599
15,829
13,054
24,947
21,251
23,722
22,086
49,619
09
a
5
368,026
100,539
74,914
22,085
17.160
13,676
29,572
25,463
21,473
18,618
44,526'
6
637.357
104,889
79,940
45,865
44,39'
37,663
68,267
64,207
59,605
60^53
82.151
1908.
7
611,372
96,546
78,535
49,202
48,047
34,748
65,915
63,431
55,593
44,466
74,889
a
8
517,219
134,191
117,371
34,427
20,312
16,347
30,052
29,313
31,032
30,668
73.506
1909.
9
502,906
128,945
118,770
38,728
20,290
16,104
33,682
31,627
28,019
25,732
66,009
a
o
10
326,613
84,113
48,967
17,171
11,446
9,971
22.857
24.083
26.899
25.676
55,430
11
294,470
77,599
Total.
a
<D
° *5
O Bl ^
□ aS o
o-o g
tic's o
12
2,332,042
538.291
40,7ie| 380,811
149,470
16,177
11,342
8,902
23,194
23.437
22,052
20,038
45,013
122.719
102,116
101.117
183,479
180,357
161,824
321,858
13
2,256909
504,256
378,732
155,053
131706
98,633
201,694
190,412
166,887
288 772
14
"937
999
1,037
1,078
966
1,055
1,03«
92s
140,764 870
897
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER VI.
NOTE ON FEMALE INFANTICIDE.
(i). Considering the importance of the subject and the fact that it comes History,
repeatedly on the tapia, it will be useful to give a complete resume of the action
taken from time to time, so far as can be gathered from the files in the Civil
Secretariat.
A brief account of how the practice of female infanticide forced itself on
the attention of the British Government and what measures were adopted for
its suppression was given by the Deputy Commissioner of Jullundur Mr. (now
Sir James) Douie, in his note, dated 20th August 1895, of which an extract is
given below —
" 1. Tho subject of female infanticide in the Jullundur Doab was one of the firet Attention di-
matters that attracted John Lawrence's attention after he became Commissioner of the '^®?'?'^, '9''''®
Trans-Sutlej States. His biographer, quoting from Robert Oust, has given a graphic de- diately after^
Bcription of the protnnlgatiou of the three new Commandments : — annexation.
^ Bewd mat jalao ; Beti mat mdro ; Korlii mat dabdo.'
(Thou shnll not barn thy widow ; Thou shall not kill thy daughter ; Thon shall not bury
alive thy leper.)
We are told that from 1847 the new law was sternly enforced (Bosworth Smith's
Life of Lord Lawrence, Volume I, pages 196-7). The suppression of widow burning and
the burying of living lepers must have been easy as soon as an eflScient criminal administra-
tion was organized, for these are offeTices which cannot b>» hid. But fifty years after
Lawrence denounced the murder of female infants, we are still discussing the best methods of
putting down that inhuman practice.
2. Towards the close of 1851, the Judicial Commissioner made enquiries on the^fiportof
Bubject, and Herbert Edwardes, who was then Deputy Commissioner of Jullundur, sent in a ^^^^ert Ed-
long report in June 1852, which is printed in the Selections from the Records of the Punjab igss.
Administration, old series No. XVI. It is noteworthy that Edwardes treats Bedis and
Khatris as the principal offenders, and implies that the practice was very rare among the
Jats of the Doab (paragraphs 66-67 of his Report). Later enquiries pointed to the con-
clusion that the Jats in certain Jullundur villages, at least, commonly got rid of their
female offspring and tho rules issued under Act VIII of 1870 published with Government
of India, Home Department, Police Notification No. 232, dated 10th July 1885, which are,
I believe, the only rules ever published under that Act in the Punjab, apply only to 'all
Jat residents' in 9 scheduled villages. In 1852, as always, the root of the mischief was
declared to be bad marriage customs and excessive expenditure on weddings. Major
Edwardes seems to have induced the Khatris of Jullundur and Rahon to agree to a scale of
marriage expenses as under : — let Class Rs. 400, 2nd CImss Rs. 200, 3rd Class Rs. 125, 4th
Class Re. 1,* and the same scale was nftervvards adopted by the Bedis, who are Khatris by
descent 'paragraph 79 of Major Edwardes' Report, and appendix to Captain Farrington's
No. 108, dated 1 Ith Ap.il 1853).
3. The correspondence was submitted to the Government of India (Secretary to Sir John Law.
Chief Commissioner's No. 458, dated 8th July 1853). The 7th, 8th and 9th paragraphs of renoe's views.
that letter are important as embodying Sir John Lawrence's mature opinion as to the
measures which could probably be adopted for the repression of female infanticide : —
' 7. To insure this great result we must efTect a radical change in the feelings, the prejudices and the social
customs of the people themselves. It must be no longer considered a disgrace to have a sonin-law, to marry a
daughter into any but a class socially above that of her family. But above all tho people must be taught to
reduce tho expendimre bi.'i-. .to considered nece.ssary by the bride's family. The present influence of British
officers, the knowledge that they take an interest in the matter, a desire by the people to stand well in the eyes
of their rulers, and, lastly, the fear of punishment, will doubtless, from year to year, operate in diminishing tlie
crime.
' 8. The Chief Commissioner strongly deprecates any strict system of supervision by the Police lor it is
certain to be impotent for all good, and liable lo be used as an engine of extortion and oppression.
'9. A system of espionage is but too likely to enlist the feelings of ihe people against our efforts, and thus
furnish a powerful inducement lo thwart them. If wo can once get intluential natives to set their faces against
female infanticide, to consider it a crime and a disgrace, our eventual success may be deemed certain.'
4. A proclamation denouncing female inlaniicide was issued, and a great Darbar Measures
was held at Aniritsar, which was attt-rded by some of the Ruling chiefs, leading Sardars and adopted.
others, at which agreements were entered into by tho representatives of vnrions tribes in
different parts of the country to restrict marriage expemiitme within certain limits.
5. The matter was taken up ;it;ain after the lapse of ton years. The Deputy Commis- Further his-
eioner of Jullundur then reported ihat in the seven Philkur villages which have since been J?""? o^ l^^^"
put under tho Act and in another small estate, Chak Andian, of tlie same tahsil there were th°°pasring*of
3,051 b(iys and 1,225 girls. Recognizmtr the source of the mischief, he induced a number Act viiiof
of the leading Jats of the district to enter into an agreement fixinsj marriage expenditure for 1*70.
their tribe in accoidanre with the following scale : — 1 st Class Rs. 101, 2nd Class Rs. 61 to 8 1 ,
3rd Class Rs. 4 1 to 51, 4th Clasa Rs. 21 to 31. The upshot was the issue of Punjab
Government Circular No. 0 of 8th September 1864, and then the question simmered for six
years till Act VIII of 1870 was passed.
* It is difiEoult to believe that Ro. 1 can cover marriage expenses on oven the most niggardly scale.
Census Report.]
244
APPENDIX.^KOTB ON
Chaptkk
Action taken
ncder Act
vni of 1870.
Eules for the
Buppression
of Female In
fanticide.
Village,
Tahsil.
Jamsher
... JiilluDdur.
Jandiala
... PhUlaur.
8amra
Bilga
Rurka Kalan
Bundala
Barapind (Kuleta)
Dosanj Ealan ...
Pharala ... '
... Nawashahr.
6. In calling attention to the Act, the Punjab Government enquired whether the
offence at which it was aimed ' was c<.immonly committed in any villages, or by any class,
families, or persons ' (Punjab Government Circular No. 27-566, dated the 25th April 1870).
Mr. Lewis Gordon, Extra Assistant Commissioner, made a special enquiry, and took a
census in the villages of Samra, Jandiala, Bundala, Bilga, Rurka Kulan, Barapind, Dosanj,
Pharala, Chak Andiau and Batiga. The first 8 of these estates and Jamsher in the Jullundur
Tahail are now under the Act. The question seems to have been allowed to slumber for
12 years, though a system of Police supervision introduced in 1863 into the suspected
villages was perhaps maintained. It was again taken up in 1883. Statistics of births
and deaths for the five years 1879' — 1883 in the villages of Jamsher, Jandiala, Samra,
Bilga, Rurka, Bundala, Kuleta or Barapind, Dosanj Kalan, Pharala and Chak Andian were
submitted, and Government decided to apply the Act to all these estates except the last
(Punjab Government Proceedings, Home-General, Nos. 13 and 14 of April 1884). This
was done by Notification No. 3151, dated 8th December 1884, and in the following July
the rules now in force were published (Government of India, Home Department, Police,
Notificaton No. 232, dated the 10th July 1885)."
(ii). This brings us down to 1885. It might be noted that between the pass-
ing of Act VIII of 1870 and the publication of the
rules framed thereunder, in 1885, the attention
of Government and of the local officers was
directed mainly to conciliatory measures with a
view to persuade the Jats and other castes
suspected of the practice, to reduce marriage ex-
penses. The rules which were applied to the 9
villages named in the margin by Government of
India Home-Police, Notification No. 232, dated 10th July 1885, are reproduced
below, to show the direction which the measures took at that time.
" I. — On the introduction of these rules a nominal register (in Form A) of all
proclaimed tribes and families shall be drawn up by the Police under the orders of the
Magistrate of the district. In this register recognised heads of families or mastei-s of
separate households shall be entered as the heads of families, and every member of the
family habitually resident in the vdlage shall be entered by name. All persons under 12
shall be entered as children, except married female children living with their husbands,
who shall, for the purpose of these rules, be deemed to be adult females.
IL' — A special register (in Form B) of all births and marriages of females, and of all
deaths of unmarried female children and of maiTied females under 12 years of age and
not living with their husbands, occurring iu the Jat families of the villages specified in
Notification No. 3151, dated the 8th December 1884, shall be kept up by the oEBcer in
charge of the police station within whose jurisdiction such village is situated.
III. — The person who is registered as the head of a proclaimed family shall report
immediately to the chaukidar of the village the occnrrence in his family of every birth,
marriage and death of a female as aforesaid, and also the illness of any female child. He
shall also produce all children of his family for the inspection of a police officer not below
the rank of a Deputy Inspector, visiting the village, when required to produce them.
IV. — Every midwife knowing of, cr having reason to beheve in, the occurrence in
a proclaimed family in the village in which she resides, of a birth or of the illness of a new
born child shall at once report the fact to the chaukidar of the village.
V. — The chaukidar of the village shall immediately report to the ofiBcer in charge
of the police station the occurrence, whether reported to him or not, of a birth whether
male or female, in a proclaimed family, the marriage of a female, the death of an unmarried
female, or a married female under 12 and not living with her husband, the illness of a
female child, and the removal of a pregnant woman to another village. He shall also
on the occasions of his periodical visit to the police station, report pregnancies which have
been reported to him or have come to his knowledge.
VI. — The lambardars of each village shall beheld responsible for the due performance
by chaukidars of the duties herein impoi-ed upon them, and shall render all assistance
in their power to the police in drawing up Register A and in obtaining information of all
births, marriages and deaths occurring or about to occur in proclaimed families.
VII. — Among the Jats of the villages to which these rules apply, no person giving
<1). On account of marriage : —
Ba.
Milni 1 0
Kamin Ug ... ... 2 0
h&g on occasion of pber& 2 0
Marriafje feast 25 0
'' Khat" 51 0
Vessels .„ .__ 10 0
Jewels 16 0
Cloth and clothes 8 0
Expenses of Ugis on occa-
sion of" Khat " ... 15 0
(2). On occasion of MnkUw5 ... 30 0
a female in marriage, nor any one on his behalf, shall
incur any expense upon any ceremony or custom con-
nected with her marriage in excess of that specified
below.* Similarly, no person receiving a female into
his family in marriage shall incur on account of the
marriage, or any ceremony or custom connected
therewith, expenses exceeding the total of the list here
specified (see margin).
VIII.— It shall be the duty of the father
or other head of the family celebrating the
•See margin.
VI.
245
FEMALE INFANTICIDE.
[ Punjab, 19a
marriage to produce immediately before the Deputy Commissioner, or an ofiBcer deputed
by him on demand by the same, an account showing the actual expenses incurred, and
to prove the correctness of the said account.
IX. — All expenses incurred in carrying these rules into eSect in any village to which
they may be made applicable, shall be recoverable as an arrear of land revenue from the
Jats of that village.
X. — No proclaimed village or family shall be exempted from the operation of these
rules except by the orders of the Local Government, or in virtue of authority to that effect
vested by Government in any officer. A village or family so exempted will then be
struck out of Kegister A and the erasure initialed by the Magistrate of the district or by
the District Superintendent of Police."
Form of Register A.
Village.
Head of
Family.
Addlt members
of family.
Children of pamilt.
Police
Station.
Male.
Female.
Male.
Female.
Reuares.
Name,
Age.
Here reports of
pregnancy may
be entered.
Village
Form of Register B.
be
Serial sdmber.
a
o
CU
Birth.
Marriage
Deaih.
•r4
-2
'El
and
ite of
child.
t 0
a 0
cc ^
U
^ rS <B
0 to
a
o
OQ
C4-I
o
CD ^--:
and c
bride
e.
*4-l
0
Remarks.
6
bo
a
o
s, etc
moth
dat
deat
d.
s §
.0
o
ame
mot
birt
(u" g T3
0) n3 -^ T^ —
go
^
d
0
C3
a -2 5
a el « c j:
S 03 a =3 0
cq
s
o
^
w
'Z
^
h;
ca
UH
TS °
is
o^
S'C
ts o
fc "
{Hi). About the end of 1884, the Punjab Government called for proposals Subsequent
regarding the reduction of expenditure on marriage, among the Jats, from the '"story.
Commissioner of Jullundur, who in consultation with the leading Jat Sardars of
that Division framed some rules for the curtailment of marriage expenses
and requested permission of the Government to circulate them to other districts of
the Province with a view to secure co-operation, without which the workino- of
the rule^ was considered impracticable. The Government approved of this
action and asked other Commissioners to help in the matter.
In 1887, an important gathering was convened at Batttla and certain
rules for marriage expenses were drawn up. The subject was also taken np by
the " Jat Association."
In March 1889, the Government ordered a confidential enquiry to be made
in the Delhi, Ludhiana and Eoshiarpur Districts with reference to the Sanitary
Report of 1887, as to why female mortality was in excess of that of males in
those districts.
With regard to
lloahiarpur, the difference was attributed to
246
Census Report, ] appendix.— note on Chapter-
Batural causes. The Deputy Commissioner of Ludhiana found that the deaths
of females exceeded those of males only in 21 villages of the Ludhiana Tahsil,
chiefly inhabited by the Garewal Jats who had a reputation for female
infanticide. As regards Dehli the Commissioner was of opinion that though
the practice of neglect of female infants was admitted, yet there "was nothing
to warrant any action, t5Jj>
In May 1889, the Commissioner of Jullundur applied for the extension of
the provisions of Act VIII of 1870 to Gil Jats of village Kokari Kalan in the
Moga Tahsil, in which there were 40 married women but no female children,
although the male offspring hved right enough ; but the Deputy Commissioner
was informed that the statistics supplied did not justify action under the Act.
In 1890, the Government referring to the figures of mortality in the
Jullundur and Ferozepore Districts remarked that with one exception, in no
other district of the Province had female infant mortality exceeded that of male
infants and that there was reason to suspect that the practice of female in--
fanticide was more or less prevalent in those districts. The Deputy Commis-
sioners of those districts were accordingly directed to examine the statistics of
suspected villages for a term of years and to prepare a register for those which
showed strongly suspicious results. A warning was to be issued to such suspected
villages and if the statistics of the succeeding years showed no improvement,
the case was to be reported with a view to the application of the Act to the
offenders in each village.
In 1891, Mr. Coldstream, Deputy Commissioner of Hoshiarpur, expressed
his suspicion as to the prevalence of female infanticide in village Mahalpur
(District Hoshiarpur). In response to a demi-oiScial letter, dated the 10th Novem-
ber 1891, from the Punjab Government, as to the action taken in restricting ex-
penses on marriages, the Commissioners said that measures had been adopted in
some of the districts but that nothing could be done in this respect without the
help of legislation. The correspondence, however, shows that the scheme re-
ceived cordial support from the leading Jats who organized committees, etc., for
reducing expenses in question.
In 1892, the Commissioner of Jullundur recommended the extension of the
provisions of Act VIII of 1870 to the Gil Jats of Manuki and Kokri Phula
Singhwala and suggested that the Gil Jats of Duniwala, Dhaliwals of Rania and
Raoki Kalan and Sidhus and Barars of Lahra Bagga of the Ferozepore District be
watched. The subject was taken up vigorously by Sir Dennis Fitzpatrick and on
receipt of the Government of India's review on the Punjab Sanitary Report for
1893, the Punjab Government asked the Sanitary Ci>mmissioner to make enquiries
into the large excess of female over male infant deaths in the districts of
Amritsar, Jullundur, Ludhiana and Ferozepore.
It was in response to the Sanitary Commissioner's enquiry through the
Commissioners that Mr. (now Sir James) Douie, Deputy Commissioner, Jullundur,
drew up the memorandum above alluded to and made certain proposals. On
receipt of the report of the Sanitary Commissioner, Sir Dennis Fitzpatrick, the then
Lieutenant-Governor, ordered the posting of a medical officer in two or three suspect-
ed places of the Jullundur District as an experiment. He also observed that female
infanticide prevailed to a most lamentable extent in the Ludhiana and Ferozepore
Districts. As regards the reduction of expenses on marriages, His Honour remark-
ed that by pressing this scheme Government would be substituting one motive for
the other. "At present," he said, "a man objects to have a daughter because
among other reasons he has to ruin himself in providing the cost of her marriage.
In so far as our law took effect he would object to have a daughter because when
it came to marrying her, he would have to be content with having her marriage
celebrated in a manner that would be humiliating to him, unless indeed, m addition
to incurring ruinous expenditure he cliose to go to jail for disobeying the law."
He referred the whole question for opinion to the Judges of the Chief Court,
the Financial Commissioner, the Inspector-General of Police, the Commissioner
of Lahore, and six other officers. A copy of the correspondence was forwarded
to the Government of India, who remarked in reply that tliey would await the
result of the experiment which had been instituted by His Honour the Lieutenant-
Governor.
r
247
VI. FEMALE INFANTICIDE. [Punjab, 1911i
In 1896, tlie Commissiorer of Lahore recommended the extension of the
Act to the Jats of village Sur Singh in the Lahore District, but the Government
saw no grounds for suspicion and referred back the case to the Deputy Commis-
sioner for further enquiry. The Deputy Commissioner and the Commissioner
after making enquiries recommendtd that the proposal might be dropped.
In response to Punjab Government letter No. '6968, dated 15th July 1896,
cited above, the Commissioner, Jullundur, selected the following three centres
for an experiment of the scheme of posting a native medical officer instead of
the Police, as required by Sir Dennis Fitzpatrick's order : — (1) Jandiala, Samra
Bundala, (2) Rurka Kalan, (3) Bilga. He also submitted for the sanction of
Government, revised lules for working out the scheme.
In 1900. the Punjab Gi'Vemment wrote to the Government of India
saying tliat the rules sanctioned under their notification No. 232, dated the 10th
July 1885, had not been effectual in suppressing the crime and submitted revised
rules suitable for giving effect to the scheme proposed by Sir Dennis Fitzpatrick,.
i.e., substituting the medical agency for the Police and recommending that
notification No. 3151, dated the 8th December 1884, declaring the Infanticide
Act to be in force in nine villages of the Jullundur District be cancelled, and that
a fresh notification bringing the five villages mentioned above within the scope of
the Act be issued. It was also observed that, if the experiment in these five vil-
lages proved successful, it would be extended to other villages in the Province in
■which such intervention was needed.
The Government of India did not approve of a vigorous crusade for sup-
pressing the Clime being undertaken immediately, for fear of interference with
the domestic privacy of the people, and asked that tlie Punjab Government should
submit their views upon the entire question and, if possible, propound a more-
suitable scheme. They also desired to ascertain as far back as reliable statistics
of enumeration were available, to what extent the practice of female infanticide
had diminished under British rule in tliose parts of the Punjab whei-e it was
still supposed to exist, and suggested that a careful comparison should
be made for decennial or other convenient intervals, of the proportionate
number of boys and girls under five years of age in suspected families and clans,
witli the number in the unsuspected families or clans of the same caste or tribe in
the same tahsil or other territorial snb-iiivision of the district
In reply, the Funjab Government explained certain difficulties in taking
up the entire question at once and proposed to defer the general enquiry until
the statistics of the Census of 1901 were available. In the meantime Uis Honour
exfiressed his readiness to make an expeiiment with Sir Dennis Fitzpatrick's
plan in order to gain exj/erience of its working and again apphed for sanction to
the institution of the exfierimeut. The Government of India accepted the pro-
posal, the old notification was cancelled and a new notification No. 315, dated
the 12th February 1901, was issued bringing all Jat residents of the said five
villages under the operation of the Act.
The revised rules, which were published with Government of India notifi-
cation No. 307, dated 10th Mny 19<il, are reproduced below: —
"1.— A nominal register of all Jat fainilies in the proclaimed villages shall be-
diawn up and annually revifed under the orders of the Magistrate of the district. In
this register rt-C' gnized heads of fauiilies or masters of separate households shall be entered
as the heads of families, an'i every meinbtr of tlio family habitually resident iu the village
shall be entereii by name. All persona under the age of 12 years shall be entered as
childien, except married f> male children, living with their husbands, who shall, for the
purpose of these rules, be dt-emed to be adult females.
II. — A special register of ail births and marriages of females and of all deaths of
uumarried female children and I'f marriod females under the age of 12 years and not living
with their lun-bariils, occurring in the families registered under Rule I, shall be kept up under
the supervision of tlie District Magistrate.
Ill, — The person wlm im registered as the head of a family in a proclaimed village
shall report; immediately to the Lamb:irdar, throrgh whom he pays his revenue, the
occurrence in his family of every birth, marriaije and death of a female as aioresaid
and also the illness cf any female child. He sliall also, when required, produce all
cliildreii of his family for the inspection of a medical ofiBcer appointed under Rule VI
visiting the village.
IV. — Every midwife knowing ot, or liavin^ reason to believe in the occurrence in
a family entered in the regimor prepared under Rule I, of a birth or of the illness of an
248
Census Report, ] appendix.— note oh Chapter
unmarried female shall at once report the fact to the Lambardar, through whom the head
of the said family pays his revenue.
V. — The Lambardar shiU immediately report to the medical officer appointed
under Rule VI, the occurrence, whether reported to him ornot, of a birth, whether male or
female, in a family entered in the register kept under Rule F, the marriasje of a female, the
death of an unmarried female or a married female under the age of twelve years and not
living with her husband, the illness of a female child and the departure of a pregnant
woaaan to anotlicr village.
VI. — A Medical OtEcer not below the rank of Hospital Assistant shall be appointed
by the District Magistrate foi- each village, or for several villages jointly, for the purposes of
carrying out and supervising the provisions of Rules I, II, III, IV and V above. The District
Magistrate shall also in each case with the sanction of the Commissioner, entertain a suitable
subordinate staff, and incur necessary contingent expenses on medicines, medical instruments,
bouse rent and other identical charges.
VII. — Among the families entered in the register kept under Rule I, no persons
giving a female in marriage nor any one on his behalf, shall incur any expense upon any
ceremony or custom connected with her marriage in excess of a sum to be fixed by the
District Magistrate with the sanction of the Commissioner for the particular tribe of which
ho is a member.
Similarly, no such person receiving a female into his family in marriage shall incur
any charge oo account of the marriage or any ceremony or custom connected therewith
exceeding the sum laid down in the same manner.
VIII. — It shall be the duty of the father or other head of the family celebrating
the mariiage to produce immediately before the District Magistrate or an officer deputed
by him on demand by the same an sccount showing the actual expenses incurred and to
prove the correctness of the said account.
IX. — No family shall be exempted from the operation of these rules except by the
orders of the Local Government or in virtue of authority to that effect vested by Government
in any officer. A family so exempted will then be struck out of the register kept under
Rule I and the erasure initialled by the Magistrate of the district.
X. — Every Zaildar and Inamdar within his own circle and every village officer as
defined in Section 3 (II) of Act XVII of 1887 shall be bound to render every assistance in
carryiner oat the provisions of Act VIII of 1870 and of all rules framed thereunder.
XI. — All expenses incurred in carrying these rulea into effect in any village to which
they may be made applicable shall be recoverable as an arrear of land revenue from the
Jat landowners of thai village by the Collector acting under the orders of the Commissioner."
But the iutroduction of these rules had to be indefinitely postponed owing'
to the prevalence of plague in tlie tract. The old rules seem, however, to be still
acted upon in the five villages notified in 1901, although not beyond the mere
registration of births, deaths and marriages by the Police. The rules provided for
the registration, through the Lambardars, of all families of Jata in the villages
and of the births and marriages of females as well as tbe deaths of unmarried girls,
the attestation of births and deaths of females by Medical men, and limited the
expenses to be incurred at the various marriage ceremonies. A breach of any
of the rules was of course punishable under the Act. But so far as I have been able
to ascertain, tbe Act though introduced, has practically remained a dead letter.
Mr Rose's Ml'. Rnse, who superintended the Census Operations of 190 1, was asked by
opinion. Government to wnte a special n(Jte on the question of female infanticide.
In his note, dated the Gth October 19i)o, which was submitted in 1904,
Mr. Rose, after giving a brief history of the practi-'o, discussed the data afforded
by vital statistics atid the mass of figures collected by him, in great detail and
dealt with tbe direct and indirect causes of the prat-tice. The remedies suggested
by Mr. Rose are given in par-igraph 3i^) of his note which is reproduced below : — •
" I have not been asked to note on this point, but I may venture to suggest that in
the present state of our knowledge it is U'^eless to attempt any remedy. Before any attempt
to apply a remedy to an evil like this, which arises out of the social systems of the people, is
made, fuller knowledge of those systems appears to be required. In this connection the
fisrures for th ■ proclaimed villages in Jullundur are very significant. So far from checking the
evil, ejcei'uiive interference appears to have accentuated it, for no villages in the Province
show such bad result as these.
As to the statistics I would suggest : —
{i' That the registration of births and deaths ho rendered absolutely accurate in the
central districts and especially among the Jat tribes in those districts. It is of great import-
ance to ••nsure that female births are not returned as male.
(n). That in all the returns, Sikhs be distinguished from Hindus.
[Hi). That the birth-rate for each sex in each religion, Hindu, Sikh and Muhammad-
an, be worked out annually, for each district and for the whole Province.
i
249
VI. FEMALE INFANTICIDE. [ p^^j^^, jgj^
{iv). That the death-rate for the same be worked out for each year from 1 Sand
for the 5 — 10, 10 — 15 and 15 — 20 age periods, as well as for all acres.
{v). That the tribe, as well as the caste, be invariably recorded in the birth and
death registers.
(vi). That a few large Jat tribes be selected in the districts in which each tribe is well
represented, and that the data suggested in liii) and [iv] above be compiled for each of those
tribes."
He wound up by saying : —
" It ought not to be assumed that a paucity of female births or girl children in any
family or status group is due to female infanticide or neglect of girl children until we know
a great deal about the general question of the proportions of the sexes at birth. At present
we know next to nothing. "
The question has remained under the consideration of Government ever
since and no action would appear to have been taken. But in a note written by
Mr. Fenton,C.S.I., on 20th March 1904, as Deputy Commissioner, Julhnidur, and in
his letter No. 11, dated the 16th January 1^05 to the Commissioner of Jullundur,
he expressed his views, based upon elaborate enquiries, in favour of reverting to the
old rules instead of substituting Medical for Police supervision and urged that the
priucipal cause operating to maintain and extend the practice of female infanti-
cide was a purely material or malthusian one. He therefore strongly advocated
the adoption of legislation to limit expenditure on marriages.
(iv). It will be noticed from the above history that although suspicion of Origin,
killing female infants has been aroused from time to time in the Ludhiana, Jullun-
dur, Lahore, Ferozepore and Delhi Districts, yet the only place where it has re-
ached the stage of moral certainty is a group of villages in and on the border of
the Phillaur Tahsil in the Jullundur District, inhabited mainly by Darbari Sikh
Jats. The practice is probably very old, although its existence among the Jats
■would appear to be of comparatively recent origin. In 1852, Mr. Herbert Edwardea,
Deputy Commissioner of Jullundur thought that female infanticide was confined
to the Bedis and Khatris, which implies that at that time the Jats were not so
prominent in resorting to this inhuman practice.
In his History of the Mnhijais, Russell Stracey, afiirms the existence, till re-
cently, of the practice of female infanticide among the Muhiyals, whom he calls the
militant Brahmans, and after discussing the various theories which are advanced
for this abhorrent custom and summarising the possible causes of its existence
among the Muhiyals mentions an instance which I had better quote in his
own words : —
'•' Munshi Bakhshi Ram Das, Chibbar, a member of a tribe which followed the custom
of hypersamy, says that wiien he was eight years old, he was awakened one niglit by a ser-
vant and summonsd to his mother's bed-side, lie was told to sit on the ground and take his
new born sister in his arms. The midwife poured over the infant's liead water from a jar
that had been clnlled almost to freezing by being put out on the roof that cold December
night. The child's face instantly turned black, slie gasped once and died soon after. From
his childhood he had heard that the milk of ' Ak' {calatropis procera) was used to poison
newly born giils. He accused his mother of poisoning his sister and came out of the room
trembling. Tins incident impressed itself indt-libly on his thoughtful mind and suggested
the many reforms he has been instrumental in initiating in after life.* "
We fiud no traces of the custom in the earliest Hindu books and although
the Codes of Inv rind the Sbastras place women in a state of entire dependence
and the desire fur a male offspring has always been very pronounced, yet
there is nothing to show that the birth of a female child was unwelcome.
At the same time the gift of a daughter in marriage is considered sacred and
a duty which every married man has to discharga in order to repay the
debt be owes to the society and to his Creator in respect of having received
a similar gift at his own marriage (see Chapter VII). I have not been able to
find female infanticide mentioned in the offences dealt within Mauu or in the older
Smritisf. There are indications of the birth of a female being considered unwel-
come during the Mogbal reign. HajaToiiar Mai, for instance, is said to have ceased
wearing the Kalghi (aigrette) on his turban — a decoration indicative of very exalt-
ed position at Court — at the birth of his first daughter, the feeling being that his
pride harl been humbled by the birth of a female child. There are several references
in the Avritmgs of Guru Gobind Singh to show that he severely condemned Kuri
* T. P. Rnssell Stracey's History of the Mnliiyals, pnge 15.
t In a paper written by the late Sayad Muhammad Latif, on the subject, in reply to enquiries by Government' he
alludeJ to references in ilanu and the Garur Purana ; but they are not traceable.
250
Census Report. ] appendix. — note on Chapter
Mdrs, i. e., persons who killed theii' female infants. The practice appears to have
been well established at that time. Varinus causes of this practice have been
suggested from time to time of which it is unnecessary for me ro give a resume.
In my own opinion, the practice which may have existed to an unnoticeable deg-
ree in pre-historio times, appears to have been adopted on a large scale after the fall
of the Hindus, when the warrior classes found female children to bo ap encumb-
rance difficult to look after during the incessant warfare which was the order of
the dHy, and provocative of invasions by invincible enemies. It would appear
to have been started by the warrior chiefs of the highest birth, whose chivalrous
instinct compelled tbem to lay down their lives rather than surrender a sister or
daughter to a king or chief not belonging to their own caste. Its spread among
the other chivalrous classes would be perfectly natural in a period of internecine
warfare. The process seems to have been accelerated by the development
of hypergamous ideas, owing to the disintegration of society into smaller groups,
based upon opulence and purity of bloodi Later on when in the uaturnl course,
persons of the bluest blood began to lose their power and wealth, the necessity
of maintaining the honour of their houses by celebrating the marringes of
their daughters on a lavish Fcale of expenditure, which they could ill afford,
also began to operate as an important factor in the desire for getting rid
of female children. By the time of the Sikh ascendency, the Rajputs as
a body (except the Ruling chiefs) had fallen into insignificance in the Province
and come to be reconciled to the altered conditions. The Sikhs, on the other
hand, who rose as warrior chiefs, imbibed the instinct of their predecessors
and began to show the same tendency in respect of female children when
their power was on the decline. The eastern portion of the central Punjab
which was the strong-hold of the Sikhs of this class, therefore, came into
prominence in regard to female infanticide, and it is for this reason that the
worst sinners in recent times were the Darbari and other Sikhs who, though in
straightened circumstances, claimed to have descended from illustrious ancestors.
An important [v). One fact which appears to have been overlooked in dealing with the
cause. causes of this practice is the advantage which it is possible for the husband or his
relations totake of the absolute dependence of the wifein consequence of the peculiar
custom among the Hindus, of the wife being tied indissolubly to her husband for
the whole of her life. Knowing that the daughter must depend upon her hus-
band's people, whether they are good, bad or indifferent, tlie parents of a girl have
to put up with all manner of ill-treatment, at the hands of her husband's relations,
to an extent which has indeed become proverbial. It is probable that this condi-
tion of Hindu society has existed for a long time. Tht« rule proscribing widow
marriage being immutable, the incentive to quietly do away with a female
infant before it excites feelings of compassion and love must have been great.
A story is cun-ent in the Kangra District, in justification of the practice
of female infanticide in times gone by. Once upon a time, they say, the Raja
of Bisohli came to Kangra for tlie marriage of his heir-apparent to the daughter
of the Raja of the latter principality. He was, according to custom, the
gu^st of the local chief and for the four days of his stay, all sorts of comfort were
provided with scrupulous attention to detail. The dowry given to the princess
was valued at lakhs of rupees and included horses, elephants, conveyances, &c.
On his w'ay back, the Raja of Bisohli's tent pitchers found a shortage of mallets
and heaped filthy abuses upon the h)cal chief for his defective arrangements.
The insult had of course to he pocketed with good grace, but the Raja of Kangra
resolved that he would in future put female children to death immediately after
birth rather than run the risk of a similar insult. The other Rajputs took
^ the cue from him and the practice was soon established. Popular sayings such
as " Dend bhuld na bdp lea leii hhali na ek," (it is not good to owe a debt oven
to the father, or to have even one d;iughter) attest the feeling in respect of the
difficulties created by daughters in social relationship. The son-in-law is supposed
to be a source of great worry. It is said " Jis nahin dalchea sher oh del-he bildi,
jis nahin dekhea jam oh deJche jaicdi " (whoever has not seen a tiger may see a
cat, whoever has not seen the Yama may see a son-in-law). In other words the
son-in-law is likened to the messenger of death. The practice of female infanti-
cide appears to have been so general at one time that a Muhamraadan bai-d who
i
VI.
251
FEMALK INFANTICIDE.
L Punjab, 1911.
composed the ballad of Nadir Shah* also expresses the idea in his dialogue of Kal
and Narada, when the former discontented with her lot in not securing a war
curses her parents for not having poisoned her at birth.
{ri). Ithas been held by some that the tendency to destroy a female infant ■* cause com-
is largely due to the exception taken by the most chivalrous classes to being called ^^^^^ ^^"^"^
sala (brother-in-law) or sauhra (father-in-law). This is only partially correct and
is probably a point which has assumed importance in recent times owing to the
extreme ignorance of some of the fighting people; for no one takes offence at being
called brother-in-law or father-in-'.aw of a man to whom his sister or daughter has
been married. The epithets amount to an msult only when used by some ether man.
The association of these terms with the insulting meanings commonly conveyed by
them has in recent times created the idea that it would be preferable for one not to
be placed in this predicament at all.
(vii). Under the «gis of the peaceful British rule, the conditions which The present
appear to have brought the crime into prominence have completely changed. The*^^"^^"
only effective cause which remains, ip, hs very pertinently held by Mr. Fenton in
his letter No. 11 quoted above, purely fiscal or malthusian, i. e., the desire of per-
sons of high status to maintain the dignity of their position which compels them to
ruinous expenditure at the marriage of their daughters. Life and property are per-
fectly secure now and the criminal law in force throughout the length and breadth
of the country prevents unprovocated insult. The inflnence of Reform societies is
overcoming the hypergamous tendency as well as endogamous limitations. On the
other hand the paucity of females seems to be setting a high value on unmarried
girls and the practice of receiving a bride price is spreading, while the price paid
is rising considerably with the growing wealth of the lower classes who can least
command marital relationship by virtue of their ancestral status. The result should
therefore be for the practice to gradually disappear, although the rise in the
standard of livingand the circulation and accumulation of wealth must act as
counteracting causes, by raising the limit of expenditure on all festive occasions.
(viii). I shall now proceed to examine the figures which are available with a Examina-
view to judge whether the custom has really grown or tioi of
declined. That the proportion of females to males in Agtires.
the districts where there is a large proportion of Sikh
.Tats is very low will be clear from the figures given
in the margin. In eveiy one of the districts, the Jats
form a considerable portion of the population. t It is
also clear that the proportion of females to every
1,000 males is the lowest amongst the Sikh Jats (702)
see paragraph 310. In discussing the subject, I will
confine myself to the Districts of Jullundur, Ludhi-
ana and Ferozepore which stand out among those
with a low proportion of females, and have been
under suspicion. I will examine the statistics of
the villages notified under the Act and of certain
other villages which appeared from Mr. Rose's note
of 1903 to be particularly deficient in the proportion
of females.
o
o
o
o
^
^a
District or State.
p.
° 5
9"^
CO OS
Bfl
§2
fe
&<
Jullundur
783
21
Kapurthala State ..
785
15
Ludhiana
762
35
Malerkotla State ..
753
32
Ferozepore
782
2r>
Fariakot State ...
705
36
Patiala State
776
23
Lahore
7tl
16
Amritsar
77-1
23
Oujranwala
782
2+
Ambala
750
14
Lyallpur
761
27
JULLUNDUR DISTRICT.
(ix). The Jullundur District contains the only .5 villages which are now 9<="5"8
Br of femou, to evcrv Under the Operation of Act VIII of 1 870. Those villages, ^^''^^^'
viz., Jandiala, Hilga, Samra, Bundala and Rurka Kalan
lie in the Phillaui' Tahsil which has 756 females to every
1,000 males as sliown in the margin, against 783 in the
whole district, 795 in the Natural Division, and 81^ in
the Province. The male population of the Pohce Training School in the Pliillaur
Fort and of tho Railway establishment can hardly have affected the figures of the
whole tahsil. The main cause of the low proportion seems to be the general
Number of females to every
1,000 males.
Jullundur Tahsil (excluding 791
Cautt).
Phillaur Tahsil 756
Nawashahr „ 708
Nakodar „ 801
* Obtained by the Ilon'ble Mr. Maclagao ; will be published shortly in counoction with the Journal of the
) Historical Society.
The case of Aiuritsar is similar.
Punjab Historical Society.
t The case of Lahore is peculiar owing to excessive migration into the city
Census Report. ]
252
APPENDIX. NOTE ON
C a AFTER
Notified Villagss.
Phillaur Tahiil.
Bundala
Samra
Rurka Kalan
Jandialla
Bilga
SCSPECTBD YlLLAOBS.
Phillaur Taksil.
Puadarah
Dosanjh Kalan
Rorka Khnrd
Barapind (Kuleta)
Phalpota
Jullundur Tahsil.
Jamsher
Naliodar Tahsil.
Shaakar
Sarih ...
701
713
743
750
765
54(1
692
713
7G3
77G
714
719
728
Proportion
females to
male infants.
of
paucity of females^ in Sikh villages. The figures
gJTen in the margin will show that none of the notified
or suspected villages Las moi'e than 776 females per
1,000 males, wliile Dosanjh Kalan which was formerly
under the operation of the Act but was released in 1901,
has the lowest proportion of 692. Mr. Fenton seems
to have been quite right in remarking that the with-
drawal of the Act from this village has had dis-
astrous results. Bund ilia a notified village is not
much better off, whil^ the suspected villages of Rurka
Khurd, Jamsher and Shankar are as bad as the notified
village of Samra.
In drawing inferences from the statistics, it has to
be borne in mind that this tract has suffered heavily
from plague, which as remarked in paragraph 315,
has been particularly destructive to adult females.
But taking all the Tillages together, there are
729 females to every 1,000 males and the
similar proportion for the Jat population is
no mora than 656. This points to the general
results being due mainly to that caste. The sub-
castes of Jats which inhabit these villages are
enumerated in the margin, and the proportion of
females is given against each of them. In all the
sub-castes except Gil, the proportion of females is
well below 700. Basi, Thakri, Sahi and Dnsanjh
show a proportion of less than 600, while Vai-ah
which is the wcrst of all, has only 472 females to
every 1,000 males. On the other hand, we find
that the proportion of females among the Jats
in the Jullundur District is 676 and in the Jul-
lundur, Nawashahi- and Nakodar Tahsils of the
District 684, 692 and 676, respectively, while the
Phillaur Tahsil stands lower still with a propor-
tion of 629. In the marginal table is shown the
proportion of females in all other castes residing
in the 13 villages in question. In no case does
the figure go as low as that of the Jats (656). On the contrary the other castes
show a much higher proportion of females, the
figures ranging from 709 to 1,074 per mille.
The villages of Jamsher, Shankar and Sarih,
though lying in different tahsils, adjoin some of
the 10 villages in tiie Phillaur Tahsil and are so
situated as to form a compact group. In view,
however, of the many other causes at work, the
comparatively low proportion of females can only
raise the suspicion that foul play might be respon-
sible for keeping down their numbers. But an ex-
amination of the statistics of infants affords more
interesting data.
(x). The proportion of unmarried females
under the age of 0 — 5 in these villages is given in
the margin for each caste. The figure for the Jats
is 669, while comparatively speaking all other
castes (with the exception of Nais v/ho are their
dependants) show an abundance of female children.
The similar proportion for the Jats in the whole
Province is 880. The figures would, therefore,
lead to the conclusion that certain circumstances
peculiar to the Sikh Jats of these villages affect
the results.
Name of Got.
Population.
>.
o a-
<s
B
5a
S
o =
OQ
1
IS-
C£4
1
Basi
1,036
603
582
2
Dusatth ...
977
531
544
3
Gil
393
279
710
4
Hinjrai
73
50
685
5
Johal
1,452
990
682
6
Man
91
58
e^7
7
Puriwal
363
218
601
8
Sahi
353
193
547
9
Pahota
1,088
71G
6G2
10
Samrai
762
497
647
11
Sanghera ...
1,133
727
642
12
Sindhu
1,150
742
645
13
Thakri
299
171
572
14
Varah
1^3
25
472
15
Others
944
865
916
Total
10,167
6,665
656
POPDLATION.
d
Caste.
s«
S5
m
'^ ^
"2
S
l!-
CO
<^
ta
fa
1
Alain
474
368
776
2
Brahman ...
1,675
1,453
868
3
Chamar
1,917
1,359
709
4 1 Chhimba ...
491
461
939
5 Ohuhra ...
1,528
1,112
728
C Jhinwar
793
624
787
7 Khatri
588
507
862
8
Kumhar
436
324
743
9
Lohnr
352
319
906
10
Nai
249
180
723
11
Rajput
68
73
1,074
12
Sunar
278
218
784
13
Tarkhan ...
911
674
740
14 Olheis
4,801
3,687
768
Proportion
of females
to every 1,000
Tr.alc.<.
Khatri
... 1,045
Chhimba ..
1,000
Kamhar
... 8""
Chuhra
. 829
Lobar
... 843
Jhinwar
. 900
Nai
... e.-is
Snnar
857
Eajput
... 1.0"0
Tarkhan
741
A rain
...1,074
Jat
669
Brahman
... 886
Others
S75
Chamar
... 831
VI.
253 •
FEMALE INFANTICIDE.
[ Punjab, 1911.
A comparison of the statistics of these villages for 1901 and 1911 made in the
margin shows a mark-
ed improvement. The
POPULATION OF JATS, 0—5.
Proportion
Popu
lation
Population
of females
in 1901.
in 1911.
to 1.000
Name of village.
males.
Name of
sob-caste of
Jat residing.
a"
S
'a
a
B
O
03
•a.
oo'
IS
"5
o
OS
a
1
Jamsber
. 12
I 73
4
21
11
34
4
19
333
288
364
559
Man.
Gil.
2
Samra ...
83
35
95
77
422
811
Sanirai.
3
Jandiala
178
53
149
115
298
772
Johal.
4
Puadarah
23
' 2
31
7
87
226
Dusanjh.
b
Bilga
125
51
96
78
432
813
Sanghera.
6
Bundala...
173
73
104
69
422
603
Basi.
7
Rnrka Kalan ...
135
62
116
88
459
759
Sindhu.
8
Khurd ...
33
21
42
21
636
500
Sahota.
8
Barapind
67
36
78
31
537
397
10
Phalpota
17
18
14
22
1,059
1,571
11
Diisanjh Kalan...
101
38
71
55
376
775
Dusanjh.
12
Shankar
( 48
( 40
13
7
13
46
16
17
271
175
1,231
370
Thakaar
Puriwal,
13
( 35
17
22
14
486
630
Sanghera,
I 40
26
36
25
650
694
Sahi.
proportion of females
to males in the first
quinquennium of life
appears to have risen
in every village except
Rnrka Khurd aad
Barapind, which are
inhabited mostly by
Sabota Jats. In the
notified v i 1 1 a g es,
the gain varies
from 57 to 159 per
cent, but the improve-
ment iH Puadarah
where there are now
7 female infants
for 31 males against
2 and 23 respectively,
in 1901, though con-
siderable, still leaves the people, under strong suspicion. And the case of Man
Jats of Jamsher, the Sahotas of Barapind and Puriwals of Shankar is not
much better. There can, however, be no doubt bul: that the number of female
infants is gradually coming up to that of males.
(xi). Mr. Rose's suggestion regarding the separate registration of births vital sta-
and deaths of the Hindus and Sikhs and of the collection of information regarding '^^''°^-
the caste of oersons born or dead, on an extensive scale, not having been carried
out, the only figures available are the vital statistics of the five villages which
are under the operation of Act VITI of 1870. Births and deaths have been
registered there by caste, but distinction has been drawn only between tiie Hindus
and Muhammadans, the Sikhs being included in the former. Moreover the death
registers are not complete for one of the villages {viz., Bilga) and some of the
birth registers for two of them are not forthcoming. I have, therefore,
taken the figures of mortality only for four villages acd have struck the average
births from such data as are available.
The comparison made in the margin will
show that the percentage of female to
male births among the Jats, during the
past decade, was 87, 95, 87 and 90 in
Bundala, Jandiala, Rurka Kalan and
Samra, respectively, and although the
figures were somewhat lower than the
proportion of all Hindu castes in each
village except in Rurka Kalan, yet there
was not much reason for complaint, bear-
ing in mind that the corresponding per-
centage for the whole Province was nob
higher than 90*6. The proportion worked
out from the figures of 1896-1900 given in Mr. Rose's note are compared
in the margin with those based on the statistics of the
last ten years. Bundala has shown a considerable improve-
ment in female births and Jandiala has more than main-
tained its position. Hurka Kalan and Samra have recorded
a falling off, but it would not be safe to conclutle from a com-
parison of the statistics of only half the decade preceding 1901
that the villages have really shown a retrograde tendency. The
proportion of female births among the Jats of Samra is
equal to the Provincial average and that of Rurka Kalan is not
far below it, "Wliether on account of Police surveillance or in consequence of the
BiBTHS.
Name of
village.
Caste.
Hill iu.
Muha7n-
madan.
"3
©
B
S
a
01
"a
a
Bundala ...
Jandiala ...
Knrkb Ealan
Samra
f All castes
I Jats ...
( All castes
( Jats ...
( All castes
( Jats ...
J All castes
'.Jats ...
506
319
977
531
527
220
577
308
511
278
1,016
502
456
191
537
278
191
201
157
135
179
3
200
135
152
o
o
Name of
o
Oi
village.
CO
1— 1
oi
O
X)
<J>
I— <
Bbndnia
78
87
Jandiala ...
94
95
Rnrka Kalan
88
87
Samra
lU
90
Extent of
literacy.
Census Report, ]
254
APPENDIX. NOTE ON
Cbapter
change in ideas brought about by education, the birth-rate of females seems to be on
the increase
DETAHS. in the worst
vil 1 a g e a.
The mar-
0— I I 1—2 I 2—3 3—4 4—5 Total. Total. ginal table
shows the
Name of
village.
Bnndala
Jandiala ...
Rnrka Eolan
Samra
Total
Caste.
Hindus and Sikhs.
f Total of village
(JatB ...
( Total of village
ijats
I Total of village
(Jats
( Total of village
{ Jats
< Total of villages
it Jate ...
198
104
310
145
249
92
122
58
879
399
S
277
1G5
456
242
288
129
200
llfi
1,221
652
76
41
109
50
76
22
49
24
310
137
82
44
91
34
73
3
59
32
305
142
27
15
31
14
39
13
23
(i
120
48
46
21
10
13
7
16
9
10
G
60
32,27
333
174
476
223
398
142
215
103
1,422
642
399
234
614
300
419
180
300
159
1,732
885
MUHAM
MAUAN3,
132
100
122
33
387
i deaths dur-
I ing the past
£ decade in
the first five
1-^7 years of life,
io6 in each of
••• the villages.
105 -r, ^,
t e m a 1 e
53 deaths ex-
4H ceed male
1 deaths
Proportion of female to ma
le deaths per cent.
0-1
133
94
1—2
104
2—3
96
3-4
84
4-5
69
0-5
Jats of notified
villages.
Provincial aver-
age.
138
96
in
every one of
them and the proportion of the former to the latter ranges among the Jats
from 131 to 155 per cent, -while in tlio whole Province (British territory) only
91-8 females have died during the past decade to every 100 males. The heaviest
infant mortality, of course, talfes place in the first year, and at that age-
period, the Jats of all these four villages taken together have lost 163 female to
100 male infants against 139 of the total Hindu and Sikh population and the
Provincial average of 94. Taking the age-period 1 — 5, the Jats show a proportion
of 138 against 122 in all the Hindu castes and 106 among the Muhammadans, of
all these'^villages, while the Provincial average is 99 per cent. The Jats of these
villages would, therefore, appear to be prominent in respect of female infant
mortality. It is remarkable that the proportion of female deaths suddenly
drops amongst the Jats of these villages, while the results for the whole Province
are more orless even throughout the period, as noted in the margin. This
is a very suspicious circumstance and can only
be accounted for by tha excessive deaths of
females in the first year after birth, whether
by female infanticide or deliberate neglect of
female infants. Nevertheless there seems to
bo a great improvement in every village as
the comparison of the proportion based upon
the figures of the past decade with those
for 1896-1900 given in Mr. Rose's note
of 1903, made in the margin, will show.
Even in Samra, which is clearly the worst
type, the proportion of female deaths at the
ages of 0 — 5 has come down to about one-
half and that in the first year of life has also
shown a nearly equal improvement.
{xii). It will not be out of place to mention here that education among
the Jats of these twelve villages is in a very backward state. Out of a total popula
tion of 16,832 Jats in these villages, only 63 persons (61 male and 2 females) —
i.e., about 4 per mille, have been returned as literate, while the proportion for the
whole Province is 37 and that for the Jat casto in the Punjab, 17.
LUDBIANA DISTRICT.
<!ensus figures. (xin). The Deputy Commissioner of Ludhiana has denied the prevalence ot
female infanticide in the district, but an examination of the statistics of births and
deaths collected by Mr. Rose in connection with his note on Female Infanticide in the
Punjab showed that the death-rate among female infants was abnormally high in the
villages of Gil, Gujjarwal, Lalton, Narangwal, Raipur and Ballowal. The Enumera-
tion books of these villages have, therefore, been examined. The total population
of the villages is 6,177 males and 4,691 females, of tvhich 2,922 males and 2,088
females, are Jats. The proportion of females to males is 762 in the District and 758
Bundala.
Jadiala.
Rurka
Kalan.
Samra.
0-1
0-5
0—1
291
107
0-5
255
137
0— l'o-5
240 211
140 131
0—1
374
200
0-5
1896 to
1900
1901 to
1910
217
159
18-'
135
292
155
VI.
255
FEMALE INFANTICIDE.
[ Pnnjab, 1911.
Arain
880
Brahman
979
Chamar
716
Chuhra
6S9
Jhinwar
844
Khatri
876
Lchar
1,000
Tar khan ...
973
Others
778
Tillage.
Sub-caste Proper-
of Jat. tion.
Gil
Gil
571
Gujjarwal ...
Garewal
770
Lalton
Do. ...
653
Narangwal...
Do. ...
650
Tlaipur
Do. ...
740
Ballowal ...
Do. ...
748
in the Ludhiana Tabsil, 707 among the Jats of the whole District and 708 in the
Ludhiana Tahsil, per mille, compared with 817 in the Punjab. The villages
referred to show a still smaller proportion of 759 and the Jats of these villages
have only 715 females per 1 ,000 males. The proportion among the Jats compares
unfavourably with that in the other castes except the Chuhras, as shown in the
margin. This would lead to the inference, that the Jats
are largely responsible for the paucity of females. But
the fact that their sex proportion in some of the worst
villages picked up is better than that of the Jfit caste,
for the whole tahsil or district, proves that these are
not the worst types and that the condition of Jats
in some other villages must be worse.
Moreover an examination of the statistics by sub-castes given in the margin
shows that the conditions differ from sub-caste to sub-
caste and from place to place. The Gil Jats of village Gil
have an exceedingly low proportion of females (571 per
mille of males). The Garewals of Narangwal and Lalton
also show low figures (650 and 653) but the same sub-
caste has recorded better results in GujjarAval (770),
Raipur (740) and Ballowal (748), although as a class, the
Garetvals have had a sinister reputation in respect of fe-
male infanticide. The age statistics show similar results,
for the village of Gil has only half as
many female children under 5 years of
age as males, and Lalton and Narang-
wal are not much better. But a com-
parison of the sex proportion of each
village in 1901 and 1911 (see margin)
makes it clear that every one of the
villages has improved in the strength of
the female sex. Taking tlie figures of
the first annual age-period for what
they are worth, the statistics of infants
under one year of age noted in the
margin would indicate that Ballowal
and Lalton have far more female than
male births now, although the improvement in the
latter has commenced very recently, and has not suc-
ceeded in pulling up the proportion of females of all
ages. The village of Gil still stands low and the
absurdly low proportion in Narangwal, in spite of the
improvement in the proportion of females under
5 years noticed above, is startling. The position must
obviously have been much worse ten years ago.
FEROZEPORE DISTRICT.
{xiv). In reply to an enquiry as regards the prevalence of female infanticide, Census
the Deputy Commissioner of Ferozepore reported that the only caste which conti- ^sures.
nued the practice was that of Sindhu Jats. Enumeration books of all the villages —
45 in number — inhabited by Sindhu Jats wore, tlierefore, called for and examined.
The total population of these villages situated in the Tahsils of Ferozepore, Zira
and Fazilka, is 14,703 males and 11,671 females giving a proportion of 791 to
every 1,000 males, while the proportion of females to males for the whole
district is 782. The proportion of Jat females in the Ferozepore District
as a whole is 745, among the Jats living in tjiese villages 731, and that among
the Sindhus of the same -vdllagea only 683. The other prominent sub-castes of
Jats living in the villages in question are Gil and Sindhu, who have a proportion
of 875 and 709, respectively. The Sindhus thus have fewer females proportionate-
ly than the other castes and the other eub-castes of Jats, and may reasonably be
suspected of female infanticide or neglect of female infants. The proportion
of female infants under one year to 1,000 boys of the same age is only 526
among the Sindhus, while the similar proportion of girls under 5 years
Male and female infants under 5 years.
1 1 Proper-
Papula- 1 Popula-
tion of
Name of
tion
in 1901.
(ion
in 1911.
females to
1,000
Name of
aulj -caste
village.
55
0
residing.
IS
C3
B
CO
1^
a
1-1
CO
T-l
.-1
<-4
1
Gil
72
28
S6
28
389
500
Gil.
S
Gnjjarwal
70
32
75
70
457; 933
Garewal.
3
Lalton
4!)
14
57
29
286
509
Do.
i
Narangwal
61
15
43
24
246
558
Do.
5
Raipur
105
29
88
57
276
648
Do.
6
Ballowal ...
28
10
16
16
357
938
Do.
Proportion
Village.
Snb-oaste.
of females
to 1,000
males.
Gil
Gil
780
Gnjjarwal...
Garewal
864
Lalton
Do.
2,500
Baipnr
Do.
958
Narangwal
Dc.
167
Ballowal ...
Do.
2,000
256
Census Eeport:
APPENDIX. — NOTB ON
Chapter
JGoquiries
made about
partdcolar
families^
Proportion of
females to 1,000
males in
Sindhu
Jats.
All ageti.
0-5
I Class—
Jamiat Singhwala
708
l,33;i
Waltoha
867
1,607
Chohla
808
1,222
Bara Pahoowindian
1,056
2,000
II Class-
Kebar Singhwala..
989
917
Umariana
950
l.COO
Jhutra
747
1,000
Nankianwali
702
l.COO
III Ciass —
Eatta Khera
651
in
Jang
687
455
Fatehparh Panjtur
651
500
Chak Mehrana ..
529
375
Karabewala
773
250
Ferozewal Mangal
629
500
Singh.
Chnga Kalan
593
500
Bharana ...
589
286
of age is 623 — a fact pointing to a compara-
tively larger defect of females in the earliest stages
of life. Bnt the figures are not equally bad in
all the Sindhu villages. The marginal table will
show that neglecting the 29 villages in which the
number of Sindhusis small, in 4 villages there are
more females under 5 years of age than males,
in 4 the sex propoition is even, and in 8 the pro-
portion of females is markedly low, out of a total
of 16. The Sindhus as a class cannot, therefore,
be suspected, although the extremely low propor-
tion of female infants in class III is not easy to
explain, particularly in face of the fact that
in almost all the cases, the strength of females
of all ages is also low. The other castes residing
in the same villages have a much larger proportion
of females, except Chuhras. The I'esult, of the
above examination is that in the Ferozepore Dis-
trict, the Sindhu Jats have a very low proportion of
females on the whole, but the disproportion is^
confined to a few villages. The figures for
1901 not being available, it is not possible to say
whether or not there has been any improvement in the case of the worst villages.
{xv). With a view to examine the causes leading to a paucity of fe-
males among
the Jats of
this tract, en-
quiries were
made about
the conditions
of birth,
ma r r i a g e,
etc., extend-
ing over two
generati o n s
in 30 select-
ed families
in the noti-
fied villages,
30 in other
adjo i n i n g
villages of
the JuUun-
dur District,
and over 3
generati on s
in 15 families
of 6 villages
in tlie Ludhi-
ana District,
whose figures
been
n e d
pre-
pata-
Ihe
are
Births.
Deaths.
Ages of death
0.
Causes of death.
Ages of marria
0.
fS
CO
O
s
DO
B
4;
Age.
N
Caaees.
NO.
.■ ®
111
Age.
N
BEM.ABSS.
1
c
a
o
S
IB
s
oc*
a;
<a
B
Jullundur District.
Notified villages.
I
93
77
43
35
Under 1
month.
From 1 to
12 months.
From 1 to
5 years.
Over 5
5!
9
10
8
10
12
5
Not known
43
35
Up to 15
years.
Over 15
years.
21
6
20
All females
married up to
15 years.
years.
Other villages.
I
95
76
36
48
Under 1
month.
From 1 to
12 months.
From 1 to
5 years.
Over 5
6
16
U
3
10
21
14
Not known
36
48
Up to 12
yeart.
Over 12
years.
16
9
17
All females
married up to
12 years.
years.
notified villages.
II
42
26
10
8
Under 1
month.
From 1 to
12 months
From 1 to
5 yfars.
Over 5
I
3
6
2
4
2
SweUing
Pneumonia
Fever ...
Plague ...
Born dead
2
5
1
2
"4
3
1
years.
Other vilioges. ^
n
59
28
12
1?
Under 1
month.
From 1 to
12 months.
From 1 to
5 years.
Over 5
years
4
1
4
3
2
J,
6
Pneumonia
Fever ...
Plague ...
3
8
1
10
3
have
ex am i
in the
ceding
graphs,
results
tabulated in
the margin.
The genera-
t i 0 n called
VI.
257
FEMALE INFANTICIDE.
[ Punjab, 1911.
first is that
of tbe pa-
rents of the
pr e s R n t
heads of the
families,
the second
refers to the
p r e s e n t
heads and
the third is
that of their
children. It
is difficult to
place abso-
late reliance
on conclu-
sions deriv-
ed fro m
euch limited
statis tics
but they are
useful in in-
dicating cer-
tain tenden-
cies. It is ca-
rious that the
proportion of
f e m a 1 e s
at birth was
higher in the
first genera-
tion of Jats
in the noti-
fied villages
of Jullundur
than in the others or m those selected tor examination in the Lndliiana
District. But while the second and third generations in the latter district
have shown a steady increase in the proportion of female birtha, the
deficiency of females, among the children of the pr^-sent families is more marked
in the Jullundur District. Without positive evidence, it is impossible to be
sure as lo the extent to which the paucity of females in any generation has
been due to femiile infanticide. The circumstances appear to be similar in all
cases. Both males and females iiave as a rule been married early. Infant deaths
under one year have usually been more frequent among males than among females
and have been brought about by similar causes in both sexes. But there can be
no donbt about the female infants (0 — 5) being neglected more than the males.
Enquiiies in village Lalton oi tbe Ludhiaiia District have shown that in the Kila
(fort) belonging to thn Garewal Jafj;irdars, which lias 30 houses with a population
of 12" to 125 t^ouls, there are 80 u;irls jiged undf^r 14 years now, while !0 years
ago there was only one! This points to a marked improvsment. If the informa-
tion coUi-cted is to be believed (and one cannot be too sanguine of the accuracy of
the information supplied by the uneducated regarding ages, causes of death,
etc ), it would appear that very ff^w deaths occur in the 6rst few days after birth,
which is (irdinarily tbe time when female infanticide can take place. It may be
that when this practice is resorted to, the births are concealed oven at the expense
of a little money. It is a common practice to place a few rupees under the pillow
of tlie patient during confinement, to be given away as charity in case of a male
birth. It is said that when female infanticide is practised, this money is
reserved for gieasmti the palms of persons wlio are in a position to ask awkward
questions. Ihe causes of death of infants are geneially stated to be pneumonia.
Births.
f'eaths.
Ages pf death.
Causes of death.
Ages of marriage.
No.
No.
No.
a
5
"3
eo*
s
Age.
Causes.
Age.
Reuabks.
cs
u
X
e
1
CD
cd
CO
0;
a
w
S
a
S
b.
S
u.
g£.
li.
<i
■X4
s
(i<
Lndhiana District.
Suspected vUluges.
I
33
7
li'
■i
Under 1
month.
From I to
12 months.
From 1 to
5 yeiii s.
Over 5
years.
2
;o
1
1
1
1
Plagne ...
Fever
Hi^h fever
Chronic dy-
sentery.
Cholera...
Consump-
tion.
Smitll-pox
Drowned
Not given
Athrah ...
File ...
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
Up to 12
years.
Over 12
years.
19
11
4
All females
married up to
13 years.
II
56
17
19
10
Under 1
Month.
From I
month to
12 months
From I to
5 years.
Over 5
years.
3
1
4
11
4
2
2
2
Alhrah ...
Plagae ...
Coiieurap-
tion.
Fever ...
Noi. given
Pnt-umouia
Congh
Fall from
roof.
Died with
mother.
8
3
3
1
1
4
1
2
I
1
1
Up to 12
years.
Over 12
years.
22
9
5
A 11 females
married np to
12 years.
III
30
23
9
12
Under 1
month.
From 1 to
12 months.
From 1 to
5 years.
Over 5
years.
1
8
...
1
10
1
Died along
with
mother.
Athrah ...
Plague ...
1
8
1
10
1
Up to 10
years.
5
No female mar-
ried.
Census Report- ]
2S8
APPENDIX. NOTE ON
Chapteb
mission
the deed
fever, dysentery, congh or athrah* bat none of these ailments is peculiar to females.
The marginal figures given above confirm the results of the Census and vital statis-
tics, discussed in the preceiiing paragraphs pointing to a low proportion of females
amonK the Jats, particularly in the Jullundur and Ludbiana Districts, but
whethot, there are some natural causes which lead to a scarcity of female births
amono- them or if the proportion is deliberately kept down by infanticide or neglect,
is an inference -which may only be guessed from a consideration of all the con-
nected factp.
Methods of (xvi). The methods said to have been employed in putting a female infant
female in- out of the way are these : —
fanticide. (I). Where the persons concerned in the perpetration of the black deed
had no compunction, the baby was throttled by pressing the thumb gently against
her throat continuously for several minutes ;(2) a little juice of akk (calatropis
procera) was administered internally ; (3) an overdose of opium was mixed in the
first potion {ghutti) ; (4) and the device of pouring icy-cold water on the baby used to
be a familiiir device in the chilly winter nights. But the most favourite method
was (5) starvation, i.e. not feeding the baby at all or giving her totally insufficient
nourishment, which reduced her to death in a few days,
I have been told that in notified and sus^pested villages, females in the
family way used to be sent away to their parents' houses in other villages, by
way of precaution, so that in case of a female offspring, the infant could be
disposed of without arousing suspicion of foul play.
Time of com- (xvii). A female infant was usually killed immediately after birth or within
cf the first few days of her life. But if for some reason or another, this could
not be arranged, her life was not out of danger till she was over one year of age.
Among the leading Sikh Jats of the Lahore Manjha, it is still the rule for the
midwife to report the birth of a female to the Sirdar and to ask for his orders
as to whether the first potion (j/Ziu^fi) should or should not be administered. The
permission is now given as a mutter of course, although with many regrets, but
the custom shows, that at one time an answer in the negative from the head of the
family must have led to the immediate destruction of the new born babe. Filial love
is an instinct that is not easy to extinguish and the mother must naturally be averse
to the destruction of her female offspring even though she can, under the peculiar
social system prevalent in this country, have no voice when her elders are deter-
mined to adopt a murderous course. Nevertheless instances of a mother attempting
to save her daughter, successfully or usisuccessfiilly, are not unknown. In Laltoa
(a village m the Ludhiana District), a mother is said to have saved her girl some 15
or 20 yeais ago, by incessant vigilance during the first few days after birth and
then taking her away to her father's house. But when the girl had grown about
2 years old, she was taken on a pilgrimage to Jwalamukhi and killed on the
way. At the birth of her second daughter, the mother acted as on the first
occasion, but her father did not send the girl to her husband's house until he had
taken security for the baby's safety.
Conclusions. {xviii). That female infanticide prevailed in the Punjab to a large extent,
at the annexation of this Province, nnt only among the Darbari Jats or in the
Jullundur District, but generally throughout the central and eastern Punjab,
goes without saying, and it also seems to be proved that the practice, though
on the dechtie under the influence of a rigidly enforced Criminal Law and the
civilizing mfluence of a humane Government, continued to be favoured in certain
localities, particularly in the Jullundur Doab, and in individual families in the most
hypergaraous castes, all over the tracts in quet^tion. It also appears that the
social revolution which is in progreS'^, the gradual disappearance of the customs
of hypergainy under the influence of Reform societies, the high prices which
have begun to be paid for women owmg to their paucity, the levelling
tendency of the times, wherel)y the Darbari Jats or other hypergamous castes
cannot now reckon themselves to be much above the others, except in name,
and the spread of education, have led to a marked contraction in the extent of
female infanticide amountii.g almost to its virtual exiinotion. It would not be
• Athrah is s'lpposcd to be an affection of which the came is not known and which results in the children
<Jying on the ^ignm day ^ficr birth, or in the eighth month or eighth year, if they do not die in the womb in tha
«ightb month after concepUoo.
259
YI. FEMAIB INFANTICIDE. [ Punjab, 1911.
correct to say that female infanticide has absolutely ceased, but the improve-
ment in the proportion of female infants, noticed in paragraph 311, and the
increase in the birth-rate of females mentioned in the same paragraph are
clear indications of a change for the better, and it is also evident that no
particular caste or village can be condemned^ as a whole, for being addicted to this
crime. Even in the worst villages, the figures show some redeeming features
and the sub-castes of Jats, which possess an appalhngly low proportion of female
infants, in one village, exhibit very favourable conditions in others. I think I
could safely state on the basis of my enquiries, that wherever the practice exists,
it is now confined to individual families and that the offenders do not belong ex-
clusively to any particular caste or village. There are probably more cases among
the hypergamous Sikh Jats, who cling tenaciously to their high status of the
times gone by, in spite of their present poverty ; but sometimes a low caste
servant imitates the example of his master of high birth, while in other
cases, mere fiscal considerations induce the parents to end the life of a female
infant, without any considerations of status, hypergamy, etc. The extent of
female infanticide is in any case insignificant and in my opinion cannot now
affect the proportion of sexes sufficiently to be treated as a practical cause of the
paucity of females.
(xix). Action has been taken in the past in two directions, viz., (1) preven- Remedies-
tion of the crime by surveillance under the provisions of Act VIII of 1870 and (2)
the curtailment of marria^je expenses. Efforts in the latter direction have so
far met with no success and it is not possible to say definitely whether all the
villages which have been under surveillance, have really shown an improvement,
and if so, whether it has not been due to the general reformation of ideas. Sir
Dennis Fitzpatrick, as has been noticed above, tried to substitute Medical agency
for Police, in the matter of surveillance. The measure though sanctioned for
adoption has not been tried, but I venture to agree with the Hon'ble Mr. Fenton
in thinking that the former agency is likely to prove more irksome and less
effective.
In his note of 6th October 1903, Mr. Rose did not suggest any remedies
for stopping the practice, but he proposed the compilation of absolutely accurate
Tital statistic'^ in the central districts of the Province and specially among the
Jat tribes, distinguishing between the Hindus and Sikhs ; and he proposed that the
birth-rate of each district should be worked out annually for each district by reli-
gion throughout the Province together with the death-rate for each year, by annual
age-periods up to 20, that the data should be compiled specially for a few large Jat
tribes in each district, and that the tribe or caste should be invariably jecorded
in birth and death registers. He also suggested detailed local enquiries to be made
in each district with a view to trace the history of a number of families, somewhat
in the manner referred to in paragraph (xv) above. I venture to think that the
statistical elaborations proposed by Mr. Rose would be incommensurate with the
result and that the small degrree to which female infanticide would appear to
prevail now, if at all, would not justify the expenditure of so much time and trou-
ble. In my opinion, it will suffice to lay down that in all birth and death registers,
the religion (Hindu, Sikh, Muhammadan, Christian) and the caste and sub-caste
(e. g., Jat-Sindhu, etc.) should be invariably noted. This would furnish Hufficient
material in the birth and death registers for elaboration, if necessary. Enquiries
into the history of individual f am dies do not lead to fruitful results as the infor-
mation given is generally not very reliable.
There are serious obstacles in the way of penalizing excessive expenditure
on marriage?. Members of high castes would no doubt generally Avelcome legisla-
tion on the subject, but this is the feeling of the classes which are supposed to have
the highest incentive to female infanticide, viz., those, who want to maintain the
dignity of their position by ruinous expenditure which they cannot afford and
would be only too glad to he able to say that they have been prevented by law
from spending more than the prescribed lunits. But the class that is growing in
wealth would think otherwise. Those who have more money than they know what
to do with, would certainly like to spend it on marriages, and if they are prevent-
ed by law from spending more than a paltry sura on a daughter's marriage, they
would know, how to get round the technicalities of law and would establish
Censns Beport 1
260
APPENDIX.— NOTES ON
Chaptee VI,
precedents which would become as essential to follow as the present unwritten
code of expenditure on marriage ceremonies. Moreover, it would be very difficult
to devise a graduated scale which would meet the requirements of all grades in
each caste. Personally, therefore, I do not favour legislation, in this respect,
but if a scale has to be fixed it should be an automatically sliding one, proportion-
ate to the income of the person concerned, calculated in a rough and ready manner
in terms of land revenue paid by him or on some similar basis.
The only suggestion which I would make is, that with the help of the
details of caste and religion in the birth and death registers and the village tables
prepared at each Census, the District officers should watch the proportion of
females in villages where there is the least suspicion of foul play, particularly in
the .TuUundur, Ludhiana and Ferozepore Districts and that, whenever the pro-
portion of female births in a particular village falls below the average birth-rate, or
the proportionate death-rate amongst female infants of 1 — 5 years of age exceeds
the similar average for the district or tahsil by, say, more than 25 per cent, persist-
ently for a number of years, steps should be taken to place that village under the
operation of Act VIII of 1870, and that when this is done, the village should be
saddled with some additional charge, whether by way of contribution towards
the maintenance of the supei'vising police staff or otherwise. This would, besides
acting as a check against female infanticide, if any, prevent neglect of female
infants, which I think is a far more important cause of the deficiency of females.
Education is having the desired effect in influencing public opinion against
female infanticide and 1 venture to agree with the suggestion made by Pandit
Moti Lai, Mir Munshi, in 1868, that it is only recessary to take steps to prevent
the actual commission of the crime, leaving the people themselves to devise means
to curtail the marriage expenses in ordinary course, as an item of economical in-
terest.
CHAPTER VII.
Civil Condition.
GENERAL.
332. Imperial Table VII contains the statistics of civil condition, by Reference
religion, age and sexes ; and the civil condition of certain selected castes is given to statistics.
in Imperial Table XIV, by age-periods. Detailed information based on the for-
mer is contained in the following Subsidiary Tables: —
I, — Distribution by civil condition of 1,000 of each sex, religion and
main age-periods at each of the last three Censuses ;
II. — Distribution by civil condition of 1,000 of each sex at certain ages
in each religion and Natural Division ;
III. — Distribution by main age-periods and civil condition of 10,000 of
each sex and religion ;
IV. — Proportion of the sexes by civil condition at certain ages for reli-
gions and Natural Divisions ;
V. — Distribution by civil condition of 1 ,000 of each sex and certain ages
for selected castes ; and
VI.— Terms of relationship.
333. The disti'ibution of males and females in the Punjab is noted in the Distribu-
Per 1,000 of each sex.
m
o
Civil Condition.
m
o
"3
d
a
En
British Territory.
Unmarried
531
383
Married
386
47V
Widowed
83
140
Native States.
Unmarried
513
350
Married
399
495
■Widowed
88
155
Province.
Unmarried
528
377
Married
388
480
Widowed
84
143
margin, by civil condition. In the Province as a tion by civil
whole more than half the males (528 : 1,000) areun- condition,
married, about one-twelfth (84 : 1,000) are widowers
and 388 to every thousand or rather less than two-
fifth are married. On the other hand almost every
other female is married, about one-seventh of them
are widows and the rest are unmarried. The con-
ditions prevailing in the Native States are some-
what more favourable than those in British
Territory. Dealing with actual figures, the number
of unmarried males is nearly double that of unmar-
ried females, but married females exceed married
males by one per cent., while the widows are about 40
per cent, in excess of the widowers. Amongst tlie Hindus, the excess of married
females over married males is very small ('Oo per cent.) while the widows are
1-| times as many as the widowers. The Sikhs show a large excess (2-3 per cent.)
of married females over married males. This is partly due to the emigration of
majried males and partly to the tendency to have a plurahty of wives resulting
mainly from marrying a deceased brother's wife. The excess of married females
is also marked amongst the Muhammadans, where the wives are 1*6 per cent,
more numerous than the immber of husbands; and is obviously due to the practice
of polygamy. Lligration accounts for the excess of married males over females,
amongst the Jains and Christians.
334. Marriage according to the Hindus, Sikhs, Muhammadans and .Jains Univers-
is a sacrament and not merely a social function or a matter of convenience, ality of
The universality of marriage among the population of the Province is clear marriage,
from the fact that at the ages of 40 and over, only 19 females
out of every 10,000 of that sex remain unmarried (see Sub-
sidiary Table III). The figures are given in the margin,
The largest proportion of females remaining
40 years of age (5G) is found among Christians,
marriaoje is not essential. Leaving alone the
Unmarried.
All Religions ...
Hindus
Sikhs
Jains
Muhammadans
Christians
19
13
14
25
25
56
every
Table
by
unmarried at
With them
nuns who take the vow of celibacy, several ladies remain unmarried, from
to the end of their lives or up to a very advanced age. The
and Jains come next with 25 unmarried females per 10,000.
various causes,
Muhammadans
In both these religions, a female must ordinarily be married, 'i'ho figures for the
by the
registration of prostitutes
of
Muhammadans have been swellec
women of ill-fame as unmarried. The unmarried Jain females
are mostly initiates into celibate orders. Their total number
is however, only 63. Among the Hindus and Sikhs, only 13
respectively, in every 10,000, remain unmarried after 40, and
females suffering from some infirmity. The number of unmarried Hindu
females o\er 40 is comparatively large in the Himalayan tract, where the custom
of a number of slave girls accompanying the wedded wife of a chief or notable
and other
advanced age
in the Province
and 14 females
these are
mostly
Census Report. ]
2C2
GENERAL.
Chapter
Variations.
is still in force. These slave g;irls attend the bride at the nnptial ceremonies and
are also supposed to be married in a way to the husband. But they are not
recognized as wives and, consequently, are returned, at a Census, as unmarried.
But as many as 164 males out of every 10,000 remain unmarried after 40,
owing pai'tly to the shortage of females and partly to the early admission of a
certain proportion of them into religious celibate orders. The Jains occupy the
worst position here with a proportion of 267. The corresponding figures for the
Sikhs, Hindus, Muhammadans and Christians are 259, 198, 117 and 87 respec-
tively. The custom of widow marriage reduces the number of unmarried males
in the Christians and Muhammadans, while the Siklis, who also allow widow
marriage, t^eera to suffer maiuly from a paucity of females.
From 15 to 40 years, which is the real child-bearing age in this country,
only 58 females per 1,000 of that age remain unmarried ; as many as 860 are
married and there are 82 widows. Very few women remain unmarried after the
age of 20 amongst the Hindus, their proportion from 20 — 40 being only 10 per
1,000 (see Subsidiary Table I) ; but taking the ages 15 — 40 together they have 32
unmarried females out of every 1,000. Amongst the Muhammadans as many as
79 remain unmarried from 15 — 40 years of age and the proportion amongst the
Christians in the same age-periods is as high as 161. The proportion of widows is
naturally small amongst Christians and Muhammadans, being 52 and 65 res-
pectively. The Sikhs show the higher figure of 80 and the Hindus of 107. The
Jains have no less than 183 widows at these ages, out of every 1,000 females.
335. The present distribution by civil condition of the total population is
compared in the margin with
1911
1901
Unmartied,
Males.
7,02S,200
7,027,895
Females.
4,108,575
4,213,360
Married.
Widowe d.
Males.
5,166,395
Females.
5,219,129
5,459,01215,603,113
Males. Females.
l,120,380'l,551,O71
852,148 1,575,122
Age pkbiods
Proportion per
1,000 ir\ each
period.
1911.
1901.
10—15 ...
15-30 ...
20—40 ...
40—60
2S7
773
882
585
283
755
896
808
Variation by
Beligion,
336.
that of the past Census. The
decrease in females has occur-
red mainly among the married
(7 per cent.) while the unmarri-
ed and widowed have decreased
by only 2-6 and 1*5 per cent,
respectively. The result is
that married males have
decreased 5 per cent, and widowers have increased 31 per cent. The statistics show,
in a marked degree, the effects of plague, which attack-
ed the middle ages more than persons at the extremes
of life, and a diminution in the reproductive population
is a characteristic feature of the present Census.
The shortage of married females has occurred in the age-
periods 20 — 60 while the proportion at the earlier ages
has somewliat increased, as will appear from the figures
given in the margin.
The marginal diagram indicates by curves, the rise and fall of the
ip)-oportion of married females of the age of
'20 — 40 to the total number of females of the
same age. On the whole the relative
strength of married females of those ages fell
considerably iu 1891, but more than recouped
'itself in 1901. The small decrease now as-
certained does not place matters in a worse
position ihan 30 years ago. The age-periods
20 — 40 have been similarly affected in respect
of married females in all religions except the
Christian, where the addition of converts,
in overwhelming proportion, has raised the
percentage of married females in every age-
period, m spite of the losses of females at
the middle aoes from plague. The western
Punjab, where the population is mostly
Muhammadan, having been comparatively
immune from plague, the losses of married
Muhammadan females, in those age-periods
VARIATION PERCENT IN THE PROPORTION
: OF MARRIED FEMALES 20-40 TO TOTAL
FEMALES OF THOSE ACES
ALL
RELIGIONS
CHRISTIANS
JAINS
SIKHS
HINDUS
ee
84
80
9E
B8
B4
eo
88
as
84
80
8?
88
84
80
9Z
ea
8*
80
as
88
84
80
76
IS
5
VII.
263
Aa£ OF MARBIAaB.
[ Punjab. 1911.
are only nominal. Compared with 1901, married males have decreased in all
age-periods, with the exception of 5' — 10, the most impoi'tant loss having
occurred from 40 — .60 years, while there has been a general increase in the pro-
portion of widowers. Tlie state of affairs is similar among the Hindus and Jains.
Amongst the Muhammadans, the proportion of married males per thousand has
risen in tLe age-period 15 — 20 from 223 to 228, but it has decreased in all
age-periods above 20 with an inverse variation in the proportion of widowers.
Married Christians at the ages of 20 — 40 now represent 465 out of every 1,000 of
those ages, against 267 in 1901, but the higher age-periods show less favourable
results. This abnormal rise may be due largely to mis-statement of ages by the low
caste and uneducated converts and cannot bo considered reUable. The proportion
whichiii 1881 was 162 rose to 221 in 1891; so compared with 1891, the figure of
1901 was not uticommonly large. As to the ages of marriage, the proportion
of boys and girls marrying under the age of 5 remains unchanged, but at the
ages of 5— lOtliere are now 13 males out of a thousand who are married
agamst 11 in 1901, while the proportion of females married at this age has
also risen from 36 to 41 per thousand. The proportion of married boys of
school-going age (10 — 15) has fallen from y 7 to 84, but ignoring the mis-state-
ment of ages, there are now 287 married females out of a thousand of that age
against 283 in 1901. The rise in the proportion of marriages under 10 appears
to be general. While the proportion of married males has decreased amongst
the Hindus, Sikhs and Jains, the Muhammadans now have 61 married boys
of 10 — 15 out of every 1,000 of that a f<e against 55 in 1901 and 228 of 15—20
against 223. Similarly their proportion of married females in the age-periods
5 — 10 and 10 — 15 has increased from 22 and 195 to 28 and 216 respectively.
AGE OF MARRIAGE.
837. The statement given in the margin indicates the proportion of marri- Early mar-
ed males and females in each of the four ^^^S^
first quinquennial age-periods of life, for
each reHgion, per mille of population of
each sex. A very largo number of
Bindu girls get married between the
ages of 10 — 15 and they show a pro-
portion of 392 married females and 10
widows per 1,000 at this early age.
Early marriage of females prevails
amongst the Jains to about an equal
extent, but while they show the largest proportion of widows in all age-periods,
their proportion of married females at 10 — 15 is only. 243, i. e., lower than
tliat of the Sikhs Avho have no less than 289 females, per thousand, married
at this age-period. The Muhammadans, who are less given to early marriage
have only 216 married females under 15 per 1,000. But the well-to-do
Muhammadans follow the custom with a vengeance and have 28 married
females per 1,000 at the ages 5 — 10 and 1 per 1,000 under the age of 5.
Indeed before attaining to the age of ten 2 per 1,000 of the Muhamniadan
females (in the age-period of 5 — 10) become widowed. The Christians show
the smallest relative strength of married females under 15 — viz., 156 per
mille. These cases are confined to converts, amongst whom, 15 females
per 1,000 in the aoe-period 5 — 10 and ] per 1,000 under 5 are married
and 2 females per 1,000 in the former age-period are widows. The highest pro-
portion of married female infants is found amongst the Hindus and Jains (2 per
1,000) and amongst the latter 1 female infant per J, 000 is a widow. Between the
ages of 5 and 10, fifteen out of every 1,000 Jain females get married. Amongst the
Hindus, Sikhs, Muhammadans and Christian-converts, marriage sometimes takes
place even wlien an infant is under 1 year of age. The earliest marriage recorded
~~ amongst the Jains is from 2 to 3 years. Early mar-
riage is more common in the Himalayan tract than
elsewhere ris the figures given in the margin will show.
Infant marriage amongst the Sikhs appears to be
confined to the North- West Dry Area and occurs
mostly among the Sahjdharis.
Males.
Females.
CO
a
CA
Agb-pebiods.
a
a
2
OS
a
a
(n*
a
CO
a
1
cO
.a
a
3
a
2
60
ca*
•->
2
ca
0— 5 ...
1
1
5—10 ...
21
11
24
9
63
32
15
28
10—15 ...
119
78
ion
61
392
289
243
210
15—20 ...
336
263
428
228
S56
807
814
702
Per 1,1100 females
mnrried.
TRACT.
0—5
5—10
llindua
Muhnnimadang ..
Sikhs
Jaina
i
i
78
108
105
40
Census Report. ]
264
AQE OF MABBIAGB.
Chapter
Pbopobtion of married persons under 15
tears to evkrt 1,000 op total population
op each sex at those ages.
Relioion.
Male.
Female.
1911.
1001.
1911.
1901.
Hindus
Jains
Mubamma-
dans.
♦7
22
47
58
19
131
81
66
135
105
62
Prevalence 333_ '[^[^q Hindus again show the largest number of married males under
hi different 15 years, but the Jains have 428 per mille who are married between 15 and 20
religions. years, while the corresponding figures for the Hindus, Sikhs and Muhammadans
are 336, 26a and 228 respectively. As matters stand, early marriage would still
appear to be most common amongst the Hindus and Jains.
But while the practice seems to be decreasing amongst those most prone
to this custom, it is on the increase among the
Muhammadans, as judged from the figures given
iu the margin. While the proportion of Hindu
married males under 15 has remained stationary,
that of married females of the same ages has de-
creased slightly from 135 to 131 per mille. The
Jains have shown the best results, the proportion
of males having fallen from 58 to 45 and that of
females from 105 to 81. On the other hand,
amongst the Muhamraailaus who had 19 males
and 62 females in wedded life under the age of
15 in 1901, the figures have now risen to 22 and 66 respectively. For a com-
parison of the figures by age-periods reference should be made to Subsidiary Table
1 of this chapter. The Hindus have the largest number of married infants in the
first five annual age-periods, but there are no less than 13 males and 17 females
under 1 year and 279 males and 850 females under 5 years, among the
Muhammiidans, who have already been married.
The theory that primitive man knew nothing of early marriage has been
exploded. It is now recognized that early sexual relationship was common
in the primitive stages of society. So when people have advanced sufficiently
to consider monogamy necessary, early marriage would be the first step towards
the attainment of juvenile chastity and the maintenance of social morality. But
the combination of early raarriajsje of females with the rule prohibiting the
marriage of males till they had attained to a mature or even advanced age, laid
down by Hindu 8hast7as would appear to be the outcome of a much more
advanced national stage and the result of a desire to secure absolute purity of
moral. Nesfield's theory, that infant marriage was a means devised for saving
ciris from inter-tribal communion and marriage by capture, seems to be the most
favoured one in the country, but it is based on ignorance of the fact that the cus-
tom is much older than the foreign invasions. The notions of foreigners about the
cruelty of tlie custom are also due to the erroneous assumption that the Shastras
enjoin immediate consummation in the case of early or infant marriage. I am
not aware of a mention of early marriage in the mantra blidg of the Vedas,
although a distinction is drawn between kanyd and yuvati* bntin the Chhandogya
Upanishaiif is related the story of one Ushasti Chakniyana, who lived at
Ibhyagraraa (the land of the Kuriis) with his dtikiydX wife, which shows that
even during the period referred to in the Upanishads, the marriage of females
of immature age to grown up men, was in vogue.
It must be remembered that amongst the Hindus, marriage is looked upon
as a religious function performed with the express object of enabling a person to
discharge certain duties devolving upon him by way of Yajna (sacrifice) and the
propagation of the species mainly with the object of making oblations to the
Manes. Marriage thus enjoined for such a purpose alone and not for the sake of
enjoyment, becomes a sacrament rather than a social function. The Ashrama
rules lay down that every dwija, should spend the first quarter of his life
in i*tudy, during which period he must remain celibate {Brahvirhdri). The
period varies under different conditions and for different Varnas, but the Ashrama
mast be gone through and, roughly speaking, it may be put down as extending to
about 24 years. It follows that ordinarily a man cannot bo expected to morry
before 24. During this period of brahmcharya, the student is to follow a very
simple and abstemious life and is not supposed to be in the society of women in
80 much so that, if full 20 years of age, he is not to do the usual obeisance to
I
•lligvfd 1, 123, 10.
t Arthaya I, 10—1.
j Atikiya means one who has not developed her breasts, ». e., who haa not shown signs of puberty.
265
VII. AOB OF UABRIAQE. [ p^njab, Wit-
the Guru's wife, by touching her feet, unless she happens to be old,* On the other
hand, the unquestionable chastity required of women inculcates a very high
standard of morality and, therefore, it is laid down that a girl must be married
before she develops any signs of puberty; tiie object being that when the ideas
of womanhood arise in the mind of a girl, she should find them directed to the
person designated as her lord and that they should not wander about to more
persons than one. Another reason why a girl should be married early is,
that according to the most favoured and prevalent form of marriage, i.e.,
daiva vivdha, a girl is to be given away, befoie a sacrificial fire, with religious
ceremonies, as a sacred gift. The girl is looked upon as a very sacred being
as long as she is in her innocence and has not developed signs of puberty.
Indeed till the attainment of puberty she is, to this day, worshipped as a
goddess {Knnyd or Kanjalcd) during the Navrdtrds.f After developing the said
signs, she not only loses her sanctity but, if by chance she happens to be in her
Bitu hil (monthly courses), she would be considered to be in a state of pollution
and would not be admitted to the presence of the sacrificial fire ; and the sacred
gift which is called Kanydddn wouldlose its value. Every married man who has
received the gift of a girl in marriage must perform at least one Kanydddn in
order to free himself from the debt which he incurs by receiving a similar gift at
his own marriage, and he would not have discharged his duty if he gave away a
woman instead of a girl. The matrimonial ages are laid down by Manu thus : —
"At 30 years of age a man may marry a lovely girl of 12 years or a man
of 24 a girl of 8. But if his religious duties would (otherwise) be unfulfilled (he
may marry) earlier. f " It is clear that the age of marriage laid down for girls
involved a deferred consummation, and Sushrut, an authority on medicine, lays
down on the strength of the Atharva Veda, that the marriage of a girl must
not be consummated before she attains the age of IG. " If a woman of under 16-
conceives from a man of under 25, the foetus is liable to disease within the-
womb. If born, the child will not live, and if it does live, it will have a weak
constitution. Hence conception must not be caused in a very young girl."§
The permission to a man to marry at an earlier age than 24 years is given
only to enable the performance of dharma, i.e., duties, mainly sacrificial. It is, there-
fore, no wonder that young girls when married should begin to assist in the ritual
essential for a householder without premature consummation of marriage.
The ages of consummation of marriage would, according to the above men«
tioned rules, be 34 and 16 or 32 and 16, respectively, for the man and woman.
The authorities responsible for laying down these rules of practice were obviously
mindful of the better fitness of parents to select a suitable match for the girl
than leaving her to select one for herself in her early days of youth, when
oftener than not, passion overcomes prudence and foresight.
At the same time the exercise of the right of ownership of the girl {Patria
potesta) exists according to Manu|| only till the girl attains puberty, after which
it is no sin if she takes a husband of her own choice. It is, therefore, natural
that girls should have been given away in marriage at an early age.
The custom appears to have been in foi'ce during the Epic period. Rama
was 12 years old at marriage and Sita only 6.^ The hypergaraous trend
of the whole Hindu society which apparently originated in the process of
Anuloma recognized by Manu, has helped to maintain the institution of early
marriage, intact for centuries.
With the non-observance of the institution of Brahmcharya, the marriage-
able age of man appears to have fallen gradually. The ideal marriage of the
present day is one between a man of 20 and a girl of 12, the consummation taking
place at the age of 25 and 17 respectively, but wo often find a boy of 16 married
to a girl of 12 years or less and the boy is about 20 and the girl about 16
when marriage is consummated. Considering tlie climate of the coimtry, the
consummation of- marriage at those ages cannot be condemned except, of course^
* Manu II, 212.
+ The first nine days of the bright half of Chet and Aoauj.
X Manu IX 94.
§ Sushrut Samhita Sharirssthan, Chapter 10, Verses 67 and 88.
jl Manu, Chapter IX, Verses 20-93.
'i Bee Ramayans Arany&kanda XLVII, 4, 10.
Census Report- ]
266
AOE OP MABEUQl::.
Chapter
Work done
by Reform
fiooietiea.
on economic grounds, i.e., when the young man has not the wherewithal to
support a family.
Early marriages of the above mentioned type usually result in a very
happy married life. As an instance of the extieme devotion of a wife married
under the system, may be mentioned the case of a Mohyal Brahman whose
wife grew seriously ill during his absence and realizing that she was about
to tiie wired for her husband who accordingly hastened home. Ou his arrival
slie felt highly gratiBed because she would have the last wish of her life
fulBlled, viz., to die at her husband's feet. Lying on her death-bed, she asked
him to wash his feet in water and give it to her to drink. The husband offered,
to do anything else she desired or to give away in charity whatever she would
choose instead of giving her the washings of his feet to drink, but she insisted
on the fulBlmenf. of her request as the highest privilege she could wish for.
He accordingly did as he was requested and as soon as he had put a spoonful of
the wtishings of his right foot seven times in her mouth, sLe expired in perfect
peace and contentment.
But ignorance of the principles on which the institutions were based has led
to abuse and while the marriageable age of a girl is still 8 to 12 years, tbe boy
selected as her match is often of the same age, i.e., 12 years or less and sometimes
a marriage is consummated before either of the parties has grown up. Or when
a man of 20 years or more marries a girl of 12, 13 or 14, the marriage is some-
times consummated straight away. These are abuses into which the system has
degenerated and which can be called infant marriages in the proper sense of the
term, with reference to both husband and wife or wife alone.
The custom is clearly of Hindu origin but it is not confined to the Hindus
only. It is largely prevalent amongst the rich Muhammadans partly owing
to the strict pardah system they observe and partly, no doubt to Hindu
influence and associations. Among the lower classes of Muhammadans, cases
of a grown up man consummating his marriage with a young girl of 12
years or so before she is fully developed are not i-are ; but they are generally
the result of poverty.
The extent of early marriage is now much larger amongst the menial
castes than amongst tbe higher ones. Subsidi-
ary Table V shows that the proportion of
married females of the ages of 0 — 5 and 5 — 12 is
highest among the castes named in the margin.
An obvious explanation of the prevalence
of early marriage among the lower classes of
Hindus is that study is not enjoined for Shudras
and there is no Brahmcharya Ashram (student
life) for them. Consequently they can begin
household life aa early as is compatible with
the conditions in which they live. It would be
interesting to note that the provisions of the
Procedure Code and the reluctance of Civil Courts in granting or
people to be an induce-
of caste and creed.
Per mille of
Locality.
the age-period.
Caste.
0-5.
5—12.
Chuhra
E. Pnnjab...
S
142
Dhanak
Van jab
9
356
Kanet
Do.
5
114
KuRihar
E Do.
4
117
Lobar
Do.
4
134
Dagi-Kcli ...
Panjab
4
117
Dnmna
Do.
1
164
new Civil
enforcing decrees for custody of wives are said by the
ment for giving girls away in marriage, early, irrespective
and the facility of forging evidence of a nikdh may possibly have something to do
with the increase of the custom among the followers of Islam.
389. Besides the religious organisations, such as the Arya, Brahmn, Dev
Dharm 8amajes, which aim at the rehgious as well as social regeneration of the
people. Reform societies have been formed in most of the important castes of the
Hindus. The Bajput Sabha, the Khatri Conference, the Arorbaus Sabha, the
Mohyal Conference and the Brahman Sabha may be mentioued as instances. The
abolition of early marriage is among the principal items on the programme of all
such societies, although widow marriage is Hdvocated mainly by the three religious
bodies above alluded to. A good deal has been done by these societies and the
feelings of the educated classes are generally opposed to eai ly marriage. It has
been shown in paragraph 337 that the present Census shows an improve-
ment in respect of Hindus and Jains. So far as widows are concerned, one no
doubt hears every now and then of a remarriage among the educated people, but na
VII.
267
AGE OF MARRIAGI':.
[ Punjab, 1911.
Religions.
Proportion of
un doles per
1,000 t» /he
ages 0-40.
1911.
1901.
Hindus
Jains
ilubammadans
58
101
32
47
59
30
impression appears to have been made by these isolated cases
upon the statistics of civil condition. The figures given in
the margin will show that while the proportion of widows
to total females under the age of 40 is 32 per mills in
Muhammadans against 30 in 1901, that amongst the
Hindus has risen from 47 to 58 and in the case of Jains
from 59 to 101. A summary of the reports received from
some of the Reform societies is given below.
At the Mohyal Conference lield in 1905, it was resolved that the age-limit of m&Tru MohyaU.
age should be 18 and 13 years for hoys and girls respectively. Later on it was found
possible to raise this age-limit still higher, and the Conference held in 1910 resolved that
no boy of less than 20 years and no girl below 14 years should be married. The resolution
met with the general approval, not only of the male members of the community but of a
certain number of females as well, with the resalt that the custom of early marriage is fast
disappearing amongst the Mohyals. Tho Conference has not taken any steps towards the
marriage of widows but it is not opposed on principle to the custom and a widow marriage
which was recently celebrated in a well known family at Lahore called forth no opposition
either from the Sabha or from the community. On the other hand, the Sabha has under-
taken to circulate matrimonial notices on behalf of widows, through the medium of its journal
called the Mohyal Mitra.
Early marriage is practically unknown among the members of the Dev Samaj. The VevSamdj.
minimum marriageable age is 16 and 20 for girls and boys, respectively, and every year
a number of girls and boys are initiated into the order of Bruhmcharya (celibacy) when
their parents take a vow not to celebrate their marriage before they have attained the
prescribed ages. Early marriage is condemned as being pernicious to the physical,
intellectual and moral development of the nation. Remarriage of child widows or other
adhihari (deserving) widows is considered compatible with Dharma (laws of morality). Only
two widow marriages have, however, taken place so far. Polyandry and polygamy are
both equally disapproved.
The Khatri Conference has been conducting a crusade against the custom of early
marriage ever since 1901, although till 1910 their efforts had not assumed even the form
of a resolution. It has now been resolved that the Khatris should try to marry their boys
not before the age of 18 and the girls not earlier than 14. But the practical effects of the
deliberations are not far reaching. As to widow marriage, no action has yet been taken,
but the General Secretary observes that snch marriages are celebrated now and then, and
the general public opinion even among the uneducated masses is drifting steadily in favour
of such marriages, though the progress is not very rapid. Polygamy is condemned by
the Conference, and no Khatri should without sufficient cause marry a second wife so long
as the first is alive.
Tho Jains are no less anxious to introduce social reforms than the Hindus. The S. S. Jain
Shwetambar Slhanakwaai Jain Conference is said to be making strenuous efforts to abolish Conference.
customs (such as early marriage) which are against the principles and spirits of Jainism,
with the result that the custom of early marriage is disappearing from the community. The
Joint General Secretary of All India Digambar Jain Maha Sabha notes that he has
succeeded in reducing^ early age marriages to about one-half. The claim appears to be
correct to a considerable extent, as the proportion of Jain females married before 15 years
of age has fallen from 104 to 81 during the jiast ten years and of males of the same age
from 58 to 45.
Tho Conference is not in favour of widow marriage. Tho General Secretary of the
Bharat Jain Mahamandal says that the community will not ever think of it and that it is
stated that the remarriage of widows (virgin or otherwise) is not enjoined by tlio Jain
Shastras.
The Brahman Sabha which has been only recently established also strives among
other social reforms to stop marriages at very early ages.
But in spite of all the agitaticn for stopping early marriage, the Reform
Societies do not appear to
Khatri Con-
fe)-ence.
Brahman
Sabha.
Prevalent
restiUs.
DiBTBlBDTION BT AOE-FEBIODS OF 1,000 HARRIED OF BACH SEX.
Total.
Arya.
Brakmo.
Vev Dharma.
GaBTKSi
1
7
lO
1
2
to
«3
N
r-4
i/i
oi
ir>
a
m
o
lO
o*
1
1
in
1
1
o
1
1
Arora ... {^
3
13
10
4(1
3
12
2h
9U
79
34
8
125
9fJ
Aggarwal^ p
"l
8
16
34
64
16
8
51
57
...
...
Brahman [ ^•
...
G
32
2(1
58
...
4,
S5
■",
..
19
18
...
...
liave had much prNctical
effect 80 far, even within
their own circles, much
less upon the masses.
Statistics of civil cor.ditioc
relatii.g to tho Arya,
Brahmo and Dev Dharam
sects were specially col-
lected from the sorting
slips and have b e e n
printed as Appendix to
2G8
Census Report, ]
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES.
Chapter
D13TBIBDTION BT A0B-PBRI0D8 OF 1,000 MARRIED OF EACH SEX- C07l((J.
GiSTBS.
Jat
Kbatri
Megh
Od
Rajput
Naik
Chamar.
i P.
(M.
I P.
(M.
•iP.
(M.
•IF,
(M.
•I F.
< M.
■I r.
TUal.
I
9
22
4
21
19
24
60
23
24
11
43
11
39
40
75
Arya.
50
21
2
8
1
1
2
5
23
9
51
94
32
63
2U
27
17
23
5R
83
Brahmo.
I
20
60
44
Dev Dharma.
60
69
64
131
190
167
99
I
11
55
36
9
56
75
167
The order
in which
married.
Table XIV in Volume III.
Tlie figures relafing to the
important castes in each
sect, wliich are given in
the margin will show that
the propurtion of boys
and girls married before
the age of 15 is generally
larger for the members of
each caste belonging to
these societies than for
the caste as a whole. This
may be due, in some
degiee to the return of
certain Brahmans as
Brahmos and Devi Dhar-
mis as Dev Dharm, and
the comparative accuracy of the age statistics in the cities and towns to
which the members of the Reform Societies are mainly confined may also have
magnified their figures compared with those of the total castes, but there seems
to be little doubt but that early marriage is still practised largely among the
members of these sects.
340. "When the children live under the protection of the father or some
other guardian, the custom regarding the order in which they are married is that
childrenare the sons are generally married in the order of seniority, i.e., the eldest being
married first and the youngest last. Similarly in the case of daughters,,
the eldest must be married bofore the next younger sister. In the absence
of special reasons, it is considered a disgrace to marry the younger son or
daughter before the elder one. So far, the custom is general amongst the
HinduE, Muhammadans and Sikhs. Exceptions are only made when, owing to
some physical defect or for other reasons, it is not possible to find a match
for the elder son or daughter, while a suitable alliance can be arranged
for a younger member to the advantage of one or both parties, if contracted
without delay. The younger son or daughter is also sometimes married before
the elder, if convenient, provided that the elder son or daughter has been
betrothed. Amongst the Hindus, the rule has been to marry all children, t. e.y
both boys and girls in the order of seniority, and a score of years ago no one
Avould accept the hand of a girl if her elder brother remained unmarried. The
age of marriage for boys is, however, being raised gradually and consequently the
objection to the younger sister being married before the elder brother is losing its
force. Among the Muhammadans and Sikhs generally, the marriageable age
of boys being higher, the marriage of girls is not put off in favour of the elder
boys. When sons grow independent of the father or if the brothers separate at
the death of the father, they marry at their own discretion, usually without
regard to precedence by birth.
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES.
341- Mr. Rose has given a detailed account of the seasons, auspicious and'
inauspicious, for marriages, on pages 44 — 46 of his Census Report (1901).
Among the Hindus, no marriage is allowed when Brahaspati (Jupiter) or
Shnh- (Venus) is invisible (Ast). Jupiter is u.?ually invisible, when it is in the
Smgli-rdshi, i, e., the zodiacal mansion of Leo. This is why the period is.
usually known as Singhast.
The auspicious and inauspicious months are named in the margin.
The basis is astronomical and the aversion to particu-
lar months is not due to seasonal conveniences. When
the Sun is in the Rashis of Kark (Cancer, /. e , the month
of Sdwan), Singh (Leo, t. e,, the naonth of Bhddon), Eanyd
(Virgo or the month of Asauj), T?t?fl (Libra, t. e., the month
of Kdtik), Dhan (vSagittarius, i. e., the month of Pos), or
♦ In the Punjab, a marriage is often allowed in Sdioan, Bhddon, Asauj or Kdtik, so that Pos and Cha\t are tho^
only two montba totally avoided .
Marriage
seasons.
HoothB,
Augpicioua.
Inausinciout
Baioakb.
Siwan.
Jeth.
BhadoD.
Asarh.
Asauj.
Mnngbir.
Kiitib.
Migh.
Pos.
PhJigan.
1 Chait.
I
269
VII. MARRIAGE CEREMONIES. [ Punjab, 1911-
Min (Pisces, i. e., the month of Chait), the influences are not supposed to be good
for matrimonial unions. Local variations are considerable, and particular
months, which are generally auspicious or inauspicious, are treated as the
reverse in particular localities.
Tlie prohibited dates are the Eikta tithi (the 4th, 9th, 14th and Amavas or Dates.
15th of the daik half), of the lunar month. Bhadrd* and tithipat (the last two
gharisf of every lunar date) must be avoided. Nor may a marriage be celebrated
on Janam Ashtami, Qohind Dwddsi, Vdrni, Mahdvdrni, Ardhodaya, and Mahodaya.
The last day of every solar month (masdrit) is not auspicious at all.
Tuesday and Saturday are particularly unlucky for marriage and in some Days.
places Sunday is also excepted.
Marriage may be celebrated only in one of the following Nakshatras: — Natahatras.
Bohini, Utra Phdlguni, Dtrdkhdra Utrdbhddrapad, Revti, Swdti, Mrigshir, Maghd,
Anurddhd and Hast. But the last three gharis of every Nakshatra are prohibited.
The month, day, nakshatra of birth must be avoided. The influence of 9*''®'" ?""■
SlQ0r3.tlOIlS
the Sun on the boy and that of the Moon on the girl should be good. The zodiacal
mansion of the Sun should not be, 4th, 8th or l'2th on the boy's rdslii, nor
should the mansion of Brihaspati be in similar proportion to the girl's rdshi. A
sister may not be given away in marriage within six months of her brother's
marriage. Indeed it is not supposed to be auspicious to celebrate two marriages
in one family within a year. This rale is, however, not universal. Two brothers
may not be married to two sisters, but exceptions are allowed. Two sisters may
not b3 given away in marriage at once, so when this has to be done, the two
sisters are kept away from each other from the veiy beginning of the ceremony,
nor are the two bridegrooms allowed to see each other.
The Arya Samaj and the other Reform Societies do away with astrono-
mical limitations, nor are the restrictions observed by the Sikhs.
The custom cf celebrating marriages on auspicious dates, in large numbers,
is not without precedent in Europe.
" In the City of Plongastel in Brittatiy all marriages take place on one and the same
day. The men are all fishemien going as far as the Newfoundland banks and are at home
only during a few months in the winter. One day in early February is spt apart for the
weddings. Little courting is done, but much haggling over the dowry of the girl?. They
have to bring a certain quantity of linen, chickens, pigs, and vegetables. Frequently a
match is broken off because a father refuses to add a sack of potatoes to the dowrj'. On
the set dfly the inhabitants of the entire region go to Plongastel. The whole population
goes to church to hear Mass, to receive Communion, and to witness the wedding ceremonies.
Often 50 or more couples are united the same day.^'f
342. The month of Moharram is generally prohibited for marriage among Inauspici-
the Muharamadans.§ Practice differs about the tiamzdn. The Sunnis consider theous times
whole month ominous, but the Shias are not so partial. Among the latter, the among Mu-
3rd, 5th, 13th, 16th, 21st, 24th and 25th of every month is prohibited and the hammadans.
26th of every month is particularly bad for Nikdh.\\ Exception is also taken
to the celebration of marriages between the two Ids, i.e. from the 1st of Sliawal
to 10th Zilhij or in the first to 20 days of Safai:*^ But this view is not
supported by the Shar'ji.
The Shias will not celebrate a marriage on Monday, because it is the
gala day of Bam Omaiya who were opposed to the Shias.
According to the Sunnis marriages seldom take place in the first week
of a month, but no particular date or day is condemned, although man iages are
usually celebrated on Monday, Wednesday, Friday or Saturday. The Ids are
generally excepted.
343. The eight forms of marriage mentioned in the Hindu Shastras are : — Forms of
(1) Brahma, i.e., the gift of a maiden spontaneously, after clothing and reverencing Marriage,
her, to one learned in the Ved as aud of good character, having invited him ; gin^us.
(2) Daiva which consists of the gift of a daughter after having adorned her, to a
sacrificial priest, rightly doing his work in the course of a sacriBce ; (3) the Arsha, g'^g'stras. "
* In certain dates pertain portions of the time are inanepioious and are known as Bhadrd.
+ Ont- ghari is eqtinl to 24 minutes.
t Tribune, dated 26lh July 191-'.
§ Snni.ifl observe the restriction during the first 10 days only-
II Tuhfatui'awim, Part 1, Chapter XI 1.
^1 In other wurdi, the Whole Shawal and Ziq'ad and the first ten days of Zilhij are prohibited.
270
Census Report, ] formalities before mareiage. Chaptbe
where the gif I of a maiden is made in due form, when a pair or two of cattle have
been legally received from the bridegroom ; (4) Prdjapati/a, where the gift of a
maiden is made after reverencing and addressing the pair " together do ye both
duty " ; (5) Asura, if tlie gift is made voluntarily after having presented to
the kinsman of the maiden wealth as much as the bridegroom can afford ;
(6) Gandharva, which is the union consequent on the voluntary connection of a
maiden and a man, rising from lust; (7) Rdkhshasa, being the forcible abduction
from her home, of a maiden crying out and weeping, after slaying and wounding
(lier relatives) and breaking into (the house) ; and (8) Fdishdcha, where a man
secretly approaches (a girl) asleep, intoxicated or confused.* The eighth is the
lowest form and the most sinful of unions. The Asura form is deprecated by
Maiui,t but is allowed for Vaishyas and Shudras.f The Gandharva and
Rdkshasa. are meant for Kshattriyas and the first four for JJrahmans. Brahma
and Daiva are, however, meant exclusively for Brahmans, although the latter is
the form most prevalent amongst all castes now. The Arshn, though not
restricted, is by nature such as can apply to the case of the Brahmans only. The
Prdjapatya form is a counterpart of the Daiva marriage which would appear to
be open to all castes.
The Brahma and the Arsha rites have practically disappeared. The
Gandharva is, they say, not meant for the Kahjuga and therefore is not re-
cognised. The Rdkhshasa form seems to have existed till the close of
internecine warfare, but the law will not pennit it now. The Pdishdcha anion
is considered illegal. The only forms in use now are (a) a combination of the
Daiva and Prdjapatya rites, and (b) the Asur form, t. e., the acceptance of a bride-
price, but even where this is done the usual Daiva ritual is gone through. The dis-
tinctions now drawn in different localities are of the following type. In the
Himalayas, the ordinary Hindu form of marriage is called the Bedi Biydh, but
when a Brahman, Khatri, Sunar, etc., marries a Kanet girl, i.e. when a high caste
man takes a low caste wife, the presence of the bridegroom at the wedding
ceremonial is dispensed with. His priest and relations go to the bride's house with
some representaliion of his, such as a sword or a knife, the ceremonial is short and
the bride is wedded to the weapon or other representation after Ganesh pujd. She
is brought to the bridegroom's home. This form is known as Ganesh pujd marriage.
But there is another very simple kind of ceremony called Butthi mandi followed
among the low castes, in which four or five men go from the bridegroom's to the
bride's house, dress her up, put a topu (cap) on her head and bring her home to the
bridegroom, without any ritual whatever. It evidently represents the Prdjapatya
type.
344. There is but one form of marriage among the Muhammadans, uiz.,
■ vj/,-iA, which is too well known to be described. The majority of the Sikhs cele-
brate marriages according to the Hindu rites. The more orthodox go by the Anand
form of marriage, which has now been recognised as legal and will be described
further on.
roptnalities before Marriage
reliminary 345. No special procedure is followed in the informal arrangements of alli-
"■eps- ances. Whether the boy's or the girl's side will take the initiative depends upon cir-
cumstances. Among the Hindus and Muhammadans alike, the parents are equally
anxious to secure good matches for their sons and daughters. Direct communica-
tions are out of the question. Messages are usually sent through friends, priests
or Bhiits, or through the class of menials to whom this duty is specially relegated,
viz., the barbers or Mirasis. Whether the match has to be arranged for a girl
or a boy, the formal communication is not made till after the matter has been
practically settled by the exchange of informal me8eage3.§ At this stage, the
boy's people must invariably sue for the hand of the girl and the girl's parents or
guardians must take the initiative in confirming the alliance. The pro-
posal on behalf of the boy's parents, etc., is made in various ways. In castes
and families where the correspondence of certain aspects shown in the horoscopes
of the boy and girl is an essential condition of marriage, the proposal takes the
• Manu III, 27-34. t Ibid, 111,25. J Ibid, III, 24.
§ Except in the case of Dolaa, brought to the Ruling Chiefa, i.e., when a person belonging to the same caate,
Vint of M comparatively lower social position, offers his daughter to the Chief and on acceptance of the proposal,
takes hie daughter to the capital where the marriage is celebrated.
*|l
I
271
VII. FORMALITIES BEFORE MAERIAGE- [ Punjal), 19U".
form of sending an extract from the boy's horoscope to the girl's parents. But
where this precaution is not considered necessary, as in the western Punjab, a
number of the boy's relatives, often males, and sometimes females, wait upon the
elders of the girl's family, to communicate the request. The acceptance of the
offer by the girl's parents takes the form of either a verbal or a written message
to that effect or the Sagan* is sent straight away.
346. After the informal understanding, a regular ceremony called 8dk, Betrothal.
Sagdi or Kurmdi (betrothal) takes place before the marriage. In some respect-
able families, the exchange of messages alluded to in the preceding paragraph
is considered sufficient to complete the betrothal, but very often a regular cere-
monial is gqne through.
Betrothal is n contract generally between the parents or guardians of the
boy and the girl. A grown up male, sometimes enters into the contract per-
sonally, if he has no guardians or parents to act for him. The perpetual tutelage
of women is, however, strongly asserted in the Province, and so at no age can a
woman enter into a contract regarding her own marriage. The details of the
betrothal ceremony vary a great deal and are given in the Gazetteer and Cus-
tomary law of each district and state, but a few general particulars may be
mentioned here. It is an almost universal custom, prevailing amongst botli
Hindus and Muhammadans. - --'^
Among the Muhammadans, it visually consists of the boy's father going to the
girl's house with a party of relatives, the boy himself accompanying in some places.
They take with them the prescribed wardrobe according to their position in
life and some ornaments, if possible, for the girl, with sweets and fruit, which
are accepted by the girl's father and relatives. The clothes and ornaments
are made over to and worn by the girl. A formal blessing {Dud Khair) ia
invoked, and in token of acceptance of the request, the girl's father or
guardian gives a lungi, reta (piece of cloth), a ring or some other present for the
boy. Sweets are distributed and some of those brought by the boy's side are
returned to be distributed at the boy's house.
Among tho Hindus, two divergent customs obtain in the east and
west. In the western Punjab, the boy's relatives go to the house of the
girl to make the formal request and are met there by the girl's father or
guardian and his relatives, who give them presents of sweets, fruits, etc.,
and certain ritual in the shape of Ganesh asthdpan and the reading of
Ootrdchdr, etc., is observed. They return to the boy's house with the presents
and distribute them among their own friends. The procedure differs in accord-
ance with the particular kind of marnage which is under contemplation. lu
the central Punjab, the Sagan, consisting of presents of clothes, fruit and
sweets, is sent by the boy's side to the girl's and the compliment is exchanged
by the girl's side. The acceptance of both completes the betrothal. In the east,
however, the Sagnn is sent from the girl's side only and the priest who takes it to
the boy's house, anoints the boy's head with tilalc, announces the alliance to the
friends and relatives of the boy assembled for the purpose and the betrothal is
considered complete. The facilities of locomotion by rail and the extensive use
of the post are, however, gradually replacing ceremonial by correspondence
and the I'emittance of monetary presents by means of money orders.
347. Amongst the Muhammadans, the contract of betrothal is revocable at Breach of
any time before the actual Nilcdh. If a contract of betrothal be annulled at the^ntractaf
request of tho girl's guardians they must return the clothes and ornaments J '^"
presented to the girl at the time of betrothal, and also pay up any other expenses maciang".
which the boy's side may have incurred in connection therewith. If, on the con-
trary, the boy's guardians move to havo tho contract set aside, they cannot
recover the clothes, etc., presented to the girl, but are not liable for any damages.
Cases of breach of contract of marringe are thus treated from a purely business
point of view. The boy's side spend money on the ceremony and are entitled to
recover it, if the other side fail to abide by the contract. On the other hand, the
girl's side spend no money on the ceremony and consequently can claim none.
That the girl's parents should refuse to return the presents made to the girl, when
* Presents for tho boy.
272
Census Report, ] foemalities befoeb mareiaqe. Chaptee
they do not refuse to give her uway in accordance with the contract, seems
quite equitable,
^^'i^3. 348, Amongst the Hindus, the contract is not revocable except under cer-
tain conditions, viz., if the boy turns out to be incapacitated by some incurable
disease or infirmity ; and in some places ceremonies of the nature described in Mr.
Rose's Census Report,* are performed with a view to obtain a release from the
contract of betrothal. The idea seems to have originated with the recognition by
Manu of the giftcf a girl by word of mouth as tantamount to marriage. But the
modern tendency is to treat the betrothal as revocable and numerous instances exist
of the annulment of the couti'act without sufficient cause. In any case, a breach of
the betrothal contract makes a party liable to damages, but the receding party is
never forced to complete the contract. No money is spent on the betrothal ceremony,
except in cases of marriage on payment of money, where the amount received must
be refunded by the girl's guardians, if they refuse to abide by the contract and the
boy's side are not entitled to recover it, if they back out of the agreement. In
cases of ivaltd saltd (exchange) marriages, the annulment of one betrothal annuls
all other contracts dependent on it. The custom of accepting consideration
for the gift of a gii'l prevails very largely in the western Punjab. Among the
Kirars,t it is the guneral rule either to take money or to take a girl into the family
in return for a girl given away. Cases of Dharam Ndtd, where no consideration is
accepted, are confined to the more prosperous classes.
The usual forms of betrothal in the western Punjab are : —
Class I. — Dharam Ndtd,
Class II. — Waifd Sattd (exchange) which is of three kinds;
(a) Ahmo Simhdnd where each party betroths his girl to a boy iu
the other party's family,
(b) Trebhanj, where three betrothals are made in connection with on©
another, and
(c) Chobhanj, where four betrothals are made in connection with one
another.
In this class of betrothal {i.e., waltd sattd) all the parties concerned meet
at one place by appointment find enter into the contract of giving the
girls, one to the other, after which each girl's guardian gives gw or
fruit to the guardian of the boy to whom his girl is betrothed. The
Brahman, if present, does tlie Ganesh sthd^an and reads Gotrdchdr.
The gur or fruits are taken home and distributed.
Class III. — On payment of money (takke).
Briie.price 349. The charging of a price for the bride or the bridegroom is not autho-
srotm-pricf' ^^^^ ^J ^^^® Hindu Shastras. The acceptance of Kanijd Shulka (bride-price) is
strictly forbidden and the persons contravening the rule are supposed to go on
the downward course.J The bride is supposed to be given away with befitting
clothes and ornaments and a dowry, howsoever great, is not considez'ed objec-
tionable, but when a fixed sura or a certain standard of dowry is demanded by
the bridegroom's guardians, as a condition of the acceptance of the girl's hand,
the gift amounts to nothing short of Vara Shulka (bridegroom-price). In the
better classes, both practices are considered highly objectionable, but amongst
the masses they prevail in varying degrees, the payment of a bride-price being
much more in vogue than the other custom, owing to the deficiency of females. The
views of Sir James Wilson, Inte I.C.S., expressed in the Customary Law of the
Shahpur, District, indicate the general state of affairs in the western Punjab,
amongst the Hindus aTid Muliammmlans, and they apply almost equally to the
rural tracts of the whole of that pait of the Province.
KanyaShuiha 350. The Ban IBS, as a rule, pay no price for a girl up to eight years old ;
orhride-price. i^^^j. after that, a hundred rupees have to be presented for every ye^ar of the girl's
age, i.e., Rs. 900 if she is 9 years old, Rs. 1,000 if 10 years, and so on. But girls
have usurdly to be given away in marriage before they are thirteen, and so the
price generally averages between Rs. 900 and Rs. 1,500. In tlie eastern Punjab
and in the hills, the lower cLisses of Brahmans also charge a bride-piice. Poor Jats
* Punjab Cenaus Keport, 1901, page 217, paragraph 31.
t A term used for Aroras.
X Mbdu 111,51 aDd52
273
"VII. F0EMALITIE8 BEFORE MARBIAGE. [ Punjab, 1911.
in the eastern Punjab will accept Rs. 100 to Rs. 200 or sometime as much as
iour Or five hundred. In the central and western Punjab, the practice is more
common and the amount varies from Rs. 50 to Rs. 1,-500, although the arrangement
is made secretly. In the hills, the Kanets and Ghiraths have no objection to
accept a bride-price, but the amount is not more than Rs. 50 to Rs. 100. Kana-
■war women, who are particularly good looking, often fetch as much as Rs. 300.
Even the poorer Rajputs of Kangra, who, provid of their heridity, were, at one
time, addicted to female infanticide, will now make money quietly over a gii'l's
marriage, usually about Rs. 100. The poorer Kliatris in the eastern Punjab, the
Sansis and Kambohs of the central Punjab and most castes of the lower order
recognize the custom. The price among the Gedris is as low as Rs. 1 0 to Rs. 20.
The richer families excepted, the Kirars of Mianwali and Muzaffargarh, make no
bones about it and charge an average price of Rs. 200. The Niazi Pathans will
pay Rs. 200 to Rs. 500 for a girl and higher price when the man is old and a grown
up wife is needed. The minimum charge among the Khattaks is Rs. 25, although
the standard among the Bhangi Khels who are richer, is Rs. 300. But among the
Awans, the custom is not so common. The following extracts from some of the
District Codes of Customary Law will corroborate the prevalence of the custom in
-certain castes throughout the Province.
"A girl is looked upon as a valuable piece of property and betrotlial is a contract by
which the girl's family bind themselves, often for a money consideration, or in exchange for
another betrothal, to transfer the ownership of the girl to the boy's family on her reaching
a marriageable age. If either of the parties die before the marriage actually takes place
the contract is at end, and the boy's family are ijot, as in Sirsa, considered entitled to claim
that the girl should be married to another boy of their family, if her original betrothee
should die. The cereitiony of marriage actually transfers the ownership of the girl from
her agnates to those of the boy." — Cwtomary Law, mhahpur,
" It must be understood, of course, that the parents on both sides have already made
their enquiries and arrangements, and have settled the consideration which, except among
those tribes and families who pretend to superior dignity, is generally paid for the girl by
the boy's family." — Customary Law, Moga, Zira and Berozepore.
"The true significance in the replies tending to recognize a right to damages lies
in the fact that the custom of selling girls as wives is largely on the increase among all
oastes especially Khatris. Dower is rarely given by the girl's people, and the prevalence of
the custom of what practically amounts to wife-purchase, is one of the reasons why bachelors
are so common among agricultural castes. If it wa« not for the fear of the law courts, the
girl's people would often keep the money paid at betrothal and then sell the girl elsewhere.
It is clear that all tribes in giving their reply to the question are divided between their sense
of right, which prompts them to say that betrothals cost nothing and should not involve
liability to damages, and their fear of the consequences, if they make the admission too
clearly. It is recognized that the custom of wife ptirchase is pernicious and its growing
prevalence is deplored, but under stress of the system growing np around them the people
are becoming more prone to invoke the dangerous aid of the law courts to save themselves
the risk of losing money." — Customary Law, Amhala District.
"In some tribes the betrothal and marriage ceremonies suggest an idea of a sale,
in which money plays a leading part, and a girl is looked upon as a valuable piece of
property. Sales «i daughters are not admitted, so arrangements of this nature are not
made public." — Customary Law, Delhi District.
" The Garewals and other high gnts of Hindu Jats profess to regard the taking of a
consideration for a girl as a sin ; but there are not many families in any of the gots that
refrain from doing it now-a-days. Where money is taken the girl is the commodity to be
sold; and the boy's people begin. No Idgis are sent by them ; but the boy's father or some
near relation with one or two others, goes to the girl's hou~e and a bargain is struck.
The price is s-aid to have been in former times Rs. 40 at the time of betrothal, and Rs. 80
afterwards, at the time of marriage ; but as much as Ks. 500 is not at all an uncommon
price now. When the bargain has been struck the girl's parents 8end their Idgis, or
generally one man [ndi], to the boy's house, and necessary ceremonies are performed." —
Customary Law, Ludldana District.
The first thing done is to settle the amount of money which has to be paid. Some
people consider it objectionable to give publicity to the payment of money, others do not
mind it. In the first case, the formalities observed in case of the Dharam botrothiil are gone
through, and no mention is made in the brotherhood of the payment of money. In some
cases where the parties have not enough mutual confidence, mention is made of the
■payment in the assf-mblage. Where publicity of the payment is not considered objection-
able, the guardian of the boy goes to the house of tlie girl with a few relations and trustworthy
friends of his own. The girl's gnardian names the amount which is generally paid in two
instalments : (I) at the time of betrothal, and (2) at the time of marriage (to meet the
expenses). — Customary Law, Alianwali District.
Census Eeport, ]
274
MARKIAQE CCSTOMS.
Cbapter
Vara shulka or
Bridegroom-
price.
o51. The practice of charging a bridegroom-price is peculiar to towns and
cities, where hypergamoiis tendencies of the members of higher castes are more
in evidence. There is no parallel in this Province to the Kulinism cf Bengal, but
high caste famihes of average means often demand a high standard of dowry
before they agree to marry their son to a girl of a rich family. Soraeliow or
otlier, the number of girls is larger in families which are better off and in
order to find, for their girls, suitable matches combining good social status
with high birth, ihey have to agree to the demands of the guardiaus of eligible
boys,
Thelnvita- 352. 'J^he fixing of tlie date of man-iage rests with the bride's fatlier or
tion. guardian, and when an auspicious date has been determined after consulting the^
astrologer, an intimation thereof is eent by tlie bride's guardian two or three months
before the date, in a note usually written on yellow paper or paper sprinkled with
saffron and called pili cbitthi (yellow letter). If the boy's side have no objection
to urfTe, preparations begin to be made on both sides. The regular invitation is,,
however, sent only a few days before the marriage (usually between 9 and 21
days). The priest, accompanied by the barber or some other attendant, conveys
this note which mentions the date, hour and minute at which the marriage cere-
mony is to be performed, and 'asks the bridegroom's guardian to come and
celebrate the wedding at the appointed time. The number of followers expected,
is also sometimes mentioned. The arrival of the priest with this letter is made
the occasion of a regular gathering of friends and relatives at the bridegroom's
house Some ceremonies are gone through, after which the priest and the barber
return with presents, according to the means of the boy's people.
Supenrti- 353. The anxiety to keep off evil influences is not absent from marriage
tions. ceremonies and the custom of cutting the Jandi (Prosopis specigera) tree by the
bridegroom on bis way to the bride's house, during the marriage procession,*
which is often said to represent the destruction of enemies, is probably meant to
drive away the evil spirits {Bhuts), etc., who are supposed to live chiefly on this
tree. The custom of wearing an iron ring, the tying of an iron ring in the
Kangnd and BaddM\ or keeping a knife about the bridegroom's person, from the
commencement of the marriage procession till his return home, which is followed
generally throughout tlie Province by tlie Hindus and sometimes by the Muham-
madans as well, is also mainly a precaution against the interferenci- of the evil
spirits. The reverence of the Guru (preceptor) comes into prominence even in
connection with marriage. The family priest is indispensable and hns to perform
Cf rtain ceremonies before the bridegroom can be dressed. In the town of Hohtak a
Kayastha bridegroom will prostrate himself on the threshold of a Bhafc
(bard) before starting with his suite {Bardi) for the bride's bouse. The
original custom apparently was to do reverence at the door of the family priest
who was also the Guru. In course of time the impoverished priests sold their
houses to the Bhiits who were in more affluent circumstances. The priests thus
becoming houseless, but respect has continued to be shown to the houses which
were originally theirs and the offerings are taken by the Bhata who now occupj
them.
Marriage Customs.
Hindus. 354. The Daiva form being the most favoured, is the one which every
Hindu has so far tried to follow. There are differences of detail from caste to
caste and place to place, but the common features are, the worship of gods, the
burning of the sacrificial fire, the gift of the daughter by the father to the
son-in-law (kant/dddn) and the walking of the pair round the sacrificial fire called
Idvdn or ph'-re. But the marriage procession, which is universally in vogue, ap-
pears to be an adoption of the formalities which were probably observed originally,
in the case of Kings or Ruling Chiefs only, for amongst all castes from the Brah-
mans and Rajputs down to the lowest menials, the bridegroom is supposed to be
dressed in royal robes and proceeds to the bride's house with as big a retinue and
as much display as his means can permit. That in observing the most sacred form
• This custom exists among tho Khatris and Aror«s.
t The Kangna is a band made of »iuu(i string iu which various articles counteracting evil spiritual influences
are lieil. It is prepared by seven married woinea and a wora by the bridegroom, oa his right wrist. A similarly pre-
pared Kind lied with the same purpose on bis right ankle is called baddhi, Kanjnd ind baddhi are similarly worn by-
the bride but on the left wrist and left ankle respectively.
N
275
VII. MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. [ Punjab 1911-
of marriao[e, the oup. chief event in a man's or woman's life, human vanity should
not be satisfied without imitating the most magnificent type of marriage procession,
is but natural. The customs connected with the advent of the bridegroom to the
bride's house, however, seem to bear traces of curious admixture. The procession is
not merely the prototype of a warrior chief attended by his followers, going for the
performanceof a peaceful religious ceremonial, as his equipment with arms, usually a
sword or a dagger (an iron stick is carried when it is not permissible by law to carry
a sword, etc.), riding a horse (usually a mare) bearing a regal umbrella {Ghhatar)
and having a retinue of soldiers, etc., with bands and tomtoms and processional
decorations, in the case of the richer classes, would show. But the decorations are,
as a matter of course, to be plundered on the way by the populace, while those
responsible for the management of the procession are s-jpposed to protect them,
which obviously denotes that the procession has to fight its way to the bride's house.
Then among the Khatris, a sieve is hung across the door of the bride's house and
this has to be cut down by the bridegi'oom with his sword. He lias at the same
time to protect himself against an old petticoat or pair of trousers which tho
women of the bride's family assembled at the spot try to throw round his nect.
They also attack him with broom-sticks. The comrades of the bridegroom help
in defending him. The meaning obviously is that he has to force his way into
the house against all obstructions and resistance, while the inmates of the house
try to capture him. Then again, while sitting on khdrds (revei'Sed baskets)
preparatory to the lavdn, the bridegroom is hit by his sisters-in-law with little
round ornament boxes, jingling with coin and dried fruit. He keeps dodging
the rnissiles and distributing cardamoms and cloves by way of humouriug them.
Before the formal return of the procession, the bride is carried to the bridegroom's
house by night in the lap of the bridegroom's father or some other near relation
and brought back informally to accompany the returning procession in state.
Among the Aroras of the western Punjab, the bridegroom surrenders at the
time of entering the bride's house, the sword or knife carried by him, saying
lai hdti de hdhi (Take the arm and give the girl), which means that on arrival
of the invading force, the gift of tho girl was the only means of conclud-
ing hostilities.* All these customs seem to be the remnants of raaniage
by capture {Bdkshasa)f which must have, at one time, been largely prevalent
amongst the warrior classes. In other castes, for instance Brahmans, except
those who have imitated the Khatris, most of the Banias, the Kayasthas, etc., the
peaceful nature of the proceedings at the bride's house is not disturbed by any
mock contests or struggles.
Broadly speaking, the marriage ceremony comprises the following stages: —
(1) The reception of the bridegroom at the door, by the bride's father. The
bride is often takf^n out to meet the bridegroom at the door not on the arrival
of the marriage procession but later on, when the bridegroom is about to enter
the pavilion where tho wedding has to be celebrated. Among the Kayasthas
she makes three circuitsj round the bridegroom and goes back. The reception
consists of an exchange of courtesies between the bride's father or guardian and
the bridegroom, the former welcoming the latter to his house, offering him
pddya and arghya and anointing his forehead with tilak, etc. In the western
Punjab this ceremony is known as pishkdrd. The ceremonies begin with the
usual worship of Ganesh and other gods after which the sacrificial fire is lit.
(2) The father of the bride is then requested by the priest to give his daughter
to the bridegroom. He accepts the proposal and with his daughter seated on
his left knee and his right hand full of water, a little rice and kuslia grass makes
a sacred offer of the girl, with all the jewelry and equipment which have been
previously gifted to her, to the bridegroom, who accejjts it with due formality; after
which the girl's father demands a promise that tlie Kumiri (virgin) given to
him must be taken by him in constant companionship in the performanceof his
duties and the enjoyment of wealtli and other pleasures.§ The promise is duly
• The custom may also imply that the alliance precludes the bridegroom taking up arms against the family
thereafter.
■f This form Of marriage was declared legal for a Kehatriya — Manu III, 26, Indeed the form waa
peculiar to the warrior caste. Ibid, 24.
\ This is the most levins form of receplion tantamount to sacrificing one's self for the other person.
The formula in Sanskrit is Tabhyam dattu, kumdri dharmecha, arthecha, kamecha twayd it/am fiirkharnid.
Census Report, ]
276
MARRIAGE CUSTOMS.
Chapter
made. This is the kanydddn. (3) Then foUowa the pdnigrahan, which is known as
hathleva and consists of the couple grasping each other's hand to mai'k the union,
and certain Vedic hymns are recited. The gods who have been invited to the
sacrifice are asked to bear testimony to the sacred tie. At this stage is performed
the ashmdrohan, the pair placing one foot each on a stone in token of the firmness of
the gi'ound on which they are going to tread in their married life. (4) The pair then,
■with clasped hands or with the ends of their garments knotted together, go seven*
times round tlie sacrificial fire. This ceremony is called phere and implies the con-
summation of the vows in presence of agni and the other sacrificial gods. On
completing this, sacrificial rites are performed by the wedded couple. At this
stage the pair are, in certain castes, made to see each other's face in a looking
glass sent by the bridegroom's people,! This ceremony appears to be intended to
acquaint the husband and wife with each others' faces, for, according to custom,
the bride does not uncover her face to her husband till long after, or to his people,
till her arrival at their home, and is apparently intended to prevent such mistakes
as in a comparatively recent case is stated to have ended in a comedy of errors.}
Another subsidiary ceremony of importance is the got Icundld which pertains to the
change of the bride's gotra to that of the bridegroom. It may be taken as a
parallel to the adoption of the latter's family-name.
After these ceremonies and the performance of certain subsidiary rites, the
marriage is considered complete. Then follovfs the feeding of the bride and the
bridegroom from one plate which is also a mark of uniting the couple both
spiritually and physically. Difficulties, probably legal, arising from the lapse of a
fairly long period between the marriage and its consummation, according to the
Shdstras, appears to have led, in some castes, to the addition of a ceremony at the
close of the wedding rites, which is equivalent to a religious or legal consumma-
tion of marriage, although the actual consummation is deferred nevertheless. It
consists of seating the couple together and covering them with one sheet, while
certain Vedic hymns and other benedictory compositions are recited, the bride's
parents throwing flowers on them as a mark of their blessings. The ceremony
lasts only a few minutes and the sheet is removed as soon as the recitation is over.
The other subsidiary ceremonies vary greatly in detail, and it is impossible
to give a general description which would cover most or all of them. But a few
inteiestiug ones peculiar to certain castes are mentioned further on.
The Aryas celebrate the marriage according to Vedic rites. The gift of
Vedio) mnr- the daughter Kariyaddn is made in presence of the sacrificial fire. The jsctnt-
nage. gralian and saptpadi ceremonies are also performed and the circumambulation of
the sacred fire, completes the four essential components of the marriage ceremony
according to Aryas. The subsidiary ceremonies of Gantshpuja and the worship
of the grahas are dispensed with, but Vedic recitations are made on a larger scale.
The Brahmo marriage ceremony bears traces of Western ideas. When a
marriage hns been arranged, a day is fixed to suit the convenience of the parties and
they assemble with their relations and friends at the Brahmo Mandir (church) or
at the bride's house. A prayer is first offered by the priest.§ The guardians of
the bride and bridegroom make the proposal. The usual questions are then put
tu the bride and the bridegroom and, after the couple have pledged faith to each
other, rings and garlands are exchanged. The preaching of a sermon to the
couple completes the marriage which is then registered under Act III of 1872.
* In the central Punjab the number of circumambulations among the Khatris is four, and the Aroras of western
Punjab consiiler only three sutficienl. The completion of the marital rites is recognized according to Mauu at the seventh
step Manu VII, 227 1 and until the pair have taken the seventh step, the marriage is incomplete. The seven steps
seem to h.ive developed into seven circuits. But certain castes still retain the initial ceremony of making the pair
walk seven steps, th« bridegroom's father placing gold and silver onder each step of the bride. This is knotrn as
ta'ptapadi,
t Among the Muhamnradans, mainly the converts, there is a similar custom, according to which the bride is
made to stand behind the bridegroom and the latter is allowed to see the reflexion of her face in the looking-glass.
X Two parties returning after the mukldwa ceremonies were travelling in tho same train. The brides happened
to be in the same compartment, and were unattended by other females. One of them was booked for Meerut and the
other for Lucknow. The party alighting at Meerut, the nearer station, asked the wrong bride down and took her home
while the one wedded to tho Meerut boy went on to Lucknow. Had not tho former bride been previously to Lucknow
and known ihe appearance of the Railway Station, the mistake might not have been discovered for a considerable time.
But her suspicions were aroused when she arrived at a strange station and the prompt communication of her suspicions
to the elders ol the family resulted iu tlie exchange ol telegrams and the timely discovery of the error.
§ The priest must not necessarily be a Brahman. At a marriage in Lahore some three years ago the uncle of
the bride iKhatri by caste) officiated as priest ami iu all the others performed daring the decade suolher Prachirak
^missionary), a Banya by caste, has officiated.
The Arya
Sam«j (or
Brahmo
marriage.
i
277
VII. MARRIAGE C0STOM9. [ Punjal), 1911.
The marriage according to Dev Samaj is conducted in Sanskrit. ^^^ pharam
It consists of (1) 8ampardaii — i.e., the gift (which is the equivalent of Kanydddn); ™*''"*^'^'
(2) Granthi hnndhan ov qath jora — i.e., the tying together of the ends of the bride
and bridegroom's garments | (3) Pdni gralian and gotra panvartan — i.e., the clasp-
ing of bands and the conversion of the bride's gotra ; (4) Shilarohan, stepping
on a stone ; (5) Horn ; (6) Fradakhshana (circumambulation of the fire).
The bride is lo lead three times and the bridegroom once — i.e., altogether four
circuits are made. It will be seen that tlie ritual is an exact prototype of
the Hindu ceremony, omitting the worship of Ganeah, Navagrahas, etc., like the
Aryas and slightly altering the wording of the Veda mantras used at the occasion.
The very mantra " ()m gribhndmi hastam te Sanbhagativdya "* etc., is read, similarly
to the Arvas and orthodox Hindus at the j^dni grahan. In the same way several
other Veda mantras are read. The pratigpd (promise) by the bridegroom in reply
to the demands of the bride's father is alsio identical with the Hindu formulae.
The words used are " Dharmecha arthfcha kdmecha, ndti chantvayayam." (You
must take her in constant companionship in the performance of your duties and the
enjoyment of wealth and other pleasures mentioned above. It may also be noted
that the bride's father makes the gift with water, kusha grass and a little
rice in his right hand exactly like orthodox Hindus and reads the Sankalpa
also in an almost identical way. ,The Shildrolian is an exact copy of a sub-
sidary ceremony amongst the orthodox in which the parties pledge their faith
to each other, which they declai'e to be unshakable like the rock
they step on. Here again part of a Veda mantra is read. But the most
curious part is the Gotra parivartan, also an orthodox ceremony, whereby
the bride is received into the bridegroom's gotra (clan or sub-caste), while
according to the tenets of the Dev Samaj tlie institution of caste is completely
ignored. The lighting of the sacrificial fire and the circumambulation are
properly adhered to, so that the marriage, which cannot be registered accord-
ing to the Brahmo Marriage Act, may acquire vahdity in the eye of law.
Reform societies like the Radhaswamis have no marriage ceremonies others.
of their own and allow weddings to be celebrated according to the cus-
toms of the individuals contracting the union. Amongst the educated classes,
the tendency to divest marriage of elaborate ritual is on the increase and the
rejection of the Hon'ble Mr. Basu's Marriage Bill which aimed at this, Avould
appear to have caused much disappointment to the more advanced sections.
355. Sikh marriages were in the past celebrated according to the ordi- sikh mar-
nary Hindu rites, performed by Brahmans, with tlie difference that hymns of thenage.
fourth Guru known as the Idivdn were sung simultaneously by the females during
the ceremony in placKof the Hindu songs. Later on, a dual ceremony was adopt-
ed, whereby the Hindu rites were gone through first and then the wedded c( uple
circumambulated the Granth Sahib four times, while the Sikh priest read the
Idwdn mentioned above. The orthodox Sikhs of the modern times have, however,
completely given up the Hindu ritual and content themselves with the circumam-
bulation of the Granth Sahib and the reading of hymns by the Sikh priest. The
conversation regarding vhe gift and the mutual promises, which is not prescribed
in the sacred Granth, is conducted in Panjabi. The Idwdn whicli are a counter-
part of the four Pherds (going round the sucrificial fire), but known to the Sikhs
as parkarma, constitute the binding part of the ceremony ; at the conclu-
sion of which, the Anandbdni is read and Knrdhparshdd of Re. 1-4 or more is dis-
tributed. This ceremony is known as the Anaud marriage. Marriages are still
celebrated in the old style and regular codt-s have been printed to regulate both
the ancient and the modern {Anaud) forms of marriage. Nuptial rites are as a
rule celebrated at night, but the Anaud ceremony may be performed at any time.
A translation of the four Idwdn composed by Guru Ram Das and contain- The UwSq.
ed in the Granth Sahib, which are road at Sikh marriages, will be found at
pages 334 and 335 of • The Sikh Religion' by Macauliffe Vol. ll.t With due
deference to the learned author's interpretation, I venture to give below the
• Rig Ved X. 85, 3G
t Edition, Oxford, 1900.
Census Report, J
278
MABBIAQE CUST0U3.
Chapter
Anandbani.
Mnham-
madans.
meanings as ordinarily understood. It must be borne in mind that the verses
were composed on the occasion of the Guru's own marriage.
" I. In the name of God (Bar) ; Balrantju (God) hath in the first Idon (round)
8'rengthene<l the path of going forth (attachment to the world), made the soul realize its
duty acconiing to Vedas, the voice of Brahma, and to avoid sin.
HoW fast to Dharma (duty or religion) meditate on God's name ; for He grants
strength to those who recite His name. The Satguru is the true guru. Worship Him and
all your sins and troubles will disappear.
That fortunate person attains easily to bliss, and the name of God (Har Har) becomes
ewe'-t to hira. 0 people, says Nanak, with the first round commences the nuptial rite
(errand of the soul).
II. In the name of God, in the second round, Balramju (God) bath caused union
with the Hatwurn (true guru) Pursha* (spirit). The mind hath become free of delusion and
fear, and the dirt of egotism hath been washed away.
He (the soul) hath obtained a pure state, sung the praises of God, seeing God — Ram-
before him. God hath caused Himspli to pervade the soul. The Lord permpates all.
Within and without, the God is one, on union with God (Har) man rejoices. 0, people,
says Nanak ; in the second round, the annhadshahd (soundless sound) has been sounded.f
III. In the UKme of God ; by the third round the mind becomes incliued to repulsion,
O God. The fortunate saints have found union with God, O God.
They have found God, who is spotless, sung His praise and uttered His speech from
their mouths. By good luck have the saints found Him and have told the unspeakable story
of God.
In the heart hath arisen the sound of Har ! Har !! Har !!! His name can only be
repeated by the destiny recorded in one's forehead, 0 people, says Nanak ; in the third
round repulsion arises in the mind.
IV. In the name of God ; in the fourth round, the mind hath become peaceful and
God hath been found, 0 Bahamjic. The Giirmuhh (i.e., one following the path of discipleship
as contrasted with Vimnkh who acts differently) naturally finds God, his mind and body
become a source of delight ; 0 God.
He hath become pleasing to God, and acceptable to my Lord, and is absorbed in con-
stant meditation of Him. O Lord, the fruit desired by the heart has been obtained,
congratulations of God's name have be?n sounded.
The Lord God hath completed the rites (errand). Glorious is the manifestation of His
name in the heart. 0 people, says Nanak ; the immortal God hath been found in the fourth
round."
A dip into the meaning of the verses translated above will make it clear
that they were intended to supplement the usual marital rites and were designed
to draw the attention of the married couple to the errand of the soul, in order to
prevent their total absorption in t!ie pleasures of life in its physical aspect.
The first Jjdon (round) is interpreted to represent the launching of the
soul on the PravrUli wdrga, (path of fortligoing or attachment) where it begins
to giiin experience by taking in knowledge, etc. : adherence to duty ia ordained as
the safeguard at this stage. The second round is to mark the approach of the
disciple to the true Gutu and tlie purification of the mind and the realization of Self.
In the third round begins the Nivritti Mdrga (or turning homewards), and the
iticlitiation towards Vairdg (repulsion) now arises in the mind. The contemplation
of God now coma's uppennost in the mind. In the fourth round, the love of God
predominates' and the union of the Self with the Supreme is attained. The discourse
seem to be closely associated with the division of life into four stage.^ {ashramas)
and seems to have the fourfold career which the soul has to follow in this
world, from the spiritual point of view. It also seems to be based on the theory of
four Sa(ihn7iaR (measures) : viz., Viveka (discrimination) Vairagya (repulsion) Khal-
sampiiti (six qualifications of discipleship necessary for the control of the body
and mind) and Mumoksha (desire for liberation), prescribed by the Shastras for
the spiritual progress of the soul. The sublimity of the discourse is beyond
doubt, and the utility of striking a note of spirituaUty amidst the zealous rejoic-
ings of thfi marriage ceremonies, is obvious.
Anand is a peace-cliant, read at the end of every religious ceremony like
the Hindu Shdnti. It is not meant exclusively for marriage ceremonies. Indeed
no auspicious ceremony is viewed as complete without its recital.
356. Among the Muhamraadans, the ceremonies other than the Nikdh con-
nected with marriage are not indispensable. The usual procedure at the wedding ia
• The other meaning is the union of the bride with the bridegroom.
I Afahadnhibd ia the voice of silence, which is heard at a fairly high stage of Yoga.
279
VII. MiscELLiNEOUs CKBEM0NIE8, [ Punjab. 1911.
that tbe marriage procession, consisting of the bridegroom, hia male relatives (and
also female relatives among the Jata) and friends with a large or small retinue goes
to the bride's house, usually in the evening and the NiJcdh takes place sometime
during the night. The bridegroom's guardian takes a suit of clothes and some
ornaments for the bride, the bride is dressed in these after the Nikdh. The bride's
side present a suit of clothes to the bridegroom which he similarly puts
on. This changing of clotfies Iiowever takes place only if the marriage is to
be cousummated. When, however, the marriage is not to be consummated
at once, Uf., when the parties are minors, the changing of clothes does not take
place. Sweets are distributed after the Nikdh and the procession returns home
with the bride, after staying at the bride's house overnight. It is not an uncom-
mon thing for the bridegroom to go to the bride's house with a limited following,
have the Nikdh read and return without bringing the bride with him. The
marriage (shddi) including the marriage procession follows after some time, but
the Nikdh having already been read, the only ceremony performed, is the chang-
ing of clothes and tbe bridegroom's party then returns home with the bride. But
whether the marriage is consummated or not and whether or not the clothes
are changed, the marriage becomes absolute after the Nikah has been read.
Miscellaneous Ceremonies.
357. Certain subsidiary customs which take place before and after the Chakki-
marriage are worth mention. The Khatris of the central Punjab inaugurate the chung.
preparation for the feast connected with the marriage with a ceremony called Ghakki
Chung. One month before the marriage, the whole brotherhood assembles at the
bridegroom's house, and the priest brings mdsh (phascolus roxburghii) and chaJcki
(a small stone mill). The bridegroom grinds the pulse in the mill and the flour
so obtained is kneaded and made into little lumps called baris which, after being
dried, are distributed in the brotherhood. In some parts of the Province the
Muhammadans also observe this custom.
358. Seven or eight days before the date of marriage, the bridegroom and Maiyan, etc.
the bride are supposed to be confined to their houses. The former cannot go out
till the marriage procession and the latter till the Doli ceremony. This is
called Mdiyin or Sdhe baethna. This is obviously a precaution against accidents,
but it is also probably intended to avoid exposure to the sun and to enhance
the beauty as fur as possible. With this view both parties have to rub oil all
over the body every morning, after which they are sponged with a mixture of
•flour and ghee called obatnd or batiid before taking their bath. This process is
known as tel obatnd or tel batnd and is calculated to beautify the complexion
and the skin. Neither party is supposed to change clothes during the period,
so that by the time it is ovei', they are wearing very dirty clothes, and con-
sequently the sudden change to dazzling costumes has a strikingly marked effect.
The Mehndi ceremony is also performed during this period, when the
hands and feet of the bride and bridegroom are painted with Mehndi (Lawsonia
inermis) and the process is repeated every evening till the date of marriage. The
last two customs are general, the Mthndi called Hind bandi is very commou even
amongst the Muhammadans.
359. The clotlips and ornaments made for the bride by the bridegroom's Vari and
guardian are exhibited to the public, in a procession, on the third day after ihat.
marriage and taken to the bride's house, and the dowry given to the
bride by her parents or guardians is exhibited there the next day. The
clothes and jewelry are placed on an ornamental charpoy, which is an indispens-
able article, and the other gifts are placed under and around it. The ceremony
is observed in all castes of the Hindus (eveu in the Reformers) and is also
followed by a majority of tbe Muhammadau castes, specially the converts from
Hinduism.
360. Tbe bride's relations appear to have a right to lest tbe intelligence chhand
of tbe bridegroom and either a few hours before the advent of tbe marriage
procession, when tbe bridegroom goes informally to tbe bride's bouse or on the
night of the marriage, be is required to recite verses to the females of the bride's
Census Report, ]
280
IIABKIAOE CUSTOMS.
Chapter
Sia Snpari.
Ghori.
Las si
mundri or
kaagna
kbelna.
Khadukne-
Mutthi
Sholna.
Consum-
mation of
Marriage.
Repetition
of marriage
ceremonies.
house and p;et3 a rupee or more for each verse that he can quote. This is called
Ghhand Kahvdi. In the Kayasthas of eastern Punjab, the bridegroom is also
required the next day to give a display of his retentive faculties iu the way of
poetic recitations.
361 . Again a day or two after tlie celebration of the marriage, the bride's
party in the central Punjab particularly among the Khatris, tie a betel nut and
certain other things in a piece of cloth and conceal them in the house of one of
their menials {viz., tho smith, carpenter, potter, etc.,) and the bridegroom is
required to find it. He has to go from one menial's house to another and to ask
for their assistance, tipping them if necessary, until he eventually discovers the
articles called Sid Supdri *
362. On the arrival of the marriage procession, the bridegroom does not
dismount until the bride wrapped up in a blanket has been passed under the maref.
This is apparently a sign of submission. This custom is peculiar to the Khatris
and certain other castes.
363. The Lassi Mundri or Kangna Khelnd consists of fiUing a tray with
whey or diluted milk and throwing a ring, a rupee or some other articles! into it.
The tray i.s placed before the couple and they are required to hunt simultaneously
for the object named by those present. Whoever picks it up first is considered
victorious and is lionised. This ceremony is performed at the bride's house before
the return of the bridegroom's party and is j-epeated at the bridegroom's house.
364. The ceremony called Khadukne, which is probably peculiar to the
Khatris of the central Punjab, takes place at the bridegroom's house on his return
with the bride. Little cups of kneaded flour with hds made of the same material
are placed before the bride and the bridegroom. The one uncovers the cups and
the other is supposed to replace the lids as quickly as they are taken off.
365. The parties have to enter into a trial of physical strength at this,
stage. A rupee is in turn placed in the palm of each and the hand closed,
Tlie other is asked to take the rupee out of the fist.
Some of these ceremonies are obviously intended either to test the com-
parative shrewdness of the bride and bridegroom or to familiarize them to engag-
ing in common pursuits.
366. In the case of early marriage, deferred consummation necessitates
a separate ceremony to mark the completion of connubial relationship. The
ceremony is known as Gaund or Mulddicd and is performed by the Hindus as
well as such of the Muhammadans as still cling to some Hindu customs.
The latter have few formalities except the gift of clothing, jewelry, &c., by
tlie woman's parents and the commencement of conjugal life by the husband
and wife.
Among the Hindus, there are rejoicings on both sides similar to those on
the occasion of marriage, the bridegroom goes to the bride's house alone or with
a very limited following and after the usual worship of Ganesh, &c., some sort of
a ceremony purporting to unite the parties further, is gone through. In the
eastern Punjab they are seated on two wooden boards (Patrds) and after the
recital of certain Vedic hymns the boards are exchanged (this is called Patrdpher) ;
the ends of the garments of the two are knotted together {gath jora or gandh
chitrdvd) and the bridegroom walks off with the bride. The Patrdpher and the
ritual are peculiar to the eastern Punjab, but the rest of the ceremony is general,
although the details vary from place to place. The custom represents the
Garhhadhdn Savskdr, and is celebrated usually in the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th or some
odd year after the marriage, except the 13th which is considered inauspicious.
367. Marriage, according to Hindu Shastras, being mainly a religious
tie, child-bearing is allowed primarily only to a limited extent. Sexual
relationship is ordained with the object of securing a male offspring
and when a female and a male child and at most two sons have been
begotton, the sexual phase of the marriage relationship is supposed to end. These
ordinances are not oteerved at the present day, but traces thereof are still found
• Thp object probftbly is to introduce the menial ricpondents of the bride's family to the bridegroom.
t This is why the bridegroom rides a mare and not a horse.
X In some castes the kangna is at this time untied by the bride and bridegroom from the hands of each other
and placed in tho traj with other articles.
1
I
281
VII. WIDOW MABEIAGE.
L Punjab, 1911.
in a number of customs. For a Brahman particularly, the sexual relationship
is supposed to end when the fii*st son is born, for the son is considered to be the
Self, born under the name of a putra* (son). The wife producing the Self
becomes the mother of the Self and consequently ia, after producing the son, to
be respected by the husband like his own mother. This injunction is only meant
for the Brahraans, but the performance of the funeral rites of the husband in the
fifth month of the first pregnancji pi-evailing in some places among the Kochhar
Khatris seems to be nothing more or less than a remnant of this idea.
Another outcome of the above mentioned idea is a ceremony called DevUj.
dev kdj probably a corruption of daica hdrya ('ceremony prescribed by the
gods), in which the husband and wife go through the formalities of marriage a
second time, after the birth of the first son and sometimes of tlie second, but
invariably before the tonsure ceremony of the first. The custom which is on
the wane still prevails among the Dhdighar,'( Bdhri, Bimjdlii, Khnkkrain and
other Khatris, some Aroras, mainly Utrddhis, some other castes like the Kamboh
and even amongst the Brahmans in certain localities of the western Punjab.
Some time after the birth of the son, the mother goes away to her parents or is
literally kicked out by the husband and goes to her parents, or to some relations,
as may have been pi'eviously arranged. The husband then goes with a regular
marriage procession on an auspicious day and brings back his wife after
going through the marriage ceremony. The ceremony is performed in a
temple or on the banks of a river, at some other sacred place or in the
husband's own house. The marriage procession is organised only when the
ceremony has to be celebrated at the wife's parental home. When such is the
case, all details of the wedding ceremony are gone through with the exception
that the bridegroom does not wear the Mukat and bears no Chhattar (umbrella).
The brotherhood are entertained, but for a shorter period, and, perhaps less
sumptuously than at the first marriage. The marriage procession stops at the
house of the woman's father only for one night and the party is fed on nothing
but milk and rice.
Some people think that this celebration marks the rejoicing on the attain-
ment of the object of the marriage, viz., the birth of a son, while others beheve
that it originated with Rama marrying Sita a second time on her being purified
by fire after her return from Lanka. These explanations appear, however, less
likely than the one given above. In some places the Aroras do not celebrate the
dev kdj if the home of the girFs parents lies on the same side of the river,
as that of her husband, and others perform it Only if two sisters have been
married at one and the same time. In such cases, the marriage of the younger
sister is not considered complete until the dev kdj has been performed.
A .similar custom which seems to have disappeared is laid down by the The wedding
Smritis. Karka and Gadadhara comraentrng on the rules l;\id down in Kdtydyana^^^<^'^ twenty
G r ihy a Sutra s,X th?it 9. kumdri should be married, define kmndri as a virgin '^°°^'^®'"^°'''
\Akfihatayoni) and differentiate her from a woman who has brought forth twenty
children and has consequently to be remarried to the husband. According
to the authority cited by them, the relation of a husband and wife terminated
after twenty confinements and the couple could not live as man and wife unless
they contracted a fresh marriage.
Widow marriage.
368. The marriage of widows is not allowed by the Hindu Shdstras.^ General.
Restricted widow marriage appears to liave existed in Vedic times || and Maim, no
doubt, permits the procreation of progeny by the brother-in-law or some blood
relation of the husband's family under certain rigidrestrictions (Mann IX, 59 -61),
audit is possible that this provision may have been applicable to widows as well as
the wives of husbands who were incapable of procreation, but reading the passage
with verse G8, it appears that this permission was not countenanced at the time of the
compilation. la any case, Niyoga seems to have been strictly prohibited for the
Dwijds (twice born)^ and although not expressly allowed for the Shudras, yet
* Paragraph 375, motherkin, also spe Manu IX, 8.
1 In iI,iui;oinery, Sliarakpur and Bhera.
? Kand I, Kandika IV. § Manu V, 161. || Rigveda X, 40-2
ir Manu IX, 64.
Censas Seport. 1
282
WIDOW MARRIAGE.
Chapter
Xarewa.
Figures
certain
ctstes.
the passage referred to would appear to imply that. The practice of Niyoga, in the
case of man'ied -women, does not exist aH a recognized custom, even though females
of loose morals may take the law in their own bauds in the event of impotence, or
other disabilities, of the husband. Only in one case does Manu permit Niyoga,
viz., when the (intended) husband of a maiden die after troth has been plighted.*
This seems to relate to the instance in which the intended husband to
whom a girl has beeu betrothed, dies before the marriage actually takes place,
and shows that in one sense the betrothal was considered tantamount to marriage,
i. e., when the word was once given, the relation of husband and wife was establish-
ed. The rule is not strictly enforced now, but where possible the girl is married,
without the imposition of any limitations, to the brother of the deceased. "When
however, the deceased intended husband leaves no brother or when owing to other
circumstances it is not possible to give the girl to his brother, no exception is
taken.
The feeling against widow-marriage evinced by Manu has continued
unchecked to this day, in so much so that its transgression has resulted in the
degradation of individuals and whole clans or groups to a lower status.
To this day (the advanced section excepted) castes allowing widow marriage are
supposed to rank below the status of Dwijas-f and the custom is confined mainly
to the castes not entitled to wear the sacred thread. The custom is common
amongst the Jats and other agricultural castes, artisans and the menial classes and
the practice most common is for a widow to marry the deceased husband's brother.
In such cases no distinction is made as to whether the husband's brother
is older or younger than the deceased, although preferably the widow is married
to a younger member of the family.
Among the Muhammadans, the Shar'a does not prohibit widow remarriage,
but the Sayads and Sheikhs (of foreign extraction) in the eastern Punjab and the
Rajputs and converted Sheikhs in general are averse to the custom obviously
owing to the traditions relating to the Hindu castes of high status. The Gare
Rajputs of Karnal are a notable instance of the degradation following widow
marriage among the Muhammadan Rajputs.
369. Muhammadan widows are married by the usual Nikdh form-
alities. The ceremony most prevalent amongst the Hindus and Sikhs is
that cnlled Kardo or Cliddaranddzi in the eastern Punjab and Kareiva or Ghaddar
Pdnd in the rest of the Province. Few formalities are observed. The main
point is that the parties should agree to the relationship of husband and wife,
oi' that the parents or guardian of the woman should consent to her being
taken in wedlock by the intending husband. The widow is usually dressed
in red and presented by the husband with bracelets, nosering {nath), ear-
rings (bdli) or some other emblems of wedded life. Where the formality of
Ghddaranddzi is observed, the man and woman are seated together and a white
sheet is thrown over the pair by some Brahman, Srtdhu or elder of the brother-
liood and the presents above referred to are made to the woman or a rupee is
placed in her hand. The occasion is celebrated by a feast.
But very often, no formality at all is observed and, if a bride-price has
to be paid as is generally the case, the mere fact of the woman being brought
home by the husband after the payment is considered sufficient to mark the
commencement of their matrimonial relation.
. 370, Looking at the number of widows by castes, the Aggarwala appear to
be in the worst position having the largest proportion of widows, 51 per mille, in
the age-period 12 — 20 and 28 per mille at the ages 20 — 49. la the higher ages
too G05 per mille of their females are widows. This is the highest figure ex-
cept that for the Ghiraths, whose case seems to be a peculiar one. They have
a low proportion of widows at the ages 5 — 20, owing to the permissibility of
widow marriage, but the comparative abundance of females in the tract and
particularly iu the caste (932 per mille of males) makes it impossible for the older
widows to get remarried, and consequently the Ghiraths have no lack of widows
at the ages of 40 and over.
i
I
I
• Manu IX, ti9.
t The adoption of the casloai is alleged to have been the causd of degradatioa of Mahtous who claim t) be Raj-
puts (see Chai.ter XI).
283
V]I, MOCK MARRIAGE. [ Pxmjab, 1911.
The number of widows is also very largo among the Khatris (see Sub-
sidiary Table V). The lowest proportion at the ages
Kamb'oh'cMoutgomyry District) 32 20 to 40 is found in the CBstes named in the margin,
Dhobi, western Punjab ... 68 whoall allow widow remarriage. The Jhinwara present
^in"* ■.■.; ;;; ?1 an interesting case. They have 14 widows per miUe
Chuhra ... ...72 (Jurinff the age-period 5 — 12 which is larger than in
Lobar, western Paniab ... 73 ,, i i j. ■ c ii. „i„.„ „£
any other caste but id consequence or the custom oi
Karewa prevailing amongst them, there are only 17 widows amongst tbem at the
ages of 12 — 20 against 51 among the Aggarwals, and the proportion amongst the
former is not very large in the higher ages either, being 523 per mille.
Mock Marriage.
371. 'I'he custom of mock marriage, i.e., going through a form of marriage Classes of
with an animal, tree or other inanimate object, which prevails among certain castes mock mar-
of the Hindus more or less throughout the Province, is based upon fear of ill luck.riage.
Mock marriages take place (1) when a widower wishes to marry a third*
wife, and (2) wben the horoscope of a girl shows that the influence of certain
stars is likely to lead to early widowhood.
372. In cases of the former kind, the mock marriage is celebrated in the Mock mar-
western Punjab with a sheep, in the central Punjab with the Ber {Zizyphus jujuha) riage of
tree or sometimes with the Pipal (Ficus religiosa ) and io the eastern Punjab with the widowers.
Ak {Galotrop'is procera) bush. The fear of ill luck is due partly to the suspicion,
caused by the death of the two former wives, viz., tliat the wife of the man whoso-
ever she might be, is destined to die, and particularly the wife taken by the third
marriage, which is considered to be peculiarly inauspicious. The number ' three '
is an ominous one probably because it is related to the third destructive aspect of
the Trimurti {the three-fold manifestation of God) and this mysterious significance
appears to be at the root of the objection to calling out tliree when weighing grain —
a scruple which is dying out now ; to thi-ee people starting together on a journey,
and to the superstitions about a son born after three daughters (Trikhal), etc.
But it is also due partly to the belief that the jealousy of the spirit of the first
wife is instrumental in causing the death of the subsequent wives. It is for this
latter reason that when a widower has to marry a second time, a miniature
picture of the first wife, either cased in silver or gold or engraved on a silver or
gold plate is hung round the neck of the bride at the wedding ceremonies.
When a picture cannot be obtained or engraved, the name of the deceased wife
is substituted for the picture.t The idea seems to be to humour the spirit of
the first wife, by proving the fidelity of the husband, who in marrying the second
wife pretends to really marry the picture or name of the deceased wife, thus
identifying the second wife with the first. In the central Punjab, at a second
marriage, the bride is dressed hke a milk-maid {GujH) or a flower-seller {Mdlan)
and given a servile nickname such as Gujri, Mdlan, Jatto, Mehri, etc.
The object of this apparently is to convince the spirit of the deceased wife,
that the female being married is not a real patni (wife) but a ddsi (slave-
girl). But when the death of the second wife shows, that the device was
unsuccessful, a mock marriage is resorted to, at the third occasion. The bride-
groom is sometimes taken out to a tree of the above mentioned variety, which is
bedecked with clothes and jewelry, and he is made to go round it, with the usual
incantations, as if he were going through the Ldvdn ceremony. After,
completing this preliminary step, he proceeds to the bride's house, to celebrate
the formal marriage with the bride, which is supposed to be a nominal one or
equivalent to a fourth. But in most cases, a twig (or in the western Punjab), a
sheep is taken to the bride's house, where it is anointed and bedecked with
clothes and ornaments to represent a wife, and at evei-y stage of the ceremony,
the bridegroom goes through the forms, first with this mock-wife and then
with the real bride. It is interesting to watch the bedecked sheep sitting on
the lihdrds (reversed baskets) with a bridegroom and being led by him round
the sacrificial fire while the real bride sits by. All these formalities are peculiar
to the third marriage, and if the third wife also dies and a fourth one has to bo
married, no mock marriage is usually deemed necessary, as the evil influence
* In the hills the fourth wife is considered unlucky instead of the third.
t Ihis custom is peculiar to the Aroras of the western Punjab.
Census Report- ]
284
MISCELLANEOOS CUSTOUa.
Chaptke
of the first wife is believed to have spent itself. In the western Punjab, however,
a black dog or some other black animal is taken round the bedi at the fourth
man iage, by way of warding off evil influence. These practices are noticed most
among the Banian, Aroras, Ehatris and some minor castes. This form of marriage
is recognised by the Hindu iShastras. There is a separate paddhati (ritual) for
mock marriages, known as Arki Vivdh Paddhati — the ritual of marriage with
the Ah.
Mock inar- 373. In mock marriages of the second kind, a pitcher full of water is dressed
riage of like a boy and the girl is taken through the ceremonies of marriage with this
girls. pseudo-bridegroom. The ceremonies are then repeated with the real bridegroom by
way of an informal marriage and it is supposed that the effect of the evil star would
befall the pitcher and not the bridegroom, thus averting the disaster of early
widowhood. This type of mock marriage is called kumbh vivdh (pot marriage)
and is confined to the Banias of eastern Punjab.* The ritual relating to this kind
of marriage is called the Ktimhhi Vivdh Paddhati.
MISCELLANEOUS CUSTOMS-
Restric- 374. The caste is usually the endogamous gi'oup within which a Hindu must
tions on marry. But most of the castes have now got smaller groups outside which the
marriage, pei'sons belonging to one of them may not marry. Gaur and Sdrasivat Brahmans
Hindus. cannot, for instance, intermarry nor is intermarriage possible between the Vtrddhi
jmd Dakhna Aroras. An alliance between a Bhatndgar and a Mdthur Kdyastha is
impossible, and so on. On the other hand, there is an exogamous group based
usually upon the Gotra, within which a man cannot marry. The nature of the
endogamous and exogamous groups is discussed in Chapher XI (Castes).
In the lower castes, the descendants of a common ancestor are reckoned as
forming the exogamous group. 'I'his restricted circle appears to be invariably
based in one way or another upon the idea of kinship by lineal male descent. De-
scendants of brothers are collaterals, but disciples of the same Guru are reckoned as
brothers (Gur-bhdis) and descendants of these co-disciples are treated as nothing
short of collaterals. The same idea appears to have developed into a prohibition
to marry within the same village, owing to the fact that most villnges were
originally peopled by the same tribe, sub-tribe or sub-caste and the communal
tie grew so strong that foreigners taking up their abode in the village got assimi-
lated in the sub-caste, sub-tribe, etc., and ail inhabitants of one village even
including menials came to be regarded as brothers. In the eastern Punjab, where
the strength of the communal tie is still maintained in a tangible form, every
inhabitant of a village will, at the marriage of the girl, call her our daughter and
a girl is not uncommonly known as the daughter of such and such a village. In
the other parts of the Province, however, the practice lias disappeared. On the
contrary, there are still some endogamous geographical limits outside which a girl
must not be given in marriage, e.g., it is considered very extraordinary
for a girl of Delhi to be married outside the city, according to the saying —
*' Dilli ki larkt aur Mathra ki gde, Koi nirbhdg hi bihar jde". (A girl of
Delhi and a cow of Mathra, is very unlucky if required to go out). The
chiefs of the Phulkian States ai-e said to have agreed by mutual treaty,
not to allow a Jat girl to go outside their States. This may partly have been a
measure to prevent depletion of the already insufiBcient supply of females, but
it is also likely that the measure may be based upon endogamous ideas.
Besides the collaterals {sapindds or persons of one's own gotra) the Hindus are
supposed to avoid the gotra s of mother's father, father's mother's father, and
mother's mother's father, i e., four gotras altogether ; but as the prohibited circle
glows larger and larger and the endogamous group contracts, the necessity of
curtailing the restricted degrees becomes imminent. In practice, therefore, wo
see that there are very few families and hardly any sub-castes or castes who
actually leave out the four gotras in contracting alliances, although most Hindus
will, on being questioned, say that they do. Practically, however, only two gotras
are avoided, viz., one's own and that of the mother's father. But small group
avoid only the collaterals, i.e., the father's got, e.g., the Mohyal Brahmans do not
mind marrying in the family of one of the collaterals of the mother's father. It
is considered inadvisable to take a girl from the family into which a daughter of
* It has been reported only from Earnal.
4
285
T^II. MisCELLANEODs ccsTOMa. [ Punjab, 1911,
one's own family has been married,* but this injunction is very commonly ignored
and marriages by exchange are very common almost throughout the Province. In
many castes, for instance amongst the Jats, swpindds, i.e., collaterals, are avoided
only -within seven generations. Marriages outside the caste, although permitted by
Manu accordmg to the process of Anuloma {Lp., a male of a higher caste marrying
a female of a lower caste), are yet now altogether out of the question and any
person marrying outside his endogamous group, renders himself liable to excom-
munication. The only exceptions are the bodies of Reformers, who are gaining
rapidly in strength. Amongst them, inter-caste marriages are by no means
objectionable nnd one often sees in the papers matrimonial notices of the follow-
ing type :—
" Wanted : — Match for a young educated Kliatri (Hindu) of independent means,
drawing handsome salary. Girl should be 1 6 years or over, educated and beautiful. No
caate restrictions."
The prohibited degrees for marriage are simple amongst the Sikhs. A sikhs.
man must marry within his own caste, and the collaterals of the father and the
mother's father should ordinarily be avoided.
Among the Muhammadans, marriages are generally confined to one's Muhammad.
own tribe, caste or sub-caste, and where possible, alliances are arranged *°*'
between the brother's and sister's offspring as a means of retaining within
the same family, the property inherited by the boy and the girl. There
are thus no exogamous gi'oups, but the rule of endogamy is fairly general.
The convert castes, however, deprecate cousin marriages, and as far as possible
marry outside the circle of near collaterals. An interesting case is reported
irom the Hoshiarpur District, where some four years ago, in a Muhammadan
Rajput village near Jejon, a girl about 18 years old refused to marry her
first cousin, to whom she had been betrothed, on the ground that she considered
him to be her brother and urged that the Shar'a must have been planned
when there were not enough families to marry from.
Marrying outside one's caste or tribe is not against the Muhammadan
law but is looked upon as a breach of social rules. The first wife must be
taken from within the endogamous group or some tribe or caste of an equal
or higher status. Subsequent marriages are regarded as informal and the
restrictions do not apply to them as a rule.
375. There are no traces of mother-kin in this Province. Adoptive or Mother-kin.
other kinds of sons are of course recognized by the Hindu Shastras, in exceptional
cases ; but ordinarily a son must be begotten by the father from his own wife. The
Sanskrit word Sima (son) which means begotten, occurs in the earliest hymns of
the Bigveda and the idea is connected with that of a father (piteva sunave).f In
the Shastras, the idea of son-ship has been highly developed. Marriage is a
Sanshdr (sacrament) and the son has secular as well as religious duties to perform
towards the father. Then it is said" Angddavridt samhhavasi hridayddadhi jdyase,
dtmdvdi putrndmdsi jivatwam sharadah shaiam" (Thou art produced from each limb
and born out of the heart, indeed Thou art the self named the son, live thou a
hundred autumns). { This formula is recited at the Ndma Kama tianshdr
(name-giving) being addressed by the father to the son, and is intended ^
to signify the recognition of the son by the father. A Hindu is not supposed to
be admitted into society until this SansMr has been performed. So
far therefore as the Hindu Shastras are concerned, the connection between
eon-ship and marriage seems to be absolute.
In the form of polyandry pi-evailing in this Province, the sons begotten
by the husbands are all called the sons of the oldest husband or each of them is
assigned to one of the husbands; but they are not known as the sons of the mother.
Mother-kin does not appear to be an Aryan institution. Nor is there any trace
here now, of the custom cf the Vahikds mentioned in the Mahdhhdrla {Kama
Parva). Nowhere docs the sister's son inherit in preference to the deceased
person's own son.
• Amongst the 11 uhammadans, it is a common practice to eichange daughters,
t Higvedal, I. 9.
JNiruktiilll, 4.
Census Report,]
286
MISCELLANEOUS CUSTOMS.
Chaptee-
Functions
performed
by certain
kins in cere
menials.
Marriage
by service.
The share taken by the n]othei''s brotlier and the father's sister in marriage
ceremonies seems to be due to other causes than the effects of mother-kin in the
primitive stages of civilization. At the completion of the brahmacharya dskrama
(student Ufe) in the days when the dshrama dharma was duly enforced, the
father did not urge the return of his son from his preceptor's hermitage. Bat
the tender feelings of the mother could not bear the sepai^ation of the son, longer
than Tvas absolutely necessary. She therefore sent her brother, than -whom,
she could have no trustier messenger, to the preceptor's hermitage, to
persuade the boy to return home with the preceptor's permission, -with a
view to enter the second, i. e., the grihasti (houaehold) dshrama. At this
juncture, the mother's brother promised to arrange the marriage of the boy.
The ceremony called samdivartaiia is etill celebrated at the conclusion of
the 7/a(7z/opu?;fta (sacred thread) investiture. It is in fulfilment of the promise
made by him, that the mother's brother takes a share in the arrangement
and celebration of the boy's marriage. The general interest of the maternal
grandfather's house in the grand-children is moreover natural. Although the^
Patria Potesta ends ■when the daughter is given away in marriage,
yet tlie father's interest in the daughter does not cease and although, having
given her away as a sacred gift, he has no claim over her or her husband, (he
keeps giving pre.sents to them but cannot receive any), yet he has a claim on his
daughter's sons though in a smaller degree than on his son's sons. He can accept
presents from the dauojhter's sons, eat at their house and the latter have the right
to perform his shrddh after his death. It is on this principle that his son, i.e.,
the maternal uncle shares with his sister's husband, of course to a limited extent,
the gifts received from the parents of the girl, to whom his sister's son is
married. Where a bride-price is paid, the mother's brother seldom, in this Pro-
vince, receives a share unless, of course, the alliance has been arranged by him.
The father's sister comes in as a daughter of the family and is entitled to share in
all festivities concerning her brothers. For instance she, and, in her absence, the
bridegroom's sister, has a right to demand a gift from her brother or father as
the case may be, before allowing the party to start on the marriage procession
or to enter their home with the bride, on return from the marriage. As the
senior lady, entitled to receive gifts, the father's sister is asked to perform all
remunerative ceremonies in preference to others.
376. Special functions are assigned to certain relations in certain cere-
monials. The maternal uncle takes an important part in the marriage of both a boy
and a girl and in other sacramental ceremonies concerning the boy. The maternal
grandffither of a boy or a girl is treated as the elder samdhi (samhandhi) or
Kuram at a mai-riage and has to contribute gifts at ii girl's marriage while he
partakes of the gifts received, at a boy's marriage. The younger brother of a
boy has to officiate as his junior {.sarbdhla) at his marriage and the bride's
younger sisters act as her bride's-maids.
377. The familiar form of marriage by service found in this Province, is
that in which a daughter is married to a ghar^jaivdi (resident son-in-law) who has to
live permanently with the girl's parents and work for them at their profession —
agriculture, trade or whatever it may be. This happens only when the girl's
father has no son. The work done by the son-in-law may be taken as the
bride-price, but he gets a return for it, in so far that he either inherits the
property of his father-in-law, retaining his own got (family name) or more
generally his eldest son is adopted by his father-in-law, who is thus able to
continue his lineal male descent, while the son-in-law pains by one of his sons
inheriting the ])roperty of bis father-in-law. The younjjer sons retain the got
of their own family. In the latter case, one of the daughter's sons is adopted into
the family but all her children do not belong to the mother's clan as of right.
The co-existence of this custom with a strong sense of the agnatic tie and the adop-
tion of a boy other than the daughter's son, usually from among the collaterals,
to my mind, preclude the idea of the custom being a relic of the matriarchate.
Tlie only other trace of marriage by service, which I have been able to
6nd is in the custom of persistent request called Chdkari (service) connected
with betrothal, which prevails among certain sub-castes of Khatris in the city of
Lahore. The mother of the boy in this case does the needful. She pays frequent
I
I
Ji
287
VII. MISCELLANEOUS CUSTOMS. [ Punjab, 1911.
visits to the girl's house — generally a visit a day — and offers to do all kindgof work
for the eldest lady. After a few visits, the girl's mother understands the object
and takes steps to cut them short unless she is agreeable to the alliance.
After a time the subject is broached to the girl's mother and when she accepts
the arrangement, the visits cease. This custom may either be a relic of marriage
by service or may indicate the general feeling that it is the duty of the boy's parents
to beg for the hand of the would-be bride. But what may be moi'e appropriately
called marriage by service is found in the Chamba State, where Gurkhas
— retired soldiers or others — marry Kanawari or other hill women on the condi-
tion of taking up permanent residence there. The husband works as a cultivator
for the wife if the land belongs to her or for her father, if he is alive. The women
who are rather good looking captivate these servant husbands of comparatively
advanced years and make them sweat and toil the whole day long. The offspring
of such marringes inherits the property of sonless proprietors but acquires no
right in the presence of lineal male heirs.
378, Polyandry or the custom of a woman having more husbands than Polyandry-
one at one time, is pecaliar tothe Himalayas. It exists in the Kulu Sub-Division,
the Bashahr State (Simla Hill States) and to a smaller extent in the Nahan,
Mandi and Suket States. The custom is common among the Kanets of the higher
bills, but the lower castes also practise it and the Rajputs and other castes
residing in the tracts where this custom is prevalent, also appear to have been
influenced by it.
The polyandry practised is generally of the fraternal type, known as Tibe-
tan, All the brothers in a family have usually one joint wife. Bat only full
brothers can do so, although in some cases, step-brothers and cousins who are on as
intimate terms as full brothers, are allowed to share the common wife. In rare
cases, persons belongino to different families, marry a joint wife, by agreement and
merge their separate properties into a joint holding.
The wife is married by a ceremony resembling marriage by capture
(Bdkshasd)' The rule about access to the wife is different in different places.
The elder brother usually has the preference, and it is only in his absence that
the younger brother can enjoy her company. But where the younger bro-
thers go out for trade or on other business and one of them comes back periodi-
cally, the eldest brother allows him the exclusive use of the wife during his short
visit. Where, however, all the brothers stay at home, the wife not unfre-
quently bestows her favours on all of them equally, by turn, one evening beinw
reserved for each. The house usually has two rooms, one for the wife and the
other for the husbands. When one brother goes into the wife's room, he leaves
his shoes or hat {topu) at the door, which is equivalent to the notice 'engaged,' and
if another brother wishes to visit the wife, he has, on seeing the signal to return
to the men's apartment.
All the sons of the wife by whichsoever husband begotten, are generally
called the sons of the eldest brother, but the son calls all the husbands of his
mother, as his fathers. Indeed, the lar^jer the number of father?, the prouder
the son feels. In some places, the first son is supposed to belong to the eldest
husband, the second to the second, and so on, even though the second husband
may have been absent at the time of conception of the second son. In other
cases, the wife is permitted to name the father of each boy, and if she is not par-
ticularly scrupulous, she names each time, the richest of the brothers as the father
of the boy. The brothers may, if necessary, marry a second or a thiid joint wife
or one of the brothers who may have gone out, may marry a separate wife there.
When he returns home, it depends on the choice of the wife whether slie will remain
the exclusive wife of the husband who married her or become the joint
property of the family. Cases are known in which a family of 3 brothers has
3 or as many as 4 joint wives.
Polyandry is regarded as the remnant of a primitive society, forming
a link between promiscuity and monogamy, and this seems borne out by
facta in the tribes still in the earlier stages of civilization. But tliere is
also another way of looking at the origin of the custom. The earliest signifi-
cant mention of the custom is the solitary instance of the Pandavas and
their wife Draupadi, in the Mahabharta. The exclamation of Kunti, when
288
Census Report, ] misckllankous costoms. CffAPTEit
she had given wrong orders for the joint enjoyment of what turned out to be a
princess " Kashtammaydbhashitairi" (Oh, what a hard thing I have said), and (he
fear of being the cause of sin ; — " sAdJiarmahhitd parichmtayanti,'" (she anxious
with the fear of sin and reflecting) and ber request to Yudhishtara to advise so that
her utterance may not prove untrue and yet sin may not touch the daughter of the
king of Panchala; — {mayd katham ndnrttamuldamadya hhavet hurundmrisJiahha-
braviM, Pdnchdl rdjasya sutdmadharmo nachopavarUta navihrametrha)* and the
diacnssion on the subject of legality of the marriage of one woman with
five husbands in the Mahabharta would show that the proposal was not war-
ranted by the Vedas and Shdstras and was opposed to all usage. Indeed
Vydsa clearly said : " This practice, O king, being opposed to usage
and to Vedas, hath become obsolete. "f Presuming that the practice
had existed in the primitive stage of society (long antecedent to the Vedic
period) as evidenced by the above remark of Vydsa and by the instance
of Jatdld (who had seven husbands) quoted by Yudhishtar, in Adhydya
198, it must have long ceased to exist. The obvious inference from the
Mahabharata is, that every one condemned the practice as opposed to law and
usage, but tliat in spite of its impropriety, it was allowed in this solitary case in
submission to the commands of Kunti and in view of the explanation given by
Vydsa that all this was pre-ordained. Then the five Pandavas are explained to
be the incarnations, Arjuna of Indra, Yudhishtara of Dharma, Bhim of Pavan,
Nakul and Sahadeva of Ashwini Kumdm. Had the custom been in vogue, (here
■would have been no necessity for the discussion and for the supernatural expla-
nation, nor would tlie rebuke of Kama regarding Draupadi having more than
one husbandj have been called for. It may be noted, that in spite of her mar-
riage and bearing children, Draupadi is looked upon as one of the five§ virgins
and worchipped along with the other four. And with the exception of the two
solitary instances of Jatdla and Praupndi, not a single case of polyandry has been
mentioned in the Shdstras. Might it not then be, that fraternal polyandry, as it now 4
exists, is a degenerated form of joint family (of several brothers, only the eldest
of whom is married) degenerated owing to abuse of the liberty allowed to the
younger brother with the wife of the elde-t, and a consequence of the deterioration
of morality, accelerated by the consciousness amongst castes which permit the
marriage of an elder brother's widow with one of his younger brothers, that she
might some day become the wife and possession of any of them ? In any case, the
custom does not appear to be of Aryan origin and existed among them
only in exceptional cases. It is obviously a Tibetan custom || and since
the tracts wherein it is found have long been under strong Tibetan influence,
it was evidently imported from Tibet and appears to have been rf^adily adopted
by the Kanets and other castes (who allow widow marriage) residing in the tract.
The locality of I'dnchdla is doubtful. Some identify it with a place near
Farrukhabad (U.P.) while, according to Tantra Shdstra, it was west and north
of Kurulisheira and 20 yojanas from Indraprastha. This account is confusing.
Then again thi'ee Pdnchdla Deshas are mentioned in the Mahabharta.^ Most of
the references seem to locate Pdnchdla somewhere in the North near the hills.
Perhaps the Province may have been situated in the neighbourhood of the
Pantsdl of Kashmir. If so, it might be possible to say that even in the days
of the Mahabharta, polyandry was permissible only in Pdnchdla, a tract conti-
guous to Tibet. In a Panjabi ballad about tlie invasion of Nadir Shah which has
been secured by the Hon'bie Mr. Maclagan and will probably be published shortly
a peculiar trait of the Mongolian bands following Nadir Shah is said to have been
the fact of 10 brothers enjoying one wife. This popular impression regarding the
invaders, is a strong evidence of the custom being of Mongolian origin. The custom
tends to prevent from partition, the holdings which from force of circumstances,
are extremely small, and in some States, the partition of joint property has had to
be penalized to prevent the disintegration thereof. But the facilities of communi-
• Mahibhirata Adiparva, adhyiya 193.
t Ihid. 107-199.
i Mahibhtirata Sabha Parva. lxvii, 33-36.
I The five virgins are (1) Ahalya, (2) Draupadi. (3> Tara, (4) Sita, and (5) Mandodari.
II See p. 8S, Sheong's Western Tibet and the British Borderland.
% Bhisham Parva i, 38, 41 and 47.
I
1
p\
yii.
289
MISCELLANEOUS CUSTOMS.
[ Punjab, 1911.
cation with the rest of the Province where the practice does not exist, and is
actually looked down upon, together with the influence exerted by Weatern
education, have had an appreciable effect in discouraging the cuatom. The
following quotation from the Tribune, dated the 7th June 1911, will show that
efforts have been made in the Simla Hills for eradicating this evil and primitive
custoin.
" The following notice is being widely circulated in the Simla Hill States. The
marriage custom of polyandry prevailing in the Simla District is not only obnoxious and
demoralizing in its effect but is revolting to all educated people who bestow any thought on
the social improvement of the hillmen. It is unnecessary to dilate on the evils resulting
from this disgraceful and shameful practice, and it is high time that this pernicious custom,
which is not counteuanced by any Hindu Law-giver, should be done away with altogether.
Something has no doubt been done by the Himalaya Vidya Prabodhini Sabha, Simla, in
getting up small gatherings and explaining the disadvantages of this custom to the ignorant
masses, but they are in a great degree indebted to Mr. A. B. Kettlewell, the Deputy Com-
missioner of the District, for the interest displayed by him in trying to check the prevalence
of the custom, and they cannot adequately tender their heartfelt thanks for his kindness. It
is, indeed, hoped that through his iufluence and assistance and with the co-operation of the
leading men in the Hill States, the desired end will be gained in the near future. His
BQghness the Raja of Keonthal, has graciously accepted the presidentship of the Sabha and
the meuibers and ofiBce bearers also feel that his influence and useful suggestions will be of
the utmost value in attaining the desired end."
The Jats in some of the eastern Punjab districts are stated to have
followed the custom, though without full recognition ; but enquiries show
that it has completely died out and that although, an elder brother will
still connive at his younger brother taking a certain amount of liberty with
his wife, he will not, now, wink at connubial relationship between them.
The Pan jabi proverb — " Garib di rann jane Ichane di bhdbi" [The poor man's
wife is every Dick, Tom and Harry's sister-in-law (brother's wife) ] shows that
among the rural population consisting mostly of Jats, a certain amount of
liberty (resented in the case of outsiders) was allowed to brothers of the hus-
band,* but this type of polyandry appears to have been the result of abuse of
the privilege above alluded to.
At the Census of 1901 statistics were collected to show the number of
husbands married in polyandric castes in Kangra
and Bashahr (see Subsidiary Table XVIII to
Chapter IV of the Punjab Census Report, 1901).
No such figures have been obtained this time,
but the excess of married males over females in
the sub-divisions named in the margin, is a clear
indication of the prevalence of this custom, in the
Nahan and Bashahr States. The figures of the
polyandric people in the Kullu Sub-Division or
in the small Lahul tract in Cliamba, do not
appear to be large enough to affect the total
=■ statistics of even the smaller units.
Polyandry is confined to the Upper Himalayas— i.e., Spiti, Lahul and Siraj
in Kullu ; Chamba Lahul in Chamba, Siraj in Mandi, Rampur, Chini (including
Kanawar) and the upper minor States in Bashahar (State) and the trans-Giri
part of the Nahan State.
379. Among the Hindus there is no hmit to the number of wives which a Polygamy,
man may marry. Manu (IX, 85) seems to allow more wives than one. The usual
practice, however, is that except the Ruling chiefs who generally have numerous
wives, a man may have but one, and does not marry a second wife during the
lifetime of the first, unless the latter fails to bear a son, suffers from some infirmity
or disease making her unfit to keep the house, is false to her husband, or there
is some disagreement between her and her husband (or his parents) for some
other reason. Taking a second wife under such circumstances is permitted by
Manu (IX, 80 and 81). In the last mentioned case, the second wife may be married,
with or without the consent of the first. The sister of the fir.st wife is seldom
given in marriage to her husband during her lifetime, although at the death of
Married.
Males.
Females
Nahan State.
Total
Nahan
Pawta
Rainka
43,568
3,500
7,128
21,661
36,868
3,255
5,912
1&.91S
Bashahr State.
Rampar
Chini
Delath
8,3 U
3,992
340
7,351
3,609
336
• The elder brutl.er's wife is supposed to look after the younger brothers, while according to custom tb&
younger brother s wife does not appear before the elder brother.
290
Census Report, ] misckllaneocs cdstous. Chaptee
the elder sister, a young sister is often married to the same man, and among
the Ruling chiefs, instance of two sisters being given in marriage at the same
time to the same man are not uncommon.
Among the castes (Jats, &c.) -which allow widow marriage, polygamy
is permitted in certain cases. In order to keep the family property, a deceased
brother's wife has to be remarried by karewa to her husband's surviving
brother. There is no objection to the widow marrying her deceased husband's
elder brother, bat if there is a younger brotlier, au alliance with him is considered
preferable.
Amongst the Muhammadans, a man may have four wives living at any one
time, but ordinarily h Muhammadan has but one wife. Except in the educated
classes, however, the first thing a Muhammadan will do, when he can afford a
luxury IS to many a second wife, and if means permit, he will very soon go to the
full limit of four. In the western Punjab, among the richer Muhammadans
polygamy is the rule, rather than the exception. The first wife is married within
the early years of youth at the choice of the parents. The second marriage based
usually on some love affair takes place as soon as the son gains independence.
Then follows the marriage of his own choice in mature years, and a fourth wife
is generally married when the first one or two gi'ow old. It is not uncommon to
nominally divorce the first or second wife, to bring a fifth one within the fold of
the Sha7''a (law). The divorced wife nevertheless, remains under her former
husband's protection. But even where this custom is very prevalent, as in the
western Punjab, having more wives than one is looked upon with disfavour,
according to the saying : — Dion zdlin dd vanara, jun dun huttidn vich stir ; which
means, " husband of two wives is like a pig between two dogs."
The Muhammadan Rajputs of the Punjab, while admitting the license
given by the Shar'a state that the Customary Law forbids a man to marry a
second wife unless his fii'St wife fails to give birth to a son.
Hypergamy. Z^^. Tho process of Amdoma permitted (but not prescribed) by Manu, by
which a male member of a higher varna could take a wife from a lower varna, may be
said to contain the germs of hypergamy. But the term, as now understood, is
restricted to marriage within the endogamou? group which is the nearest approach
to the varna of old, and .is such, has no connection with the union of one varna
with another referred to by Manu. Hypergamy is regarded as the ideal choice
so far as the female is concerned. It seems to be the outcome of a desire to find
the most suitable match for a daughter, and while the practice seems to have
begun in attempts of individuals to give their daughters into families of higher
social status, it crystallized into a rigid rule, the disregard of which came to be
penalized. The bonds of the whole social fabric being now in a state of relaxation,
owing partly to the spread of education and partly to mercenary considerations,
radical changes in social status are taking place, and instances are not wanting of
men of high social standing giving their daughters into families of a much lower
status, who possess wealth or prospects, or to promising young men of education,
but of low birth who belong to the same caste or sub-caste, i.e., to the same
endogamous group.
Its origin. The usage is held by some to have originated with the invading races,
who brought few women with them and made wives of captives from among the
people whom they conquered. So far as the Hindus are concerned, this view is
opposed to the theory that the Aryans brought their women with them.
Moreover once the Aryans had established themselves, the custom should
have died out as the later invasions were by Muhammadans, with whom marriage
was not allowed and took place only in exceptional cases by force or by coercive
persuasion. On the contrary, the system appears to have developed most
vigorously in more recent times and particularly in tracts, least open to foreign
invasion, e.jf. Bengal. It must, therefore, be due principally to some other cause.
Hypergamy in one form or another, prevails throughout the world. In Europe,
for instance, a girl of high birth marrying a man of lower status, meets with
universal disapproval and reprobation. On the other hand, a man marrying a
wife from a lower social grade, meets with less severe criticism. Amongst the
Muhammadans in India, hypergamy is equally marked in inter-tribal marriages.
A iSayad can, for istance, take a wife from any other caste or tribe but no other
291
VII. MISCELLANEOUS CDSTOM?. [ Puniab, 1911
caste may marry a Sayad girl. The Qureshi comes next. Similarly, where
Pathans are in power, they will take a Biloch or Jat wife but will not give their
daughters outside their own tribe. In south-west Punjab, the Biloch treats all
other tribes in a similar manner. With these foreign elements, therefore, the
custom is based mainly on the pride of conquest. But the preference for the
priestly class seems to be due, rather, to respect of status derived from various
traditions.
In India, where the selection of husbands for their daughters, is entirely
a parental concern uninfluenced by the feelings of the chief contracting party, it is
only natural that they should wish to provide the best possible home for their
female children who are to depend for their happiness on the earnings and social
position of their would-be husbands. Now the gradation of sub-castes within the
limits of an endogamous caste, depends largely upon the status acquired by those
groups, at one time or another, by learning, authority or wealth. Indeed many
of the groups owe their exclusive existence to one or the other of these causes.
Wishing to marry a daughter into a higher sub-caste or caste is nothing more or
less than a desire to provide happiness for the daughter and higher social status
for her children. Had the status of sub-castes changed with the rise or fall in
the literary, administrative or fiscal scale, the evil effects of the custom would never
have come into prominence. But for orthodox people like the Hindus, it was
diiS&cult to forget the status once acquired by a family and it crystallized, in
course of time, into a permanent high sub-caste, irrespective of the comparative
ignorance or poverty of the members for the time being. Indeed the ignorant and
poor adhered more tenaciously to the empty relics of ancient greatness. More-
over in a society where degradation was the rule and elevation the exception, the
circle of groups of high status, who maintained their purity, grew smaller and
smaller within each society. The development of Rajputs (sons of kings) into a
separate class from Khatris noticed in Chapter XI and the restriction of inter-
marriage of the ruling Rajput Chiefs within a still more limited circle, are
evidences of the effects of the above process.
381. Divorce is a recognized institution amongst the Muhammadans and Divorce.
Christians, but with the Hindus, Sikhs and Jains no such custom is authorised. „. ■, j •
Marriage, according to the Hindu Shastras, is a sacred union intended not and Sikhs.
merely for the procreation of species or mutual happiness but also for the
performance of religious duties ; and is irrevocable. Mutual fidelity terminating
with death alone is inculcated (Manu, IX, 101). By being assimilated to the
husband's family (goira), the wife is supposed to become incapable of disclaiming
her connection with that gotra and uniting herself to another, " for once only is
^ girl given in marriage, once only one says, " Let me give" (Manu, IX, 47).
There are provisions for a wife being overmarried (Manu, IX, 80-81), the husband
keeping away from the wife (Manu, IX, I, 77) or her being punished and even
devoured by dogs for infidelity (Manu, VIII, 871), but a wife overmarried must
be looked after. The wife may be abandoned if she was married to her husband
under deceit or without his knowledge or if she is corrupt (Manu, IX, 72-73), but
even when abandoned she remains his wife. On the contrary, a husband even if
immoral {Visliilah Jcdm Vrittovd) is, according to Manu, to be respected by a good
wife. Cases of a woman marrying a second tirue, if deserted by her husband or
separated from him at her own desire, are alluded to by Manu, but they were
looked upon with disfavour and the offspring of the second husband was known
as punarbhava (Manu, IX, 175). It is believed by some Sanskrit scholars that the
position of women fell from that in the Vedic and Epic times, till under the
Brahmauic influence it became one of degradation, etc. The Sati and child-
widowhood are quoted as instances of the life of woman becoming one long
imprisonment, but others, though regarding compulsory Sati as a cruel custom,
express the highest admiration for the heroic termination of the true love of the
real subject.* On the other hand, the system resulting in enforced widowhood
would appear to have its redeeming feature in the absence of enforced maiden-
hood. The respect of woman shown in the Vedas is found in the Epics and
was developed in the later Shastras. " Where women are honoured, there the goda
* See the interestiug article on the Woman Soul of India, by E. M. Cesareaco, in the Eaet and Wat foe
Jannary 1911, pp. 17 et seq.
Census Eeport. ]
292
MISCELLANEOUS CUSTOMS.
Chapter
Mohammad-
ans.
Premarital
commun-
ism.
rejoice ; but where tliey are not honoured there all rites are fruitless. Where
women grieve that family quickly perishes, but where they do not grieve that
ever prospers."* Individual cases excepted, woman, to this day, plays a most
important part in the social and religious life of a householder, a fact which
is only too well known to Hindus who (lave had the advantage of an
elderly lady in the family. It is held by Letourneau,! that the subordinate
position of woman (as in Hindu society) is a mark of the earlier stages of
civilization, and that the process of development of woman's rights finally results
in the recognition of the institution of divorce. The drift of modern
society would appear to support this conclusion, but it is a question whether
there will not be a reaction and whether experience will not lead people to
revert to the primitive state of society in which the wife did not merely respect
her husband as an equal but adored him as the embodiment of all that is good,
indeed as God in man, and the hnsband looked upon the wife as the predestined
partner of his home whom it was a sacred duty to please and protect.
The Jains and Sikhs follow the Hindus, but in all the other religions,
marriage, though a religious ceremony, is yet a social anion capable of being
terminated at the husband's will or at the instance of the wife.
Among the lower castes (specially menials) of Hindus and Sikhs, a wife is
sometimes given up on account of infidelity without uny ceremony, but usually on
payment of a sum of money. This only happens when she carries on a Zmison with
some other man and the husband is powerless to stop it. The husband then
accepts a price, for the wife, more or less than that paid by him, and the man
who pays the money marries the woman by karewa. A custom which may be
considered equivalent to divorce exists in the western Punjab and other tracts,
among those people who have, on account of paucity of females in their brother-
hood, to buy females brought in from other parts of the Province or country and
marry them with only a nouiinal ceremony and sometimes with none. In such
cases the husband, if he disapproves of the wife, usually passes hor on to some-
body else at a smaller price than that he paid for her.
Amongst Muhammadans a wife may be divorced for infidelity, disobedi-
ence, blasphemy or without assigned cause, and the annulment is effected by
saying, to the wife, in the presence of two witnesses, "I divorce thee." If this
is said once or twice, the woman can be remarried to her former husband. But
if repeated three times, the divorce becomes absolute and irrevocable, and the
woman must marry some one else and be divorced by him, before she can return
to her former husband. Among the converts from Hinduism, however, the
higher castes still cherish their traditions about the indissolubility of marriage,
and some of the Muhammadan tribes of foreign extraction also disapprove of
divorce. Among the Shias divorce is rare and the long procedure prescribed
usually act3 as an obstacle to adopting this extreme step.
382. Premarital communism was apparently not unknown to early legis-
lators. Manu, for instance, provided for the gift of a girl who had lost her virginity^
But the recognition of the position of the son of an unmarried girl as a mem-
ber of the family, though not as an heir, obviously refers to the case of offspring
from a dasi (slave-girl) not formally married, and does not appear to validate sexual
relationship before marriage, nor is such freedom allowed now as a matter of
course, in any part of tli« Province ; although among the menial classes, it is not
uncommon for a grown up girl, who is not married suflSciently early, to elope
with a lover and then for tlie latter to arrange to pay for her hand and to
celebrate a regular marriage. The practice also extends to certain castes of a
better status who do not give their girls in marriage early. Cases of this type
of abduction are common amongst the Khattaks and to some extent amongst
the Nifizi Pathans of the Mianwali District and the Jats of the western Punjab.
Among the Khattaks of the Isakhel Tahsil, the practice is recognized more or
less as a custom (called udhdld) and in one village called Mitha Khattak, there are
few wives who were not married by this process. The girl is abducted by the
man of her choice or is allowed by the pai-ents to be taken away by the man
• Manu, 111,56-57.
t Evolution of Marriage and Family, pp. 247-2-18,
293
YJI. MISCELLANEOUS CUSTOMS. L Punjab 1911.
most suited to be her husband. The relatives of the man then approach the girl's
parents to arrange the terms on which she might be given away to her sedacer.
The couple do not return until all details have been settled, when tbey are
brought back and married witli due ceremony. If an agreement cannot be arriv-
ed at, the man is permitted to return the woman, on payment of a penalty usually
Rs. 15 to Rs. 25 to be determined by the brotherhood, who have to be presented
with a sheep for a feast. On payment of the penalty which is called sliaram, the
man is re-admitted to the society without the least stigma. The girl is thought
none the worse of for her temporary disappearance. Indeed it is considered a
distinction for a girl to have had more lovers than one, before her marriage,
and tx) have eloped witli everyone of them. For, the more a girl is sought after
the more attractive is she considered and a fitter object to be won. Bat even
, among communities who allow this usage, the elopement of a girl with a
man not belonging to the tribe is strongly objected to. In the Bhangikhel
Khattaks, who set a high value on a wife, a heavier penalty is imposed if a
Khattak girl is abducted by a menial, viz., carpenter, smith, etc. (the sum
is fixed in the Customary law at Rs. 500). But in the case of a Khattak
abducting a Khattak girl or the daughter of a menial, the penalty is lighter
(Rs. 300). The difference in the prices has been fixed arbitrarily with reference
to the respective social status of the land-owning classes and the menials,
but the real cause of the distinction seems to be, that connubial liberty is
allowed only within the tribe. This custom is peculiar to the tract above
referred to and does not appear to exist anywhere else in the Province. Among
the Hindus, abduction, though occurring to a considerable extent in the lower
classes, is nowhere recognized. Among the Jats of the central and eastern
Punjab and among the higher castes, nothing gives greater offence than the
abduction of an unmarried girl, and instances in which Pathans, Rajputs,
Jats, etc., have murdered the abducted girl or her seducer or both, are
not rare.
383. As a matter of principle, a wife is expected by all religions and Freedom
castes to be perfectly chaste and true to her husband. But it is an open secret after marri-
that laxity of morals prevails amongst all grades of society to a large or small extent, age.
The menial classes do not as a rule take serious notice of the looseness of their
women's character and there are certain castes like the Pernas, Mirasis, etc., whose
women make a profession of prostitution. But even among some castes who do
not connive at such liberty (for instance, the Pathans and Jats in the western
Punjab), a son born to a wife during her elopement is not disowned by her
husband, if she eventually comes back to bis protection. There are instances of
such sons born from a lover during a wife's abduction having been recognized
and having inherited the property of his mother's lawful husband. In the
castes (Hindu or Muhammadan) which do not allow widow-marriage, the son
has to be owned of necessity in such cases. A case akin to this is that in which
a widow marries a second husband and is delivered of a child shortly after the
marriage. This son is in most places owned by the second husband instead of
being treated as a step-son, no matter by whom he may have been begotten.
The idea underlying these two customs seems to be that the woman is consider-
ed to be the property of the husband and consequently the husband is supposed
to have the right to own the child born in the wedlock. If he disowns the child,
he has also to discard the wife. On the other hand, the desire to have a male
offspring, which accounts for the custom of Niyoga, among the Hindus, mention-
ed by Manu, though with disapproval, and which among the working classes
is based upon the necessity of having more working hands, seems to have gone
a long way to popularise the acceptance of illegitimate sons. These facts
would show that the custom does not necessarily imply acquiescance in the
infidelity of wives. The toleration by menial classes of the adultery of their
wives with their superiors is based upon the force of circumstances. Where
abduction is more seriously dealt with, the penalty for abducting a married woman
is heavier than that for eloping with a virgin or a widow. The Niazi Pathans of
Mian wall, for instance, demand two shurams (girls) in lieu of one virgin or
widow abducted aud four sharams (girls) with or without damages in lieu of one
married woman.
Census Report, J
294
MI9CKLLANE0DS CDSTOMS.
Chapter
Promiscu- 384. In his Primitive Paternity, HaT-tland observes* that father-right in ita
ity- origin has nothing to do with tbe consciousness of blood relationsbip and
supports this view by a consideration of the sexual relation of tbe peoples in the
lower culture. He alludes to instances of sexual liberty before or after marriage
in attending upon guests. This custom prevails in the eastern parts of Chamba
where to this day tbe duties of hospitality in the case of a male gueat do not end
with feeding him and making him comfortable, but in the evening, the females of
the house anoint his forehead and body with sandal or other odoriferous substances
and wait on him to the exclusion of the males. Sexual liberty is thus invited and
no offence is taken of it, at all events, in respect of married females. The off-
spring resulting from such unions is distinguished in no way from the other child-
ren of the host. But here again, the idea of the product of either the land or the
seed, belonging to the owner of the land seems to be at tbe bottom of the
acknowledgment of tbe offspring. It is only another instance of freedom after
marriage. But in dealing with customs, the low morality of unmarried females in
certain tracts should be left out of account. The gi-eat antiquity of the civiliza-
tion of this p^u't of the country has obliterated all traces of the relation of
sexes in the primitive condition of society, but a story given in the Mahdhhdrta
is of interest as showing that the theory of promiscuity preceding monogamy is
not opposed to the traditions of olden times which were then known. Svetaketu,
son of Bishi TJdddldka, was taken aback at an unknown person asking his
mother, in presence of his father and himself to accompany him for enjoyment.
Udddlaka showed no signs of annoyance nor did he stop his wife. Questioned
by tbe enraged Svetahetn, Ddddlahi explained that in the old times women were
unrestrained and independent, enjoying themselves as best they liked, that they
did not then adhere to their husbands and yet they were not regarded as com-
miting a sin, for that was the sanctioned usage of old.t On this Svetaketu
resolved to stop the indecent usage and he introduced monogamy.}:
Infiuence of 385. The general belief is that contact with a higher civilization im-
civilization proves the standard of sexual morality amongst a more backward people, and
on sexual this appears true to a very considerable extent ; for on the one hand the spread
morality, of education in this Province has driven away the polyandric inclination of
the Jats in many districts ; and even in the higher hills where polyandry is a
recognised institution, strenuous efforts are being made to abolish it. But
it also seems to be more or less true that the creation of the ideas of female
liberty in a semi-educated state of society and the enforcement of a law in which
the woman is not held criminal, when she is abducted or enticed away, has
certainly had a marked effect in lowering the standard of chastity among
women. Whether owing to the lenient treatment of criminals in offences
against marriage laws or to a paucity of females, cases of chat type have been
largely on the increase and the following remarks of His Honour the Lieute-
nant-Governor in the review of the Criminal Administration Report, 1909-10,
throw much light on the subject,
« « * * •
" Our Courts still manif*^et an utter inability to deal with matrimonial cases. Of
12,059 persona brought to trial for offences under sections 493 — 98, Indian Penal Code,
only 783 were convicted. There is no doubt that in the future some form of legislation
will be necessary to protect the contract of matrimony by registration or some more tangible
form than is done at present. His Honour is fully aware tliat such legislation could only be
originated by tlie people, but it is quite obvious that when the omission of the ceremony even
with a virgin is not seldom condoned, the data that the courts have to work on, in matri-
monial capes are lamentably meagre. The decrease in morality which appears to have
followed the falling off in the number of women in the Province, which is so marked a feature
of the rocont Censna, is much to be regretted, and tlie whole question is one for the earnest
consideration of active and earnest social Reformers."
Purdah 386, Tbe social Reformers of the day generally condemn the Purdah system
system. (seclusion of women) as a foreign institution dating from the Muhammadan inva-
sions. But this view is apparently erroneous. Traces of the system though not
in its present form are found at least as far back as the Epic period and in the
• Vol II., p. 102.
t Mahibhirta Adiparva CXXII, 3 and 4.
+ Ibid, Terses 8 •( (eg.
295
VII. MISCELLANEODS COBTOMS. [PUDJab, 1911
Code of Manu. The perpetual tutelage of women is advocated by Manu. " The
father protects her in childhood, the husband in youth, the son in old age, hence
a woman is never fit for independence."* Then it is laid down that woman
should be preserved even from very ordinary social intercourse (with males), t
She must not be taught by other than the father, uncle or brother,J and she can
only be educated at hfime,§ i.e., education of females at schools was prohibited.
Amongst the six faults of a woman pointed out by Manu, one is Atanam\\
which means wandering outside the house ; so that a woman was not expected to
go about unrestricted in streets, etc. That covering the face ((?/iu?jd) was not
unknown even in very early times, appears from the passage in the Ramayana^
where it is said that iSita, when she came to Rama in a public assemblage, after
the fall of Lanka, had covered her face with a cloth out of modesty ; and the
idea of a veil is found in the passage of thesame book where Rama asks Vibhishana
to bring Sita without trying to remove the men from the way, which he was try-
ing to do, for he said, "A woman's virtue is her best veil."** Rama also explain-
edtt that on six occasions, viz., in distress, famine, war, Swayamhar (marriage
by selection), Yajna and marriage, it is not objectionable for a woman to be seen.
The obvious inference is that on other occasions it was considered improper for
a woman to appear in public. The code of morality preached, also appears to
have been very high. For instance, when Sita had been carried off by Havana and
Rama asked Lakshmana to go in search of her, the latter expressed his inability
to recognize her, for he had never seen her arms or face, but was only familiar
with her feet having constantly seen them when bowing to her.Jf There are
also traces of it in the Mahabharta, for Draupadi appeared before Narada with
a veiled face.§§ Similarly it is said in the Punch Tantra that a man should look
upon the wives of others like his own mother. It is difficult to maintain in th&
face of all the above facts, that the seclusion of woman is a recent innovation.
Amongst the Hindus, this custom is still universal to a certain degree, for in every
grade of society, even among the poorest classes, an unmarried girl is not
allowed to go about unrestricted, while the married women will conceal their faces
from the elder male members of the family or from those whom they respect.
Abuses have no doubt crept in, and at the present day, while the rule is observed
in the case of the elders of the family and sometimes also in case of the husband
when he meets the wife in presence of others, yet the women do not mind appear-
ing with faces uncovered before others with whom they should, according
to the old rules, show more reserve. Nevertheless the custom is very old. With
the Muhammadans, the case is somewhat different. According to the Shar'a
(Muhammadan law) a woman may not appear before a person, whom it is pnssible
for her to marry, but the seclusion of women is confined only to the well-to-do
classes. Except some of the Hindu converts, who still adhere to their old
customs, the masses of the Muhammadans and particularly the poorer classes
make no pretence of Purdah. The Sayads, Qureshis, Pathans, Mughals,
Biloches and other high castes or tribes keep their women in seclusion, biit Sayads
and Qureshis excepted, the rule is not universal. For instance, the Niazi Patlian
peasants in the Mianwali District or the Biloch agriculturists of Muzaffargarh
have no scruples about their women appearing in public. The well-to-do
people, of course, observe strict Purdah. Even the Pawinda women of
Afghanistan who come down with their husbands during; the winter, go about
with faces unveiled, while compared with them the labouring classes of the
Hindus do make at least a pretence of reserve by concealing their faces from their
elderly kith and kin, at all events, at certain occasions. Even at the present
day, therefore, the Purdah system though most strictly enforced by some Muham-
madans is not a general usage amonfj;st them like the Hindus. It is therefore, not
correct to say tliat the Hindus have borrowed the custom from the Muhammadans.
387. The practice of circumcision is general amony the Muhammadans. Circumci-
It was started by Hazrat Ibrahim |||1 who had himself circumcised at the age of sion.
• Mauu IX 3.
tM..nuIX5.
i Yam* Bujiriti.
I Ilarita Dbarm Sutra.
D Manu IX 13.
i; Balmiki Eamayan VI 117H4.
•• Balmiki Uamayan VI 1 1734. Ibid 27.
tt Balmiki Ramayan VI 11734. Ibid 26.
it Balmiki Ramayan IV 26' U.
§§ Mahabharta Adipaiva CClX,
For the order to Ibrahim see first Boole of Moses, XVI— 9— 14.
1
Census Report, ]
296
HISCBLLANEOnS COSTOUS.
Chaptkb
80 and then submitted his son Hazrat Ismail to the operation, on the seventh day
of his birth.
Males. 358, Tije Prophet had his grandsons, Sassan and Hussain circumcised
similarly on the seventh day of the birth of each (see Eadis Abuharaira). lu the
Koran, the term Hunafan or Eanifan is interpreted as one who has been
circumcised {Sipara I, Raq. IG).* The strict observers of the Shar'a, still
perform the ceremony on or before the seventh day of a boy's birth along with
the Aqigd.f But tiie rule with the masses seems to be that it may take place at any
time before the age of puberty, and so the people who have not the wherewithal
to celebrate the ceremony early, postpone it to a convenient time not later
than the twelfth year of the boy's age. The usual practice, however, seems to
be to perform the operation between the second and the eighth year. The
ceremony is made the occasion of festivities on a large or small scale, as means
permit, but it is celebrated every where with rejoicings, as a step towards
marriage, and is usually called Shddi (literally rejoicings, but used commonly
for marriage) and sometimes Chhoti Shddi or the small marriage. The operation
consists of the removal of the prepuce and is usually performed by the barber.
A thin piece of wood — like a pencil — is introduced into the foreskin, to ascertain
the length of the prepuce, which is then drawn forward, placed between a split
bamboo (bhagidri) and removed by a sharp razor. The boy is often drugged before
the time fixed for the operation. A little bhang (cannabis sativa) being generally
administered either in the form of taffy or mixed in sharbat (sweet water). Tom-
toms are beaten at the time of the operation and some sort of music is played
obviously as a mark of rejoicing but, perhaps, also to drown the cries of the child.
The boy's attention is diverted to some object while the barber goes quickly
through the operation, and a handful of sugar is put into his mouth to appease
his wrath at his subjection to the pain. He is then seated in a bucket full of
water to stop the bleeding. Various devices are now employed in order to
minimise the pain. The commonest innovation is the application of cocain
to benumb the part to be excised, and the more sensitive and enlightened
parents sometimes have the operation performed ujider chloroform. The ceremony
is attended with a feast and the distribution of gifts, etc., almost on the same
scale as at a wedding.
Temaies. 389. Circumcision of females is so little known in the Province that certain
Deputy Commissioners were taken aback at the enquiry which they thought was
likely to offend the feelings of the Muhammadans. In the notes received from
the Census Commissioner, it was said that the practice was known to exist in
Baluchistan and Baroda, but a Muhammadan official of very high position
remarked that he would not bs surprised if the reports from these two Provinces
were the creations of the imaginations of the reporters. Enquiries have, however
phown that the practice exists in one of the Districts of the Province, viz., Dera
Ghazi Khan. The Deputy Commissioner at first reported that the practice was
confined to the Jampur Tahsil which was an exception, but a subsequent report
has given the information generally for the whole District. It appears to be
primarily a Biloch custom, but has been adopted more or less generally throughout
the District in consequence of the strong Biloch influence. In the eighties the
practice appears to have been cottimon among the Jats of Muzaffargarh and was
not unknown in Multan as the following extracts will show: —
" The custom of circumcising females by excision of the tip of the clitoris, is commoo
among the Musalman Jat peasantry of MuZHilargarh. It appears to be regarded as a reli-
tjicius rite, and not to be based upon any idea that the operation tends to preserve the
<}hastitv of women. A correspondent informs me that the same custom prevails in Bombay,
■especially among the older wotcen. (Denzil Ibbetson.) "J
" Female circumcision. A case of the kind occurred in the city of Multan some time
ago, and attracted considerable attention, being so unusual. The operation was self-inflicted,
•Reference is made to nazrat Ibrahim in III, 15, IV1,V15, VIMS, Vin-7, 16, XIV 22, but further on the
custom is mentioned without allusion to him (XVII 11, XXI-7. XXX23). , , .
I On the seventh day of birth the child's head is shaved. Two goats or sheep m the case of a male and one
animal in the rase of a female child are sacrificed simultaneously. The meat is cooked and distributed to friends, etc.,
none of the family partaking of it. The crop of hair is weighed against silver which is given away to the poor. Tho
blood of the slaughtered animal, the skin, the bones, etc., and all leavings are buried in a pit inside the houao together
with the crop of hair.
+ Punjab Notes and Queries for 1884.85, Vol. I, page 57, pura. 677.
297
YII. BiETH cosTOMs. [ Punjab, 1911.
and bad certainly no religious bearing. Vanity was the motive. This iuformation was
received from a Multau Jiluhammadan. (M. Millet)"*
The operation consists of removing the clitoris and labia minora and is
performed by the wives of barbers or Mirasis. It is never accompanied by
infibulation,t as the object is not to prevent sexual intercourse.
390. Unlike the circumcision of male children, the operation in case of Rfasons for
girls is not ascribed to the Shar'a, the object mentioned in the Dera Ghazi Khan *'"' p™'''"^-
report is to keep the private parts free of impurity and to facilitate early
conception. But those well versed in the Shar'a hold that it prescribes the
circumcision of both male and female children.^ The operation is stated to
be the outcome of jealousy between the two wives of Hazrat Ibrahim, Hajara
cutting off a portion of the private parts of her co-wife Saira out of vengeance
and With a view to minimise her passion for the husband. Bur, ever since
then it became a rule prescribed for the Hanafis and the descendants of
Ibrahim. § It is laid down that by removing only a small portion, the face
becomes bright and the passion for the husband increases and when too mucti
is cut off, the female becomes incapable of cohabitation. But the people among
whom the custom is in vogue follow it t\s ri matter of course without knowing
the rationale of it.
The circumcision of female children is not made an occasion of public
stow like that of the males.
391. It is said that the Tibetans generally circumcise the boys, but enquiries Circumcisioa
made at Kulu and Bashahr do not disclose the existence of this practice except ^"^,^"1^3
among the Muhammadans. The information, however, relates to the inhabitants of
western Tibet, who alone are in touch with the tracts above mentioned, and it is
possible that the custom may exist among the inhabitants of eastern Tibet.
392. Thei'e are certain relations whose names may not be mentioned Restriction
among the Hindus, e.g., a husband may not mention his wife's name nor the wife on the use
her husband's. The usual way to get over the difficulty is by saying so and of the name
so's father or mother. Nor may a daughter-in-law mention her father-in-law's of certain
name, or that of any other elder relation of her husband, she can only mention kin.
them by the term of relationship, the form of address being generally the same
as that used by the husband. The custom prevails amongst the Muhammadans,
only where they have been closely associated with the Hindus or are still largely
under the influence of Hindu tradition.
BIRTH CUSTOMS.
393. The celebration of the Uajodarshna Sanskdra at the first appearance Puberty
of the menses has gone out of vogue, but in the Himalayas certain rites which aim ceremonies,
at the early impregnation of young married girls are still observed. In Simla
certain Mantras are written by a Brahman on two pieces of paper at the occasion
and one of these is tied round the neck and the other round the waist of the girl.
Among the Bohras of Suket, the girl bathes after 4 days and some fruits are
placed in her lap, Ganesh puja is performed and • tUibrus (sweet cakes) are
distributed among the friends and relatives. The father of the girl sends her
some sweets and a baggd (suit of clothes). The following quotation refers to an
interesting ceremony performed at the first menstruation after consummation of
'e : —
>
The first menstruation after the marriage has been consummated, is the occasion
of a strict tabu in Maudi. The wife must touch no one, and should not even see any one,
to i^ecure which, she is shut up in a dark room. 8he must not use milk, oil or meat, and
while she is still impure the followintj rite is performed : — 0a a day chosen as auspicious by
a Brahman, all the wife's female relatives assemble, and the kJDswomon wash her head
* Punjab Notes and Queries for I88i-85, Vol. H, page 21, para. 128.
t In the old clays iniibulalion appears to l.ave teen resortei to by sensitive and over-suspicioua husbands to
prevent tlie li:fKlelity of their wives during their absence. Indigenous stories of this nature, which relate to both Hindus
and Muhammadans, describe the stitching together of the (atm by means of a metallic ring, when the husbund went
outfor a longish jieriod ana the ring was not supposed to be removed till he returned home. But no traces cf the
pmctice are fouhd now and from the lotal BLsence of any account of the process in the ancient Hindu books, it
appears likely, that ihe practice was of comparatively recent origin and ol ehort duration.
+ Major AC. Elliot, Deputy Commissioner, Gnrda^pur, who seems to have made a special study of the sub-
ject, refers lo the dictum of Sir Itichard burton thdt circumcision of fi-males wa-; universal in all Muhammadan coun-
tries, and tays that the excinion of the clitoris is accompanied by elongation of the labia minora and not by e.\cision of
the latter part. Hp ascribes the practice to— (1) the dc»ire ol the operator to obtair, a fee for both 6eie^ (2) the
prevention tf hysteria from sexual causes. But the pract ce does not prevail in his district and his conclusions are
based on information connected with the Negroes of Africa.
§ Tarikh-i-Tabri, Vol. I, page U7, Edilion Newal Kishore Press, and fiozat-ns-Safa, Vol. I page 37, Edition 1883.
Census Report, .]
298
BIETH CCBTOMS.
Chapteb
with gondhana. Then, after she has bathed, five cakes of flour, walnuts and pomegranates
are put in her lap, with a pretty child, in order that she too may bear sncti a child.
Looking into its face she gives it some money and cakes, and then the family priest makes
her worship Ganpati. In return he receives a fee iu money, with the things offered to the
Goddess. The women spend the ensuing night in singing." *
Kites dur- 394. Of the 3 Sanskdras relating to pregnancy, the first Garbhadhdn has
ing preg- practically become a dead letter. Traces of it remain in the formalities observed
nancy. at the consummation of marriage. Of the other two, a semblance is still main-
tained Tvith different details in different locahties, in respect of first conception,
but the ceremonies are mere in the form of rejoicings and the announcement
of the interesting state. The first ceremony is performed in the third
month of pregnancy. The woman's parents send presents of sweets and
other eatables to her mother-in-law, who distributes them in the brotherhood.
This is called Clihoti fiitdn (the lesser rites). In the seventh month again the
same formality is repeated on a more elaborate scale, and the presents of
eatables are accompanied by a suit of clothes for the pregnant woman and often
by jewelry and casb. In t^ome places, the gifts include a suit of clothes foi' the
husband, some ornament for his, mother and some toys for the expected child.
The pregnant woman puts on the clothes intended for her and the sweets, etc.,
are distributed to the brotherhood. The custom is often followed by theMuham-
madans as well. In the Ambala District, for instance, the parents send sugar,
ghi, mehndi, flour and clothes for the daughter. The food stuffs are cooked and
distributed to the brotherhood and a white cock is sacrificed after touching it
against the pregnant woman's abdomen. In the Muzaffargarh District, the
presents are sometimes sent through a midwife who is expected to divine the sex
of the child at the time of making them over. The ceremony is called Satmdsa
or Sdtvdn in the eastern, Ritdn in the central, and Gur dena in the western
Punjab. In the hills it is celebrated in the eighth month instead of in the
seveuth. Charms are used abundantly for the protection of the mother and the
foetus, and are tied round the waist and the neck of the pregnant woman in the
fifth, seventh and ninth month of preguancy.t
Effect of o95. Great precautions are taken during the Solar and Lunar eclipses. A
Eclipses on pregnant woman is not supposed to work during an eclipse and is often not allowed
preg nan teven to move, as it is believed that any movement of the mother is likely to affect
women. the appearance of the child in the womb. In Suket, the woman is confined in a
room and given some confused threads to disentangle, the conviction being that
the least attention towards the eclipse would deform the child.J
Prohibited 396. Before child-birth, purgatives and laxative food are generally avoided
foods before especially in the advanced stages of pregnancy. In the first few days after
or after delivery she is given nutritious and heating food such as ghi, milk, almonds and
child-birth, other nuts, and sontli (dried gingr'r), Ajtvdm (Ptychotis Ajwain) and zira
(cummin) are largely used. A very favourite dish is Panjiri (a confection of ghi,
sugar, almonds, raisins, dates, coc'>anut, sontli, resin, etc.). Cummin is supposed to
increase milk. After eleven or twelve days, ordinary diet may be taken by the
mother, but for some 40 days she is required to eat plenty of ghi and sugar.
Stimulating and indigestible articles of food are prohibited. The regulation of
diet is stricter after than before confinement. The restrictions are of course com-
paiatively lax in the case of a female child.
397. After delivery, the patient is confined to the room for a number of
days. Among the Muhammadans, the limit is ten days, although neither the
Seclusion
of
women
after child- naother nor the baby may leave the hnu.se for forty days among the Hindus, Jains
iirth.
and Sikhs.
among th
'I'he prescribed period of confinement is eleven or thirteen days, but
poorer classes, the woman sometimes comes out after the sixth day.
For the first five days, j. e., till the mother has had her first bath, strict seclusion
is observed. Only a few selected persons, usually one or two elderly women in
the family who are present at the time of confinement, are allowed in the room,
besides the midwife. No stranger even of the female sex may go iu and the other
male and female members of the family mBy not step inside the door of the
J Article by Mr. H. a. Kose, m the Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
Vol. XXXV, July.December 1905, page 271.
t For local details see Journal of the Anthropological Institute Vol. XXXV, 1905, pages 271 ci seq.
X There is also a belief that the shadow of a pregnant woman, falling on a running snake benumbs it and
preTents its escape.
299
VII. BiKTH C0ST0M9. [ Punjab, 1911.
room. AYomen in the monthly courses, those who have suffered from abortion or
are subject to athrd (f. e., whose children die in early age) are specially precluded.
A cat must on no account be allowed to enter the room. All these precautions
»re taken to prevent the evil influence of malevolent spirits, although they may
have been originally based on hygienic principles. The room must never be in
utter darkness and so a lamp is kept burning throughout the night. A little fire
is kept smouldering in the room for the burning of incense from time to time,
which though believed to drive off evil spirits, really serves to disinfect the air. A
curious belief is reported from Lahore, viz. that if a woman, who has given birth
to a male child sees, within 40 days of her confinement, another woman who has
brought forth a female, less than 40 days before, the former will draw the milk of
the latter — i. e., the latter's milk will dry up to the benefit of the former. For
this reason women emerging from their confinement scrupulously avoid meeting
others in the same state.
398. In the Hissar District, Bishnois bury dead infants at the threshold. Customs
in the belief that it would facilitate the return uf the soul to the motlier. The connected
practice is also in vogue in the Kangra District, where the body is buried in front with ideas
of the back door. In some places it is believed that, if the chdd dies in infancy of reincar-
and the mother drops her milk for 2 or 3 days on the ground, the soul of the child nation,
comes back to be born again. For this purpose milk diluted with water is placed
in a small earthern pot and offered to the dead child's spirit for three consecutive
evenings. There is also a belief in the Ambala and Gujrat Districts that if
jackals and dogs dig out the dead body of the child and bring it towards the
town or village, it means that the child will return to its mother, but if they take
it to some other aide, the soul will reincarnate in some other family. For this
purpose, the second day after the infant's death, the mother goes out early in the
morning to see whether the dogs have brought the body towards the village-
When the child is being taken away for burial the mother cuts off and preserves a
piece of its garment with a view to persuade the soul to return to her. Barren
wooien or those who have lost children in infancy tear a piece off the clothing of a
dead child and stitch it to their wearing apparel, beheving that the soul of the child
will retiirn to them instead of its own mother. On this account, people take great
care not to lose the clothes of dead children, and some bury them in the house.
399. There is no trace of the couvade in the Punjab, but the husband is often Conduct of
asked to assist at the confinement in more ways than one. When the delivery the father
is delayed, the husband is made to stroll about on the roof of the room of at child-
confinement, to jump over the bed of the patient, to pull the great toes of the birth,
patient or to flap about his chadar (sheet) facing the west.* In the acute stages
of labour, the trouser-string of the husband is washed in water and given to the
patient to drink. f A piece of the horn of a stag is sometimes tied round the
nbdomen. All these processes are supposed to expedite delivery and they
.probably act by startling the nervous system and dislodging the foetus from the
position in which it may have stuck. These customs prevail mostly among the
■uneducated classes.
400. The rites on feeding children for the first time may be divided into Rites on
•two heads; (a) feeding on the mother's milk, and (6) allowing the baby to taste feeding chil-
other food. drenforthe
(a). The suckling of the newborn is usually delayed for 10 to 12 hours, first time.
The first thing given to the baby is a potion {ghutti) of the nature of a purgative
intended to wash out the impurities in the stomach and bowels ■ind to prepare
(3) Ajicain. ^'''^ digestive organs for food. It is
Suhdgd (Borax). usually administered by some elderly
'"'''st^rcaf ' '""''^' f^™^l« of t^^ f^™'^y- The baby is
Amaitds. supposed to imbibe the nature and
"""' m:^sra;^d'Sar "™- I^nDits of this first feeder. The pros-
(4) g;u (.clarified butler). cription varies with different locali-
8) Hofey.^'"^ '"'""'■ ties, castes and even families, but the
(7) Ajtcnin and Gur. Commonest of those in use are given
^S) Aj,.ain^ndSuhaga. ^^ ^^^ margin. The potion is ad.
(1) Saun/ (Aniseed).
Amaitds (Cassia Pod).
Banafshd (Viola Serpeus).
Ajwdin (Ptychotia Ajwain).
Rose leaves and old Our
(black sugar).
(2) Saiinf.
Banafshd,
Khaggd.
Inderjao,
Sena.
Sugar.
* Peculiar to Muhammadane Only. Any act done facing the Kaba has a special efficacy.
t Among the Muhammadans, the loincloth (Talimat) in often washed instead Of th» trOHSer string.
Census Report, ]
300
EIBTH CDST0M8.
Cbapter
ministered by means of a cloth wick wbicli the baby learns to suck. These are
the only remnants of the Jdtakarma sacrament at which the child was made
to taste honey and ghi from a gold spoon. The warrior castes and tribes used to
stir the ghutti with a sword, in order to iustil courage and the love of arms
in the child, but the Arms Act has practically put a stop to the custom. The
Biloches of Dera Ghazi Khan who still possess swords, however, wash one with
water and give a little of it to the baby before even the ghutti- is administered.
Before the baby is suckled for the first time, the breasts of the mother are washed
by her husband's sister or in her absence by some unmarried girl of the family
who receives a cash present called Than Dliuldl. The custom is performed by
both Hindus and Mnhammadans, throughout the Province.
(/;). No solid food is given to the baby until after he has cut some of his
teeth — i.e., till about the sixth month.* Among the Hindus, the orthodox still
perform the Jnnaprdshava Sanskdr. Khir (rice cookeil in milk) is prepared and
the baby is fed on it from a silver tray with a silver or gold spoon. I'he poorer
people feed him with a rupee. The occasion known as Khir Chatdi is observed as
one of rejoicing, the brotherhood are fed and alms are distributed. The unortho-
dox and the Mnhammadans are, however, not particular and begin feeding the
baby on articles other than milk, without any ceremony.
Supersti- 401. Among the inasses, most diseases of children are ascribed primarily to
tions re- the effects of the evil eye or the influence of some evil spirit. Spiritual remedies
garding are, therefore, sought before resorting to medical treatment. Matters are, how-
illness, etc., ever, changing now and the use of medicines is being substituted more and more
of infants, for charms and incantations.
Infantile pneumonia is widely believed to be due to the child being
possessed by some evil spirit of the crematorium, which can be driven away only
by a spell (known chiefly to sweepers, chamars, fakirs and sadhus).
One of the antidotes for the effects of the evil eye is to take three or seven
chillies, wave them round the h^'ad of the child and throw them into the fire. If
the chillies pi'oduce the usual pungent smell, the suspicion about the evil eye is
unfounded, but if they give no smell whatever, the diagnosis is confirmed.
Whatever the explanation may be, I have myself seen chillies burnt in this way
without producing any pungent fumes and the child restored to his normal condi-
tion immediately after. Amulets, the claws of the tiger, bear or the owl, or other
similar articles are hung round the child's neck on a black thread, to ward off evil
influences, and a black mark is usually made on the forehead every morning for
the same purpose. Numerous other devices are adopted to protect the children
influences.
is generally considered conducive to health but, if frequent, it
is taken as the prognosis of some ailment, such as cold, fever, etc. When sneez-
ing is accompanied by fever it is generally followed by small- pox, measles, etc.
Frequent sneezing is also sometimes attributed to the evil eye, and if the child
sneezes just before sucking, it is considered ominous for the maternal uncle.
Grinding of teeth augurs some calamity to the parents or illness of the
child, but the Meos of Gurgaon consider the former as indicative of the grinding
down of the eneiniesf and as forestalling some victory over them. This belief also
prevails in the Hoshiarpur District in general, and among the Rajput>i in particu-
lar, and is shared by the Biloches of Dera Ghaz" Khan. But the trick is every-
where else considered ominous if performed by a girl. In Hoshiarpur and Dera
Ghazi Khan it. portends starvation and misery for her.
The remedy emploj'ed to stop tiie grinding of teeth, is to put in the mouth
of the child, while he or she is asleep, some dust or aand usually taken from under
the hinge of a door. A feather of the blue jay is sometimes tied round the neck
or suspended from the ear of the youngster. Passini; a child through the strings
at the fiiot of a charpoy {ddwan) is slso supposed to euro him of the habit.
Hiccough is taken as a mark of good appetite and sound health.
The appearance of the first teeth in the upper jaw is believed to
be very inauspicious for the maternal uncle of the child and hkely to prevent
against evi
Sneezing
• The Annaprdshana Sanskir was to be performed ia the (ith month — Msinu II, 34.
t The belief in the eastern Punjab, generally, is that if a male child grinds his teeth, he will destroy the
enemies, but if a female does so she will destroy her relations, specially her brothers.
301
VII. BiKTH CUSTOMS. [ Punjab, 1911-
his visiting the sister's house. To counteract the evil effect, he goes to the
village of his sister with a barber, stopping on the boundary of the village and
Bends his companion to fetch the child and his mother. The uncle then strikes
the teeth of the child gently with a bronze vessel and returns to his village with-
out talking to the mother but making over the vessel with a rupee in it to her.
Making a baby sleep towards the foot of the charpoy is supposed to result in his
cutting the upper teeth first.
A child born with a tooth or two is considered unlucky for its parents
and they are sometimes broken immediately after birth. On the other hand
ddnlon samet paida hud hai (born with his teeih cut) when used of a child, means
that he is very precocious.
The usual time for teething is supposed to be not less than five months
after birth. A child cutting his teeth in the thii-d month is unlucky for any sisters
that may follow him. If he cuts them in the fourth month, it is injurious to the
mother, and if in the fifth, he is dangerous for the grandmother.
An infant must not be lifted above one's head until he is 6 months old,
otherwise he gets diarrhoea. If he is pulled up by the wrists, he begins to
suffer from sore eyes.
402. Among the Hindus, a woman is supposed to be in a state of impurity purifica-
for a period of 10 to 17 days after childbirth, according to the status of the caste tion cere-
or local usage. For instance, among the Brabmans, the purification ceremony is monies,
performed ou the 11th day, while amongst the Chhimbas, Kumhars, Nais, Ac, the
time of impurity lasts for 17 days. In the eastern Punjab the period is generally
limited to 10 days.
The purification ceremony begins with bathing the mother and the baby,
washing the clothes and cleaning the room occupied by them. The family priest
or some other Brahman invited for the purpose prepares the Pancha Gavya *
which is drunk in small quantities by the mother and baby as well as the other
members of the family, and sprinkled about in the room of confinement.
When possible Ganges water (Gangdjal) is added to the mixture and among
the Vaishnava", Tuls^dal or a leaf of the Sacred Tulsi (ocymum sanctum) is also
put in. 'Ihe Ndmakatana rites are performed in the higher castes and Brahmans
are fed in all cases, as means permit. The family members are then considered
purified and can eat and drink with other people of the brotherhood.
The Mnhammadans do not perform any special ceremonies for the puri- nnham.
fication of a woman after child-birth, but in most cases the mother and the child ma^ans.
bathe at intervals during the period of confinement, according to the Hindu
custom — i. e., on the 5th or 7th, 11th or 13th, 20th or 21st, and 40th day. The
period of impurity according to the Muahmmadan 8har'a is ten days, but in
some places the woman is considered to be free of impurity after seven days.
403. In the Punjab Census Report of lOOlf Mr. Rose has mentioned certain Unlucky
instances of unlucky children, but in order to understand the popular notions as children,
regards certain children being lucky or unlucky, considerations based upon as-
trology must not be confused with those which are the results of experience.
The day on and the hour at which a child is born is supposed to have a certain
sigfnificance as to how his fate (sanchit or the accumulation of past K'irma) will
affect him and others with whom he is connected. Bach of the twelve signs of
the Zodiac (Rihhi) is said to be under the influence of one or more planets and
the partifidar combination existing at the time of a child's birth, coupled with the
Nokslinira, Yoga, &c., obtaining at the moment determines the luck or ill-luck of
the child so far as he himself, his father, mother, brobhers or other near relations
are coticf-rued. A discussion of the subject would be beyond the scope of thi?
book, but 1 might mention as an example that a son born in Khat Mill {i.e., one of
the six Mul Nalcshatras) is considered fatal to the father and is not kept in the
house. As soon as possible, he is sent away to some other place to be brought
up by some other woman. He is brought back when he has attained his
majority. Children born in Muli are often dedicated to temples. The other
class of beliefs consists of what are called superstitions, usually based on the
experience, in a few cases, of similar nature, when an inference is drawn by the
• A mixture of five products of the cow, vit., its milk, curds, butter, dung and urice,
CliAptar V, para. 34, pp, ai4 2!5.
Census Beport, ]
S02
BIETH CDST0M8.
Cbapthr
method of induction and beqaeatlied to posterity as an infallible rule. Under
this category falls the inauspicious Trikhal, a son following three girls.
Trikhal. 404, The Tiikhal is considered to be unlucky for the parents. The follow-
ing are among the devices resorted to for averting the evil: — (1) Immediately
after his birth, a hue and cry is raised outside the house saying ' Trikhal
di duhdi' (save us 0 Trikhal). (2) The centre of a bronze plate is broken
and all but the rim removed. The baby is then passed through this rim.
(3) An opening is made in the roof of the room where the birth takes place
and the baby is pulled out of it. * (4) Oil is poured on one of the roof gutters
[parndldC). (5) A musal (large wooden pestle) is thrown on the roof. (6) The
baby is passed under the door sill. (7) Water is poured on his head through a si^ve.
All these devices seem to be intended to mark the occasion as uncommon
80 as to take the inauspicious birth out of the category of ordinary occurrences.
There sire other superstitions of a similar nature and numerous little
marks or signs are interpreted as ominous. For instance, a boy or a girl with,
a Ndgan (a mark or a circle of hair shaped like a snake) on the forehead or back
is considered destructive to the mothei'-in-law, and so is a girl with dimpled cheeks.
If the soles of a girl's feet do not lie flat on the ground, she is sure to see her hua«
band dead, and a child who is born feet forward is unlucky for the mother. In
the last mentioned case the explanation is simple, for the risk of complications
in I'eversed births is naturally great.
The belief of the people in these symptoms was so great that the
parents were sometimes willing to give the child away to fakirs or to pretend
to give it away and then buy it for a nominal price. It is possible that in
some cases, the child may have been even put to death or wilfully neglected.
But the conviction of the masses in the efficacy of prayer, worship and charms
in nullifying the evil effects of such ill omens, was so deep rooted that for every
one of the cases an antidote was always forthcoming as in the case of Trikhal^
and consequently the necessity of putting an unlucky child out of the way
seldom arose. Such beliefs are, however, now fading away.
Snperna- 405. The supernatural power asciibed to the first born is not due to his
tural power being unlucky,! but the idea underlying the belief seems to be that being the first
of the first product of the parents, he inherits the spiritual powers (or magnetism) in a
bom. high degree. The success of such persons in stopping rain and hail and in
stupifying snakes is proverbial. It is believed that a first child born with feet
forward can cure backache by kicking the patient in the back, on a crossing.
Ideas about 406. In most places, the birth of twins is disapproved, and in some loca-
twins. lities it is supposed to portend evil for the family. But it is considered particularly
auspicious in Karnal, Kangra, Mahan and Simla. In Karnal, it is believed that
a woman who gives birth to twin boys goes straight to heaven after death.
But even there, the birth of a boy and a girl as twins is considered unlucky. In
no case is the occasion one of extra rejoicing, for the odds are supposed to bo
against the survival of the twins. To begin with, it is very difficult for the
mother to look after two babies and to feed them on her own milk. There is
a firm conviction that the illness of one of them reacts sympathetically on
the other, and that if one of the two dies, the fate of the other is also sealed. It
is believed that if the twins have separate umbellical cords, they may live indepen-
dently of each other, while if they have only one, their life is completely
interdependent. The twin born last is considered the elder of the two, on the
assumption that the foetus higher up must have been conceived first. J
Disposal 407. The Aluhammadans dispose of the body of a child dying in
of the body infancy m the same way as that of an adult. For still-born children, no
of a child funeral prayers are offered. Among the Hindus, the body of a child dying in
dying in infancy is either buried or drowned in a river, if one happens to be near by.
infancy. According to Ydgya Valka ^ a child under 2 years should be buried on death,
* The Baying chhatphdrke niklea (eo and sa forced his way through the roof) is eqiivalent to ascribing
an uncommon origin.
t An explanation of the custom of performing funeral rites of a man in the fifth month of the first pregnancy of
bis wife is given in paragraph 3(57.
X A sporting gentleman illustrates the idea by a simile of the old muzzle-loading musket. He says that if
two bullets are loaded in a barrel, the one put in last comes out first
I Priyashchittidhjpaya, Chapter 1, verses 1 and 2.—Tagyavalka Smriti,
303
"VII. BIRTH CUSTOMS [ Pnnjal), 1911.
•and cremated if older. According to other authorities, a baby djing before
sucking milk or the performance of Ndm harana sacrament — t. e. within 11
or 13 days of birth, sbould be buried. After that and up to five years, the dead
child should be drowned if possible, but buried if no river is at hand. Children
older than five years must be cremated. The practice, however, varies greatly
with different castes and the limit for burial ranges from 2 or 3 months in
Hoshiarpur to 12 years in Hissar ; and in many places, the tonsure ceremony is
taken as the turning point. In Bahawalpur, however, a dead child is not
cremated unless he has been invested with the sacred thread.
408. Amongst the Muhammadans, women dying in child-birth are tieated Treatment,
iu the same way as others, but in some places, the Koi'an is recited for three or of women
iour days in the house where the death has occurred. dying in
Among the Hindus, it is believed that a woman dying after child-birth and cMld-birth.
before the termination of the period of impurity,assumes the form of a ghost-vampire
(bhut) usually female (churel), haunts the house and has no peace. Precaution
is taken to prevent her return to the hnusei to torment her surviving relations.
Iron nails are driven into the ground round her at the places where slie dies,
where her body is bathed, and where it is cremated. This is called, kilnd. In
Kome localities powdered chillies are put into the eyes of the corpse, to prevent the
ghost from seeing its way back to the bouse, and rapeseed (sarson) is scattered
along the way by which the corpse is taken to the cremation ground, as it is
supposed to repel evil spirits.
At the same time various measures are taken to secure the emancipation
of the departed soul. One of the rites is that, called Narainibal. On the 11th day
after death, six Brahmans are called and witli their assistance the family gods are
worshipped for five successive days. Each of the Brahmans is presented with a
pitcher, an oil lamp (chirdgh), a towel (each of them has to be of different cloth
and colour), a small quantity of pulse (of different varieties), a copper and a
gold murti (image), a coooanut, with some barley, sngar, milk and ghi (clarified
butter) and earth from seven different places and seven kinds of herbs, leaves of
seven different trees with five sacred threads are provided to accomplish the ritual.
In some places Brahmans are employed to recite hymns for 40 days (this is called
Jap or Varni). The funeral rites are also repeated at some sacred place such as
Pehowa ( Kuralcslietra) in the Karnal District, the Ganges, or Gaya.
In the Simla District the body of a woman dying in child-birth is washed
21 times with cowdung, 21 times with earth, 21 times with cow's urine, 21 times
with panchgavya and 21 times with fresh water.
In the hills, particularly in Chamba, if a woman dies during confinement but
before child-birth or in an advanced stage of pregnancy, the child is not allowed
to be burnt in the womb. It is considered a sin to burn a son with the mother.
■ The abdomen is, therefore, ripped open and the child is taken out of the womb by a
sweeper and burnt separately. In well-to-do families this work is done by some
menial woman who acquires the right of Ijeing fed throughout her lifetime. The
practice must have originated in the detection, at some time, of a living child in
the womb and its successful extraction alive.
409. The Ndma karana satishira or the name-giving ceremony has to be Namegiv-
performed on the 11th day after a child's birth, but it is usually celebrated on theing
prdsni or the 18th day. The regular ritual is confined to well-tn-do families.
The principal feature is the recognition of the son by the father as his own, and^'"*^"*-
proclaiming the name which is given at the time or in some cases has been
given on the fifth or sixth day after birtli. Ordinarily a Brahman performs the
usual worship of Ganesh and Navagrahas and gives the child a name according
to the Zodiacal mansion under the inflnenco of which he was born.
The name called the Janma-ndm (birth nfme) or Bdshi-ndm (astronomi-
cal name) is kept secret and is not used thereafter except at the perf()imance of
religious ceremonies. The grandfather of the baby or some other elder member
of the family gives the child another name, which is known as Prasiiidh-ndm
(the reputed name) or holla ndm (the name that is spoken). If a Brahman is not
at hand, some senior member of the family performs the first half of the cere-
mony, tho worship being dispensed with, and the masses generally adopt the
latter course even when inviting a Brahman is practicable. Except in the or-
Census Report. J
304
BIHTH CDSTOMS.
Chapter
mature of
name».
tbodox well-to-do families or the higher castes, few formalities are observed in the
case of a female child ; and the elder female member of the family does the need-
ful without much ^clat.
According to the Shastras the first part of a Brahman's name should
indicate holiness; of a Kshatriya, power ; of a Vaishya, wealth ; and of a Shudra,
contempt. The second part of a Brahman's name should imply blessing
{Sharmaiml), of the Kshatriya preservation, of the Vaishya prosperity, and of the
Shudra humble attendance.* The rule about the Brabmans has become obsolete.
In former days one conld know the caste of a man from his name in mimy
cases, because all names suggestive of learning and wisdom sush as Ved Vias, Rikhi
Kesh. were used by the Brabmans, and those suggestive of bravery and strength by
the Kshattriyas, e.g., Bhimsen, Prithi Nath. Names suggestive of wealth were-
usod by Vaishyas such as Dhanpat, Lakhpat, Karori Lai, HazEiri, and the names
of the lowest castes were such as Ghania, Lehna, Nihala. But now-a-days, the
tendency to give a child the best name suggestive of learning and high birth
is increasing in every quarter. Names such as Sawan, Chetu, Bisakhi, Maghar^
Phaggu, Mangal, Budhu, Atu, &c., which used to be given according to the
names of months and days of birth are going out of fashion. Despicable names
such as kura, Chhajju, Gandhila, &c., are now very rarely used. But some-
times the child is still named after the Nakshatra in which it is born such as Mula.
In naming a child one thing, which is always kept in view, is to avoid names
resembling that of an ancestor living or dead. A few names of the prescribed
Brahman type are still come across, such as Nityanand, Parmanand, Sudarshana
Sharma. But they are becoming rare. The present ones usually inaply, the name
of some God, shc/^ as Shiva Shankara, Uma Shankara, Chnra Mani, Chandra Mani
(Shiva), Suraj Narain ; or the grace of some god or goddess — e.g., Jwala Sahai,
Shambhu Nath, Frabhu Datt. But Kshattriya names such as Bhim Sen, Arjun.
Nath, Vaishya names of the type of Chunilal, and Shudra names such as IS'araia
Das, IBanarsi Das, Ganda Ram are not uncommon among the Brabmans and many
of the names have no clear meaning. Among the other castes, names are given
indiscriminately, the only distinction observed being that the menial castes usually
have monosyllabic names, e.g. Mallu, Mohan, Tota, Ghisa, Kashi, &c. The
Shudra names often end with Das, but with increasing prosperity, the nature of
their names is undergoing change according to the saying ' Is mdi/d ke tin nam,.
Parsd, Parnu, Pars Ram' (wealth has three names Parsa, Parsii and Pars Ram) —
i.e., by means of wealth Parsa, a menial name gets gradually converted into Pars
Ram which would suit any Khatri or Brahman. The ordinance regarding the
name of women is one for all castes. It should, be agi'eeable, soft, clear, captivat-
Mobamma-
dana.
ing, auspicious and ending in long vowels resembling words of benediction. In
practice the name of a girl often follows that of her brother or some other male
relation. For instance, Radha Eam's sister will bo called Radlii and Shib Dyal's
sister Shil) Devi, and so on. But the first part usually implies some thing auspi-
cious and the suffix is Rani, Devi, Kishori, Wanti, Kaur, or the like (Kaur being
peculiar to the central Punjab and has apparently a Sikh origin). High sounding
Sanskrit names such as Gayatri, Sawitri, Sushila are now replacing the old fash-
ioned Panjabi or Hindi names of the type of Jaidevi, Kauri, Ruri, among the
educated classes. Even in the rural tracts, ttie names are improving and Mahin-
dar Kaur, Kishan Kaur, &c., are being substituted for Gulabi, Nihtilo, &c. In
some castes and localities the name of a girl is changed at her wedding cere-
mony, obviously on the principle that at the time of being given away {Ddn) she
loses all connection witli her parents' household — even her name.
Amongst the ]\luharamadrins, the child is given a name on the second, third
or seventh day after birth, but in some cases on ihe 14th or 21st. Ording^rily a
senior male member of the family proposes a name of his choice, but some people open
the Koran at random and give a name beginning witli the first or last letter of the
pao-e. Others read the first seven lines on the right page and pick out a suitable
name. The Sunnis prefer a name containing the name ot God, or i\Iuhammad or
some other Prophet, such as Muhammad Yusaf, Muhammad Ismail, Nur
• Manu, U, 13, 32.
306
TIL BiETH CC8T0MS. [ Punjab, 191L
Muhammad, Abdul Rabim, Ghulam Qasim, etc. The Shia names generally must
include Ali, Hassan or Hussain, e.g. Kaza Ali, Hassan All, Muhammad Hussain,
Karamat Hussain. In cases when the birth of a child is considered to be due to
the jDrayers of 8omo saint, the child is named after him — e.g. Pir Bnkhsh. Names
are also sometimes given after the months, festivals or days on which the child
ia bom, such as Ramzan, Juma, Idu, Shabrati, Muharram Ali, etc.
In some well-educated families, the names given signify the date and year
■of birth according to the Abjad calculation, and are called Tdrikhi nam (chrono-
logical names). The Shar'a permits the naming of a child even when it is in the
mother's womb, and people do it by proposing two alternate names, one male and
the other female and confirm the appropriate one on the birth of the child. The
practice seems to be based on the theory that a woman quick with child dying
before child-birth becomes a martyr (Shahid) and that the child if named also
attains martyrdom.
In the higher castes such as Sayad, Pathan, Biloch, particularly in the
•western Punjab, a male child is usually given the name of one of his ancestora.
In several genealogical tables, two names follow each other for generations,
the grandfather's being repeated each time in the case of the grandson, provided
that the grandfather is not alive. No regular ceremony is performed for the
purpose of name giving, vmless it happens to fall on the day of Agiqa.
Among the Sikhs as well as among the Hindus believing in Guru Nanak's sikht
teachings, the name selected for a child is that beginning with the first letter on
■a page of the Granth Sahib opened at random. The sufBx Singh is usually
added at the Pahol which, among the Kesdhari Sikhs, is administered at the time
of name giving. When a man takes the Pahol in advanced life, and his name is
such as would not admit of being prefixed to 'Singh,' it is altered to some
similar Sikh name. For instance, Khushi Ram becomes Khushal Singh,
Gurditta Mai, Gurdit Singh.
410. With the Hindus, ear-piercing {Kama bhedana) is a regular Sanskdr Ear pierc-
-(sacrament), although the ceremony is now performed with few formalities, ing.
The tonsure or sacred thread ceremony cannot be performed till the
ears of a boy have been pierced. * The operation is performed in case of
children of both sexes on an auspicious day either within thirteen days of birth,
in the third or fifth month or after a year. But when it has not been
possible to discharge the duty earlier, the ear-piercing is performed along with
the tonsure ceremony. Among the Aroras, it is deferred till about the age
of ten and effected at the time of Yagyopavit.
The popular beliefs about ear-piercing are — (1) that it prolongs life,
{2) that the custom originated witli the piercing of Balram's ears by his father
Vasudeva in fulfilment of a vow made to Slieshndg (the serpent gcd), (3) that if
the children of a woman die in infancy, the piercing of the light nostril or the
right ear (the latter in two places) of the infant by the midwife, immediately
after birth insures its life and (4) that it prevents stomachic disorders.!
The nostril and the cartilage of the ears are pierced for astrological
reasons in order to avert the evil effects of certain grahos (stars). Moon in an
unfavourable aspect necessitates a hole in the right nostril and advert>eiy placed
Mangal (Mars) may ba appeased by one in the left nostril. The cartilage of the
nose is pierced merely for beauty, a pendant of emerald being worn by infants
and young children both male and female.
In the case of female children, the piercing of one or the other nostril
is essential as the nose-ring (nath) worn at marriage is a sign of wed-
lockjt and must consequently be done at an auspicious time. The piercing
-of the upper cartilage of the ear is merely for wearing ornaments- The operation
* The rays of the Sun inuet bo visible through the holes pierced in the eHrs of a Hindu, for Peval says in
Himidri, an old book : " If the rays of the Sun do not pass throuttb a Brahman's ear lobes, on seeing him accumu-
lationB of good deeds vainsh repeatedly.'' (See Paraskaragrihya Sutra, compiled under direction of Sir Krinhan
Partap Shsrma, K.C.I. E, of ETathnora, Kdition Medical Hall Proas, Sambat 1952, p. :i39;. According to Snshuruta,
the lobe of a child's car is to be pierced at the point of the natural hole {Daiva Krite Chhidre) which is easi-
ly visible if the loho is stretched against the rays of the Sun. If pierced at the proper spot the e(U' does not bleed.
+ Peculiar to the Hoshiarpur District.
X In the Hrahmans of Kashmir, a hole is pierced through the cartilage, in the centre of the ear and a pendant
hirng therefrom at marriage rcprefents the emblem of wed-lock. I have not been able to trace tlia custom in any-
other caste in the Punjab, but the existence of the cnstom elsewhere may lead to an important discovery of tribal
_afianity.
306
Census Report, ] teems or belationsbip. Chapter-
is performed either with a needle and bhie thread by a female of the house, or
■with a sharp pointed zinc ring by a professional ear-piercer, usually a
Banjara. The local goldsmith is sometimes asked to ofiBciate when no profes-
sional ear-piercer is at hand.
The Muhammadans pierce the ears and nose of the girls similarly to tha-
Hindus, although mainly for the sake of beauty. The belief that ear- piercing
secures immunity to the child against harm also prevails among them.* The
ears of boys are however not pierced, except in a few castes or families who retain
strong traces of their early Hindu origin and traditions.
TERMS OF RELATIONSHIP.
Terms of 411. The terms employed to denote tlie more important relations are prac--
relation- tically the same in all Sanskritic dialects, and castes of tribal origin have got ao-
ghip. completely assimilated in this Province, that the variations in terminology are,
generally speaking, by locality and not by caste. I have selected the following
dialects for comparison: — Dogri (as spoken in the Kangra Hills), Hindi and Urdu
(eastern Punjab), Panjabi (standard), Pothwari (Lahnda) and Jatki or Multani
(Lahnda). A more or less exhaustive list is appended to this Chapter as Sub-
sidiary Table VI. I tried to obtain lists of terms used by the Sansis, Dumnas and
Changars, but it appeared that there was little difference between these and the
other local dialects. These have consequently been omitted from the Subsidiary
Table. The elaborate ceremonials and the far reaching restrictions of marri-
age among the Hindus appear to have resulted in a complicated terminology
intended to distinguish, as far as possible, the blood relationship on the male and
female side. Separate terras are generally used for two generations upwards or
downwards, e.g., bap, dddd, or beta, potd, after which the prefix par is added to
denote the removal by one generation andparpar by two. The term nakar or sakar
is sometimes used in the case of ancestors more than three generations high, but in
the central Punjab relations in the third generation are considered unimportant,
" par pea te sdk ged " (when par is added the relation ends) and obviously on the
same principle, the term pardddd (great-grandfather) is seldom used in the western
Punjab. The father is called peo or piu, in Lahnda, bap in Urdu, and pitd in Hindi,
but in Multan he is also called bdbu. Curiously, however, the form of address in
Urdu and Lahndd is " abba, " while in Panjabi, the father is addressed as
bdpUy which is probably tbe same as hdp or bdbu. The terms peo, hdp and abbd,
have, therefoi'e, got fairly mixed up. The Hindu townspeople of the eastern
Punjab alone use the Sanskrit appellation of pitd. The terms used for father's
father and father's mother, are the same, but while Urdu, Hindi and Panjabi
diffeivntiate between father's elder {Idu, tdyd) and younger brother {chdchd or
chachd) and their wives {tdi or chdchi) no such difference is made in Lahnda,
the terms chdchd and chdchi being applied to both elder and younger brothers
of the father and their wives, respectively. It is, however, noteworthy that
the dialects of Lahndd still retain the unalloyed Sanskrit terms pilriyd (Sanskrit
pitrivya) and pitrdni, and the terms are used more largely by castes like the
Awans, who though completely converted to Islam, bear strong traces of Hindu
tradition. Similarly in the Lahnda dialects of the north-west Punjab, father's
brother's son is called yitrer, and in the south-west there is a special term s»ter
for uncle's son (probably a corruption of sahodar^^ovn of the same womb), while
in Panjabi, Hindi and Urdu, the cousin is simply called chacherd bhdi or bhrd.
The father's sister is generally known as phupphi and her husband phupha
or phupphar, but the former is also called bhud in Hindi and Panjabi, and bud in
Multani. IntheCHSe of the father's sister's child again, the Lahnda dialects have
a special term {phnp}ier)wh\\e in Hindi or Panjabi, he is called phvpera bhdi or bhrd.
It is either that the Lahnda dialects abbreviated the compound name or they retain-
ed the distinction which became less marked in the more eastern districts. The
term for step-mother, is inatrei everywhere, but she is sometimes addressed as
>fndsi i.e., mother's sister. Her children are known everywhere by a compound
term matred bhrd or matrei bhain. In Urdu and Hindi alone is the term differ-
ent, being saoteli man and her children saoteld bhdi or saoteti bahin. Mother's
son from a different father is unknown to high caste Hindus, but among the
• Among the coaverts from Hinduiam, the women still wear the nath (aose-ring) on occasions, aa a mark of
married life.
I
VII.
307
TEEMS 0» EELATIONSHIP,
[ Punjab, 191J.
lower castes who allow widow marriage, and amongst the MuhammadanH, such
brothers and sisters are not distinguished from the other step-brothers and step-
sisters except in Lahnda, where these are designated by such compound words as
md ddbun hhird or mdnjdyd hhird. Among the relations on the mother's side, the
term for the mother's sister and her husband, mother's brother and his wife, mo-
ther's mother and her father, are practically the same, but similarly to the case
of father's sister's children, the sons and daughters of the mother's sister or bro-
thers have special names only in the western Punjab. There is not much
difference between the names by which the brothei', the sister, the brother's
wife, the brother's children, the sister's husband and her children are
called, although the form of address for an elder brother's wife is hhdbi and
for the younger brother's wife hahu, in Urdu and Hindi. The wife has got
varying names. In Urdu she is called hivi, in Hindi hahu or lugdi, in Panjabi
vohti, in Dogri Idri, and in Lahnda jani, trimat, saivdni, tobbar or
edl. Then again the terms for wife's father, mother's sister, sister's husband*
and brother are the same everywhere, but the wife's brother's wife is called
salajh in Hindi, saldh in T)ogr\,sdlehdr in Panjabi, salihij in north-west Lahnda
and salehass in south-west Lahnda. The wife's son from a former husband is called
gailar in Hindi, pichhlag in Panjabi and Lahnda, but in the south-west Punjab, no
distinction is made between him and the co-wife's son. For husband, Urdu has
the Persian vvords Ichdivind or shanhar ; Hindi has ghanvdld, mdlik or pati, Panjabi
has gharwdld or hhasam, Dogri barkd, north-west Lahnda jand, ghanvdld, khasam
or musdld and south-west Lahnda jpae. The co-wife is everywhere known as
saokan but in the western Punjab she is also called ^a/ity (probably fmm pae mean-
ing husband, i.e., husband's wife) and her son has a name sahuttar in Lahnda while
in Multani alone, her daughter has also got a special term suki. The son
is futtr or puttar everywhere, and the sou's wife is nunh, with slight
difference of pronunciation, but Urdu and Hindi have beta for son and bahu
for son's wife. The son's wife's or daughter's husband's parents are samdki
(sambandhi) and Kamdhan (tambnndhan) in Urdu and Hindi, Kuram, Kuramni in
Panjabi and north-west Lahnda, but in Multani they are known as sen or sakke.
The daughter is dhi everywhere except in Hindi or Urdu where she is also known
as beti, feminine of betd. The daughter's husband is known by some corruption of
jdmdtr (Sanskrit) —i. e., ddmdd or janwdi in Urdu and Hindi, Jawdi in Panjabi and
Jawdi or Jaxvdtrd in Lahnda. In north-west Punjab, he is also called mehmdn
(guest). There is no difference between the terms used for daughter's
son or daughter. The relationship cf a daughter's son's wife is recognised
though by a compound word — viz., Hindi, dohat bohu, Panjabi or Lahnda
dohtreo nuh. Similarly, the son's daughter's husband is potrpo jaiudi^
daughter's daughter's husband is dohtreo jawdi and brother's daughter's
husband is bhatrio jaiodi, sister's daughter's husband is bhaneo jaiodi, brother's
son's wife is bhatreo r>uh and sister's
son's wife is bhaneo nuh. In the Lahnda
dialects, relationship with the husband or
wife's distant kin is not very minutely
differentiated, but in Hindi and Panjabi,
the relations of a husband or wife are
particularized by adding a suflBx asrd
(Hindi) and eohrd (Panjabi) for males
asrt and ehass for females — e. g., dddasrd
and dadeohrd for husband's or wife's
father's father, ndnosrd, naneohrd, for
wife's mother's father, etc. A list of
thii te/ms of relationship wliich are com-
mon to all the dialects above alluded
to, is given in the margin.
Term! of relationship.
Father's father.
Father's younger brother.
Father's sister.
Father's sister's husbaud.
Mot her.
Mother's sister.
Mother's brother.
Mother's brother's wife.
Mother's father.
Mother's mother.
Mother's father's father.
Mother's father's mother.
Wife's or husband's father.
wife's or husband's mother.
Wife's brother.
Wife's sister.
Wife's sister's husband.
Daughter.
Son.
Terms commonly used
throughout the Punjab.
Dad4.
Cacha.
Fhuphi, Bhui or Bui.
Phuphar or Boai.
Man or Ma.
MAsi or Mkosi.
Ma.ma.
M4mi.
N4ni.
Naiii.
Parnina.
Parnini.
Snsri or SaObra.
S4s or Sass
SAIa..
S4h'. ^
Sidhu or Sindha.
Beti or Dhi.
Beta or Putr.
* In Urdu alone is a special term hamtulf used, but that is a Persian word.
Census Beport, ]
308
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
Chaptik
SUBSIDIARY TABLE I.
Distribution by Civil Condition of 1,000 of each Sex, Religion and main age-
period at each of the last four Censuses.
RiLIQION AND
Aqe.
ALL EELI-
GIONS.
0—5
S— 10
10—15
15—20
20—40
40—60
60 and over
HINDU.
0-5
5—10
10—15
15—20
20 — 40
40—60
60 and over
Male.
Dnmarried.
SIKH.
0—5
5—10
10—15
15—20
20—40
40—60
60 and over
JAIN.
0-5
5—10
10—15
15—20
20—40
40—60
60 and over
MCHAil-
MADAN.
0-5
5-10
10-15
15—20
20—40
40—60
60 and over
CHRISTIAN
0—5
b — 10
10— J5
15-20 ...
20—40
40—60
60 and over
Married,
999
986
911
706
261
77
63
998
978
874
640
240
91
76
999
989
911
699
252
79
62
998
975
845
578
196
74
64
999
983
875
629
238
98
80
1,000 1,000
988
915
717
292
HE
101
998
964
795
525
194
92
82
992
907
676
267
111
98
995
970
822
551
212
111
99
999 1 000
974 990
888j 829
543 464
Widowed,
00 I ■::;
;t 00
992
862
654
251
90
70
;9S8
845
603
245
106
8
.992
873
636
267
125
in
84
275
661
718
535
1
11
87
290
695
767
587
1
24
151
404
738
725
541
[A
119
336
673
683
508
1
16
122
357
701
728
550
C.
Ill
78
263
016
654
IOC 460
244
125
107
231
123
103
998
974
684
403
193
115
84
I 991
76 s
43?
20f
121
108
2
35
200
455
734
688
507
10
11
115
334
69
753
592
]^
]5
381
695
71
558
8
91
314
686
743
546
1
24
168
422
711
685
484
1,000 i_000
990 993
936
759
264
56
45
944
769
257
5-1
40
999
985
898
636
l8S
49
41
999, 1,000 99H
99+1 995 987
P66 954
849 816
718 765
70 1 88
31' 29
955!
782;
4821
58]
38
( 1
124
103
428
633
558
332
125
334
685
720
546
2
9 25
169312
521565
680 694
602
404
{99E
9 If
71'
24!
ee
5
I 998
066
921
825
177
8'
566
331
I 10
230
540
700
205
402
( ..
I
24
87
226
416
[■■.
7
20
92
231
439
2
11
53
154
351
12
Female.
Unmarried,
13 14
1
1
4
18
66
201
395
1
3
14
61
174
370
(
i 2
9
29
123
2
10
47
146
356
1
e
20
72
220
411
4
6
10
27
77
204
417
12
52
157
338
614 317
395 561 493 585
\ 9
61 55
2281223
667 69.'.
761810:769
572 625 581
99
349
753
42
205
5
33
145
44
172
465:2'i7|221
768 821 780
581650 640
i
79
281
706
796
629
34
76
162
714
558
i 1
3
13
69
183
383
I I
3
13
4:i
174
381
1
2
15
89
275
48
136
335
6
15
lOfl
319
1
4
32
113
319
4
16
60
177
355
\
)
2
10
48
155
354
( 999
^957
706
203
20
8
11
15
999
963
713
227
19
5
4
(■998
1934
598
110
10
5
7
998
944
609
I2I
8
2
2
1
3
15
59
182
378
1
5
2
12
14
133
331
) ■■
25
95
266
497
2
9
45
138
320
f 999
1905
703
171
12
16
997
985
532
92
10
5
5
996
892
399
39
4
Married,
17
I 974
G32
15
14
18
19
287| 283
773
882
585
221
962
532
87
7
2
[63
392
856
863
525
2 179
999 994
970 924
70*
189
8
2
2
( 997 99P
i 980 979
40 677
123
12
11
13
3
13
109
355
507
55
5
6
7
996
957
466
31
|97(
627
129
8
2
2
I 987
584
80
(999 999
i 970 978
779802
281 327
28
11
13
; 999999
: 983,994
Mt |877
423507
93 184
84 55
2i 33
998
952
662
146
15
6
6
999
982
835
431
121
56
21
;983
721
22
2l\ 805
627
I 997
971
692
12f'
38
11
< 1
I 32
289
807
894
504
235
Sit
243
»*14
770
456
172
(28
216
702
246
[1^
156
564
845
693
343
755
896
608
217
2
55
38;
855
887
565
184
1
29
293
798
923
20
3
73
459
879
857
482
183
4
106
591
928
839
434
148
Widowed.
21
I 2,
362
821
888
583
209
]37
459
864
874
53
181J
22
23
{■
69 j
22
471
895
859
663 532
244 216
1
21:
318
881
860
538
159
1
22
195
4
42
524
918
798
415
119
2
47
332
661) 832
899' 874
637! 518
239f 205
1
6
122
4H2
833
657
277
a
7
24
98
407
24
68 779 8ia
1
4
18
85
38'
368
854
914
634
244
40'
888
844
531
180
275
757
89'
618
229
16 f
164 27
659 30.=
822 826
613 652
2741 23*
10
34
127
470
814
8
22
94
401
758
( 1
15
17
63
218
533
815
(
I 2|
5
17
77
362
741
(
I
3
13
62
273
633
1
6
24
105
433
814
29
133
513
25
22
98
412
786
1
3
13
69
335
754
1
5
28
134
459
835
2
10
33
157
563
849
8
7
22
50
136
46::
777
8
12
71
356
755
1
11
43
288
690
S
29
119
461
817
17
78
364
754
10
51
198
583
879
1
6
22
111
476
789
2
1
10
57
331
705
>
32
148
495
815
j...
4
16
82
375
764
)
i-
64
310
753
KoTK. — Separate iigarea for age-periods 0 — 5 aud 5^10 of 1581 are not available.
t
VII.
309
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
[Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE 11-
Distribution by Civil Condition of 1,000 of each sex
at certain ages in each
Religion and Natural Division.
EBLIGION and NiTDBAL DIVISION.
illALES. 1
Al
[. .AGES.
0—5.
5—10,
10-
-15.
lb-40.
40
and over.
TJ
-o
•a
"O
■a
T3
.(D
rz
.2
T3
.£
.
■S -c
T
'■ 1
.
-d
a>
-o'
13
<D
'u
TS
Oi
'u
TD
? a
ra Q
^ t
TJ
0
fc.
•n
<D
3
•9
&
2
^
s
£
1 «
.S i
= s
<D
^
S
.2
fe
B
S
O
a
H
O
s
'S
b.
■i B
' i
'S
0
a
S3
0
a
d
03
a
ca
.r 0
ca "
a
CS
a
cj
P
a
4
p
a
6
^
0
S
& 0
a e
: P
a
g
P
a
'0
1
2
3
5
7
8
9
10 11
13 1
3 14
15
16
17
18
19
PUNJAB.
All Beliqions
528
888
84
999
1
986
13
1 911
84
5 363
572
65
73
669 2581
Hindu
501
4U7
92
998
2
978
21
1 874
119
7 336
592
72
88
639
273
Sikh
542
360
98
l.OUO
988
11
1 915
78
7 397
529
74
111
600
289
Jain
495
380
125
999
*"{
974
24
2 888
103
9 314
585
101
121
514
365
Muhammadan
543
382
75
1,000
...
990
9
1 936
61
3 373
570
57
53
708
239
Christian ...
620
324
56
999
1
994
5
1 955
42
3 538
424
38
53
719
228
INUU-GANGETIC PLAIN WEST
All Rbligions
512
391
97
999 1
982
16
2 884
109
7 341
582
77
81
625
294
Hindu
492
408
luu
999 I
975
23
2 845
145 1
0 314
605
81
90
610
300
Sikh
542
356
102
1,000
988
11
1 917
77
6 401
522
77
114
584
302
Jain ... ... •••
487
389
124
999
"l
970
38
2 878
114
8 296
6O3
101
118
513
369
Muhammadan
618
392
90
1.000
986
13
1 910
85
5 341
588
71
51
665
284
Christian
613
332
s.'-.
996
4
989
9
2 942
53
5 541
418
41
72
723
205
HIMALAYAN.
All Religions
4^
445
71
993 7
972
27
1 906
91
3 353
598
49
67
736
197
Hindu
485
445
7u
9y3
7
972
27
1 908
89
3 354
598
48
66
739
195
Sikh
443
473
84
996
4
965
33
2 894
104
2 311
632
57
72
700
228
Jain
542
307
151
1,000
1,000
... 957
43.
.. 483
352
165
164
545
291
Muhammadan
464
450
86
1,000
964
"34
2 861
133
6 331
602
64
70
695
235
ChriBtian ...
655
305
40
976
24
979
17
4 994
6.
.. 622
355
23
135
714
151
SDB-HIMALAYAN.
All Kbliqions
530
379
91
1,000
...
987
12
1 919
76
5 369
562
69
7?
655
273
Hindu
517
378
105
l.OUU
980
18
2 895
100
5 365
556
79
102
595
303
Sikh
527
369
104
1,000
...
986
12
2 903
84]
[3 387
533
8(.
113
605
282
Jain
542
331
127
998
2
995
2
3 939
501
1 417
486
98
141
508
351
Muhammadan
533
384
83
1,000 ,,.
989
10
1 932
65
3 360
578
62
49
694
257
Christian
641
299
60
1,000 ...
996
3
1 954
44
2 586
378
36
46
686
268
NORTH-WEST DRY AREA.
All Religions
571
373
56
1,000 ..
994
5
1 982
37
1 409
550
41
63
747
190
Hindu
548
386
66
9'J9
1
?93
7
948
50
2 381
569
50
87
695
218
Sikh
563
374
63
999
1
991
8
1 930
67
3 388
567
45
88
698
214
Jain
469
428
103
1,000
...
1,000
... 941
29'
JO 277
657
66
55
630
315
Muhammadan
575
371
54
1,000
995
""5
966
33
1 417
545
38
57
759
184
Christian
582
369
49
1,000
...
997
2
1 968
30
2 396
566
38
30
780
190
PUNJAB.
All Religions
FEMALES.
377
480
143
999
1|...
957
41
2 706
287
7 5a
860 82
9
i 490
50]
Hindu
336
496
168
998
934
63
3 598
392
LO 32
861
107
6
438
556
Sikh
354
495
151
999
965
32
3 703
289
8 44
876
80
6
497
497
Jain
350
439
211
997
"l
980
15
5 740
243
17 37
780
183
11
395
594
Muhammadan
410
466
124
999
970
28
2 779
216
5 79
856
65
12
525
463
Christian
488
428' 84
999
983
15
2 841
156
3 161
787
52
3a
609
359
INUO-GANGETIC PLAIN WEST
All Religions
357
490
153
999
949
48
3 658
333
9 46
862
92
7
469
524
Hindu
332
502[ 166
998
935
62
3 579
410
11 28
864
108
4
444
552
Sikh
349
495 156
1,000
968
29
3 709
284
7 46
873
81
6
488
506
Jain ... ... ...
343
445' 212
996
"2
978
16
6 729
252
19 32
782
186
11
395
594
Muhammadan
386
476 ; 138
999
950
41
3 722
271
7 67
856
77
11
488
501
Christian ...
452
456, 92
999
973
26
1 803
191
0 150
797
53
43
562
395
HIMALAYAN.
1
All Beliqions
319
608 173
996
...
918
79
3 585
405
LO 42
859
99
10
425
565
Hindu
316
508, 17C
996
919
78
3 583
406
11 40
859
101
10
421
669
Sikh
297
561
142
1,000
893
105
2 493
497
LP 16
932
52
1
469
530
Jain
431
340
229
l.OOfJ
960
40
833
167
.. 70
737
193
33
167
800
Muhammadan
343
530
127
996
889
108
3 549
443
8 40
899
61
8
482
510
Cluistian ...
634
306
60
1,000
1,000
997
3
.. 433
538
29
173
517
310
SUB HIMALAYAN.
All Religions
374
479 147
999
952
45
3 696
297
7 56
880
84
9
491
500
Hindu
337
48 e
177
09!
923
73
4 593
396
U 29
856
115
6
433
561
Sikh
340
50c
155
1,000
949
47
4 648
343
9 29
887
84
6
503
491
Jain
382
411
207
1,000
...
992
8
809
185
6 70
752
178
12
410
578
Muhammadan
3P3
474
i 13S
99f
963
35
2 746
249
5 70
850
71
10
515
475
Christian ...
483
42'!
l 9S
1,000
980
IS
2 805
191
4 99
841
00
20
565
415
NORTH-WEST DRY AREA.
All IIrliqions
43G
452 105
998
]
985
14
1 846
152
2 91
854
55
12
555
433
Hindu
40C
45C 14J
ont
2
972
26
2 756
239
5 49
81; 1
90
7
451
542
Sikh
4U
473 lU
99f
]
980
19
1 773
223
4 61
877
62
6
549
445
Jain
4U
! 447 14
l.OOf
..
979
21
654
308
18 34
907
59
283
717
Muhammadan
4i'
1 450 lo;
99J
1
..
987
12
1 865
133
2 100
852
48
14
570
416
Christian ...
B2<
J 414 5"
90f
i i
996
2
2 939
60
1 253
706
41
25
753
222
Censas Report. ]
310
SOBSIDIART TABLES.
COAPIEB
SUBSIDIARY TABLE III.
Distribution by main age periods and Civil Condition of 10,000 * |
of each Sex and Religion-
Religion and age.
Males.
Female^,
Religion and agb.
Males. 1
Females.
-a
"S
•g
-o
-3
.2
TS
■d
'O
a
i
1
1
.2
1
i
1
e
o
"2
a
■fc
o
a
£
o
a
^
o
n
d
c
C3
a
C9
c
P
2
s
i
p
S
^
p
s
&
p
5
^
g
1
3
5
6
7
1
2
3
4
6
7
ALL RELIGIONS.
JAIN.
All ages
5,27{
J 3,88C
m
3,77J
I 4,800: 1.427
All AGES
4^53
8,799
1,248
3,500
4,392 2.10E
0—10
2,58S
) 1£
2
2,79t
58
4
0-10
2,236
29
3
2,485
21 8
10—15
1,08,
t 9£
6
72e
295
8
10—15
1,100
128
11
837
274 20
15-40
1,44]
L 2,267
257
23C
) 3,38C
323
15—40
1,350
2,513
432
153
3,21
7 755^
40 and over
16i
I 1,495
577
15
» 1,067
1,092
40 and over
267
1,129
802
25
880|l,325|
HINDU.
MDHAMMADAN.
All ages
bMi
) 4069
925
3,351
4,965i 1,67^
All AGES
5,426
3,823
751
4,103
4,6611 1,236
0—10
2,39C
28
2
2,59t
j| 8E
4
0-10
...
2,755
13
1
2,962
43 3
10-15
1,01S
) 139
8
tilt
) 403
11
10—15
1,132
73
4
811
224 5
15—40
1,396
2,461
300
131
3,51C
434
15-40
1,422
2,173
217
305
3,282 248
40 and over
198
1,441
615
1?
967
1,229
40 and over
117
1,564
529
25
1,112 980
SIKH.
CHKISTIAN.
All AGES
5ilE
3,604
981
3.544
4.944
1.512
All ages
...
6,204
3,235
561
4.886
4,278 836
0—10
2,492
14
2
2,672
1 41
4
0—10
...
2,632
8
2
3,321
26 3
10—15
1,088
92
8
685
282
7
10-15
...
956
42
3
892
165 4
15—40
1,576
2,099
295
173
3,433
311
15—40
2,529
1,992
177
617
3,020 200
40 and over
259
1,39S
676
14
1,188
1,190 1 40 and over
.".■; 871
1,193
379
5b-
1,067 628
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV-
Proportion (
)f tl
le sexes by Civil Condition at certain ages for Religions and |
Natural Divisions.
Natcbal DiVlSIO.N A
MD
^UUK^;R OF FEMALES PER
1,000 HALES.
All ages.
0— 10.
10—15.
15—40.
40 and over.
•a
tj
■a"
■g
-d
Religion.
-a
13
<D
U
U
^3*
.2
'u
-i
T3
g
"E
■a
.2
-d
%
.0)
i
B
O
a
o
n3
a
■g
o
t3
a
o
a
b
o
p
d
a
cd
a
<s
a
c3
a
a
0
^
^
p
a
&
p
s
"^
D
11
12
^
0
s
&
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
13
14
15
16
PUNJAB.
All Religions ...
584
i.oio
1.384
882 2,566
1,839
547
2,426
1,035
130
1,217
1,029
96
583
1,545
Hindu
• ..
550
1,000
l,4hh
890 2.493
1,747
495
2,375
1,066
77
1,169
1,187
52
550
1,640
Sikh ...
4SS
1,023
1,150
800
2,2,38
1,658
470
2,281
659
82
1,220
788
39
633
1,313
Jain .,.
601
983
1,436
945
622
2,571
647
1,818
1,500
97
1,088
1,485
78
663
1,405
Mahnmmadan ...
630
1,016
1.372
896
2,788
2,032
597
2,542
1,189
179
1,259
952
174
592
1,544
Chrietian
557
936
1,054
893
2,341
1,143
660
2,751
969
173
1,073
797
456
633
1,175
INDO-GANGETIC PL.^
lIN'
WEST.
All Religions ...
553
995
1.259
863
2,390
1,659
507
2,078
858
105
1,147
933
70
601
1.424
Hindu
...
542
980
1,329
871 2,2,^6
1,408
479
1,971
791
70
1,112
1,041
151
509
1,492
Sikh ...
473
1,022
1,128
784
2,008
1,799
458
2,176
779
82
1,207
756
38
646
1,295
Jain ...
603
980
1,461
935
569
3,000
643
1,710
1,773
89
1,072
1,518
80
680
1,421
Muhammadan
...
609
991
1,241
890
2,859
2,034
557
2,243
1,035
158
1,165
871
174
591
1,414
Christian
...
523
973
1,187
869
1,755
444
609
2,571
933
171
1,171
799
438
669
1,416
HrMALAYAN.
All Religions ...
...
593
1,027
2,216
967 2,415l
3.040
531
3.654
2,805
111
1-325
1.877
124
471
2.345
Hindu
...
592
1,035
2,289
966
2,390
3,326
528
3,738
2,982
104
l,34tl
1,969
119
472
2. 408
Sikh ...
477
843
1,210
886
2,813
333
350
3,021
3,000
34
1,001
fi24
12
424
1,472
Jain ... .^
...
595
825
1,129
1,139
•r.ooo
909
4,000
• ■ .
91
1,313
733
111
167
1,500
Mahammadan
568
901
1,129
970
3,147
i,'273
507
2,656
1,036
87
1,093
701
68
426
1,333
Christian
SUB-HQIALAYAN
1,021
1,060
1,581
1,347
...
1,212
500
...
679
1,477
1,227
1,089
613
1,730
All Religions ...
...
584
1,045
1.335
884
8,223
1,855
539
2,764
1,181
125
1,272
l,01fl
95
600
1465
Hindu
...
518
1,024
l,:i48
805
3,368
1,H78
«66
2,788
1,540
62
1,198
1,136
45
566
1.438
Sikh
496
1,054
1,145
829
3,266
1,391
462
2,612
444
59
1,290
819
40
662
1,296
Jain
577
1,016
1,328
961
1.500
667
2 909
400
129
1,188
1,396
71
644
1,.S15
Muhammadan ...
...
632
1,546
1.373
898
3,091
2,035
580
2,768
1,304
172
1,309
994
164 610
1,521
Christian
502
947
1,029
934
4,864
1,714
653
3,358
1,154
83
1,083
794
315 598
1,128
NORTH-WEST DRY A
REA
All Religions ...
635
999
1,589
896 2,345
2,216
685
2,939
1570
185
1.284
1,116
152 574
1.7631
Hindu
585
948
1,752
914 3,387
3,171
583
3,461
1,792
97
1.149
1,379
59 501: 1.92l!
Sikh ."
569
981
1,401
8nn 1.679
1,789
563
2,262
852
122
1,196
1,063
55
583 1,536
Jain
...
800
940
1,242
1,303 *!,000 ...
531
8,000
1,000
105
1,200
778
283 1,435
Muhammadan
648
1,011
1,.577
898 2,211 2.0G2
648
2,917
1,656
202
1,323
1,058
"183
683 1,758
Christian
696
861
884
82" 1.8571 2,000
672' 1,375
500 4G4
908
775
669
770 929
• No males in this age period and 1 female only.
VII.
311
80BS1DUKY TABLES.
[Punjab. 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE V.
Distribution l)v Civil Condition of 1,000 of each sex at certain ages
for selected castes-
Castk.
Agoabwal
Abib
Abain
Aboba
AWAN-
Babwala
Bawabia
Bhabai
BiLOCH
Bbahman
Chamab
Chbimba
CE€HBA
Dagi and Koli
Dhanak
Dhobi
DOOAB
Dtjmna
FAqiB
Guibath
GUJAB
Babni
Jat
Jhinwae
Jooi Rawal
JOLAHA
Kamboh
Kanet
Eashmibi
Ehatbi
Khoja
Kbokhab
Kcmeab
Locality.
DISTRIBUTION OF 1,000 MALES OF EACH AGE BY CIVIL CONDITION.
All ages.
Punjab
Eastern Punjab
Phulkian States
Punjab
Delhi Division
Punjab
Central Punjab Plains
Punjab
Central Punjab Plains
Western Punjab
Punjab
Western Punjab
Punjab
Lahore Division
Punjab
Ferozepore District ...
Bahawalpur State ...
Punjab
Central Punjab Plains
Punjab
Western Punjab
Punjab
Punjab •••
Punjab
Central Punjab Plains
Punjab
Eastern Punjab
Central Punjab Plains
Punjab
Central Punjab Hills...
Punjab
Eastern Punjab
Punjab
Western Punjab
Put jab
Central Punjab Plains
Punjab
Central Punjab Hills..
Gurdaspur District ...
Punjab
Punjab
Kangra District
Punjab
Punjab
Ludhiana District . .
Punjab
Punjab
Central Punjab Plains
Punjab
Central Punjab Plains
Punjab
Kangra District ...
Punjab
Montgomery District
Central Punjab Plains
Punjab
Central Punjab Hills...
Punjab
Lahore Division
Rawalpindi Division...
Punjab
Central Punjab Plains
Western Punjab
Punjab
Central Punjab Plains
Punjab
Western Punjab
Punjab
Eastern Punjab
Central Punjab Plains
Western Panjab
502
482
537
484
183
oU
506
546
555
540
560
566
516
521
517
497
506
50
500
564
563
520
456
504
51S
540
476
553
431
459
411
402
515
545
565
569
4S8
474
513
0-5.
382
394
355
419
414
394
397
379
368
387
375
37S
385
376
428
448
442
401
397
388
390
370
453
3S6
377
387
438
3V5
506
481
508
509
399
386
348
344
433
446
409
535 363
531 392
531
501
489
523
647
492
501
544
553
517
484
519
607
509
449
469
523
512
539
552
561
549
549
542
562
56
517
450
522
556
395
408
363
352
366
396
387
357
348
396
444
388
350
396
490
471
393 1
397
385
364
353
380
386 1
388
370
367
401
451
393
383
116
124
lOS
97
103
92
97
73
65
56
99
103
55
55
52
99
103
48
47
llo
91
110
110
73
86
72
63
60
81
89
86
69
8
87
79
81
78
102
77
74
91
128
125
87
11:
112
99
99
87
72
93
43
95
61
60
84
91
76
84
86
i 71
1 65
7(1
6H
66
82
99
85
61
999
999
1,000
999
1,000
1,000
1,000
1.000
1,000
i,ooc
1,000
1,000
1,000
l.OUO
!,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
999
999
1,000
1,000
1,000
998
1,000
98b-
997
997
997
999
1,000
999
1,000
99
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
999
1,000
1,000
1,(00
1 ,000
1,000
1.000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
987
998
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
999
1,000
1,000
1,000
998
1,000
1,000
5—12.
13
2
10
12—20.
18
21
16
21
22
32
36
6
20-40.
13 !
981
978
983
978
977
967
962
993
992
994
994
997
985
98'
987
986
990
970
969
993
993
983
932
97
981
981
940
989
943
975
859
840
984
996
985
987
962
966
980
967
992
994
953
951
969
979
974
974
979
979
986
988
983
999
98l| 18
944 55
973, 26
990, 9
993 6
989 11
989
990
991 1
992
990
99 li
990
982
5
6
3
14
12
12
13
8
28
28
6
6
15
65
21
17
18
56
10
56
25
133
151
15
4
14
12
36
30
19
31
8
6
45
49
31
20
24
23
20
20
13
12
16
958 38
98 2 1
995
1'
662
634
697
683
670
761
744
847
867
833
902
919
789
799
798
771
910
755
756
896
899
778
631
751
765
793
625
832
700
760
494
474
797
897
855
864
738
758
742
718
870
874
719
630
768
799
744
744
805
813
832
319
345
287
301
313
228
244
148
127
162
94
78
199
189
188
196
87
229
226
101
98
205
349
228
215
194
350
158
284
227
478
494
190
98
132
124
252
229
250
265
126
123
23'
350
223
18'
238
236
176
173
159
847 149
14
19
21
16
]6
17
n
12
5
6
5
4
3
12
U
U
33
3
16
18
3
3
17
21
21
21
13
26
10
16
13
28
32
13
5
13
12
10
13
b
17
4
3
14
20
9
14
18
20
19
14
9
4
15
40 and over
16
770
922
7*9
741
780
865
866
878
844
844
868
832
818
904
920
778
646
783
88'
218
78
239
250
211
129
126
119
148
148
128
158
174
92
7
210
330
206
109
12
12
9
9
6
8
3
8
4
10
s
4
3
12
24
11
4
243
223
286
209
209
224
214
274
280
272
275
278
177
183
124
96
173
199
198
282
280
302
149
232
229
191
135
200
171
186
88
86
228
265
305
312
191
225
168
293
240
239
238
206
216
302
200
186
225
208
233
219
203
297
177
210
225
241
225
253
324
33'
297
212
188
315
322
213
132
216
258
17
644
658
606
701
696
688
692
657
643
665
667
674
729
721
825
851
801
705
703
679
682
598
764
665
665
732
778
724
770
759
841
835
689
671
617
6W
728
693
749
604
689
694
680
670
660
617
686
695
667
680
69(1
733
710
680
732
740
725
681
688
681
603
590
645
723
741
6ii8
623
707
699
G90
18
113
119
108
90
95
88
94
69
77
63
58
48
94
96
51
53
26
96
99
39
38
lOO
8'
103
106
77
87
76
59
55
71
79
83
64
78
75
81
82
83
103
71
67
82
124
124
81
114
119
108
112
77
48
19
124 520
114 517
147
78
76
42
41
88
89
8'
39
36
84
33
34
21
29
52
51
44
42
126
41
77
23
91
50
50
78
87
66
73
73
58
65
71
57
65
80
96
85
52
76
37
34
37
37
40
33
35
49
40
62
64
51
58
46
201
46
43
75
34
28
91
53
49
70
54
4'
47
51
26
46
53
5'
46
43
43
12(
142
89
52
504
636
620
671
660
675
670
679
745
774
642
626
779
803
779
653
643
796
801
572
675
610
606
709
672
711
798
800
698
677
693
746
637
631
718
732
698
52s
715
725
651
551
586
640
619
617
628
62
687
07
62
45
38
45
44
20
356
369
349
286
304
287
299
237
241
234
216
190
324
341
187
176
192
295
306
160
157
302
284
313
318
254
294
252
165
160
269
288
258
214
301
305
231
210
256
271
239
232
274
415
386
269
328
334
302
321
266
741| 212
648
794
648
781
779
700
69H
719
61S
588
691
7:^2
715
716
725
695
664
686
750
301
l80
3O6
166
164
254
264
238
256
270
220
2l€
230
217
213
260
298
269
206
Census Report. ]
312
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
Chaptek
SUBSIDIARY
Distribution by Civil Condition of 1,000 of each sex
Caste.
Locality.
DISTEIBUTION OF 1,000 FEMALES OF EACH AGE BY CIVIL CONDITION.
All ages.
0—5.
5—12.
12—20.
20—40.
40 AND OVKR.
.
T3
-a
'O
1
T3
•a
n3
-a
■a
ts
§
1
OS
•o
ffl
0
s
C3
1
t
%
S
O
■a
a
'u
u
0
T3
a
0
a
0
5
0
^3
a
U
0
«T3
Q
eS
c
j3
a
p
ej
Q
a
a
o
a
23
0
1^
S
p
a
28
20
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
1
2
21
22
24
25
26
27
AOGARWAL
Punjab
335
450
215
998
2
952
44
4
269
680
51
6
766
228
4
391
605
Eastern Punjab
321
462
217
997
3
945
50
5
247
703
50
6
765
229
5
398
597
Phulkian Stales
355
425
220
998
2
957
40
3
290
650
60
I
759
240
369
631
AHIK
Punjab
335
512
153
999
1
918
80
2
221
760
19
4
804
102
"2
499
499
Delhi Division
329
510
161
1.000
■ ••
913
86
1
237
744
19
3
886
111
2
490
50fi
Abain
Punjab
402
484
114
999
1
...
910
88
2
411
578
U
24
905
71
8
553
439
Central Punjab Plains
398
488
114
999
1
...
899
99
2
390
59S
12
23
907
70
8
555
437
Aboba
Punjab
3S8
444
168
999
1
...
967
32
1
404
518
18
12
852
136
5
428
567
Central Punjab Plains
391
448
161
1,000
• •■
...
971
28
1
516
467
17
14
851
13t
4
460
536
Western Punjab
385
442
173
999
1
965
34
1
428
554
18
11
853
138
5
408
587
AWAN
Punjab
424
450
126
1,000
976
23
1
562
429
9
35
885
80
11
525
464
'•
Western Punjab
428
446
126
1 ,00o
...
986
13
1
577
415
8
38
883
7d
11
525
464
Babwala
Punjab
400
484
116
1,000
.>.
>i3l
68
1
378
614
8
14
908
78
9
550
441
Lahore Division
405
477
118
1,000
• ••
941
58
1
415
580
5
13
909
78
9
538
453
Bawabia
Punjab
448
462
90
999
1
970
28
2
414
578
8
33
896
71
21
590
389
Ferozepore District ...
427
490
83
1,000
• ••
...
977
23
386
610
4
12
923
65
30
579
391
'.
Babawalpur State ...
468
445
87
1,000
993
7
480
520
31
874
95
10
683
307
Bhabai
Punjab
354
505
141
998
"2
...
370
126
'4
309
678
13
16
899
85
7
495
498
Central Punjab Plains
354
505
141
998
2
871
125
4
311
675
14
16
902
Si
7
497
496
BiLOCH
Punjab
423
481
96
999
1
981
18
1
47 s
515
7
21
937
42
9
610
381
Western Punjab
420
484
96
999
1
...
982
17
1
468
525
7
80
939
41
9
611
380
Brahman
Punjab
317
450
233
998
2
9O8
88
4
277
676
47
8
778
214
5
361
634
Cbamar
Punjab
320
542
138
998
2
808
188
4
193
788
19
6
903
91
3
472
525
Chhimba
Punjab
3S2
491
147
99k
1
. ..
934
63
3
348
628
24
15
883
102
7
503
490
Central Punjab Plains
366
487
147
1,000
.•.
942
55
3
352
622
26
13
881
106
8
513
479
Cedbba
Punjab
417
476
107
999
1
937
61
2
395
594
11
20
908
72
5
537
458
\
Eastern Punjab
367
522
in
995
5
...
855
142
3
304
683
13
7
900
93
4
520
476
Central Punjab Plains
425
467
108
1.000
• ••
955
43
2
415
575
10
22
910
68
5
535
460
IfAQI AN3 KOLI
Punjab
316
546
138
996
4
882
117
1
279
698
23
18
909
7a
12
523
465
Central Punjab Hills
339
523
138
999
1
...
930
69
1
341
634
25
22
903
75
16
518
466
Dranae
Punjab
280
598
122
991
9
...
638
356
6
97
884
19
4
914
82
4
500
496
Eastern Punjab
272
802
126
991
9
615
378
7
96
882
22
a
910
85
5
492
503
Dbobi
Punjab
39b
483
122
999
1
...
950
48
2
428
560
12
21
904
75
10
532
458
Western Punjab
424
459
117
1,000
986
14
541
450
9
28 904
68
12
536
45S
DoOAB
Punjab
416
437
147
998
■■"2
952
45
3
522
463
15
22
862
116
8
455
537
Central Punjab Plains
419
433
148
1,000
...
960
37
3
541
445
14
24
862
114
7
455
538
OUMNA
Punjiib
332
525
143
999
1
832
164
4
224
756
20
10
883
107
8
467
525
Central Punjab Hills...
312
529
159
999
1
838
158
4
233
736
•^1
IS
866
116
13
442
545
Gurdaspur District ...
347
516
137
l,00u
823
174
3
216
770
14
3
884
113
5
464
531
PA(iIB
Pnnjab
376
492
132
999
1
891
107
2
337
647
16
18
895
87
13
506
481
Ghibatb
Punjab
362
470
168
1,000
...
943
55
2
275
709
16
5
876
119
3
368
629
Kangra District
358
473
169
1,000
. . .
944
54
2
258
V26
16
4
876
120
2
353
645
G0JAE
Pnnjab
344
518
13h
999
"1
849
147
4
335
649
16
18
902
80
7
507
486
Uabni
Punjab
408
473
119
1,(00
928
72
425
572
3
7
899
94
13
518
469
Ludhiana District ...
402
472
126
1,000
...
970
30
427
573
14
910
76
17
523
460
Jat
Punjab
376
487
137
999
1
937
61
2
433
555
"12
18
9u2
80
7
5117
486
Jhinwab
Punjab
356
496
148
999
1
898
88
14
305
678
17
J3
885
102
6
472
523
Central Punjab Plains
376
4a 4
13' >
1,000
923
74
3
338
650
12
21
896
83
7
506
487
Joqi-Bawal ...
Punjab
377
474
14fl
999
'"1
307
91
2
397
579
24
24
890
86
12
47U
518
Central Punjab Plains
380
470
150
999
1
...
903
94
3
395
583
22
18
899
83
9
471
520
JULAHA
Pnnjab
394
480
126
999
1
942
56
2
43s
551
11
24
900
76
7
520
473
Kangra District
316
523
161
999
1
890
1(|6
4
193
796
U
7
887
106
4
436
560
Kaubob
Punjab
401
480
119
999
1
...
930
6h
2
434
554
12
16
9O4
80
5
543
452
Montgomery District
536
392
72
999
1
999
1
795
205
42
926
32
11
622
367
Central Punjab Plains
392
493
115
1,000
919
79
2
392
596
12
12
914
74
6
556
438
Kanit
Punjab
324
520
1,5b
995
5
884
114
^
355
626
19
34
878
8.S
17
479
504
Central Punjab Hills...
338
506
156
998
2
909
89
2
392
588
20
40
870
90
19
480
501
Kabbmibi
Punjab
387
458
155
999
1
958
41
1
479
507
14
23
879
98
10
472
518
Lahor« DiviHion
390
454
156
1,000
...
969
30
1
475
511
14
16
886
98
11
459
530
Rawalpindi Division...
387
462
151
999
'"1
948
50
2
498
489
13
29
879
92
9
493
498
Khatei
Punjab
.■»54
448
10^
1,000
...
939
55
6
383
595
22
9
827
164
5
395
600
Central Punjab Plains
363
440
197
1,001
...
941
50
9
419
559
22
8
824
16n
6
397
597
Western Punjab
345
457
198
l.OOo
939
5K
3
339
640
21
8
838
154
5
395
6O0
EaoJA
Punjab
423
401
no
999
1
958
41
1
510
470
11
37
882
81
10
551
439
Central Punjab Plains
415
471
115
l.OOi
946
53
1
469
520
11
41
869
90
8
580
412
Eboebab
Punjab
446
439
115
1,000
. • .
987
12
1
619
369
12
46
877
77
19
548
433
Western Punjab
445
439
lib
1,000
9\9
11
...
628
362
10
47
876
77
17
547
436
EOURAB
Pnnjab
.3«4
482
134
999
1
939
5;i
2
393
596
11
17
895
88
6
507
487
Eastern Punjab
311
533
156
99i
4
881
117
2
226
755
19
5
891
I04
4
458
538
Central Punjab Plains
390
478
132
1,001
..•
937
61
2
404
586
10
16l 895
89
6
510
475
Western Punjab
431
455
114
l,00u
...
984
16
527
46*
7
29 902
69 9
541
450
TIL
313
SDB8IDIAEY TABLES.
[ Punjab, 1911.
TABLE V.
at certain ages for selected castes-continued.
Casts.
i DISTRIBUTION OF 1.000 MALES_O^W^GE_BY^VIt^ CONDITION.
Labana
Lobar
Uachbi
Mabtau
Mali
MALIAa
Mallah
Meo
MlRASI
MOCHI
MUQBAL
MCSALLI
Nai
Pakkbiwaba
Pathan
Qassab
QrHEBBI
Bajpct
Saini
Sanbi
Sayad
Sbeikb
SUNAR
Taekhan
Teli
20 — 40. |40 AND OTBB.
Looalitt,
Panjab
Central Punjab
Punjab
Eastern Punjab
Central Panjab Hills
Central Punjab Plains
Western Punjab
Punjab
Central Punjab Plains
Western Punjab
Panjab
Bahawalpur State ...
Lahore District ..c
Montgon-.ery District
Punjab
Eastern Punjab
Punjab •••
Rawalpindi Division
Punjab
Western Punjab
Punjab ••■
Gnrgaon District
Punjab
Punjab
Central Punjab Plains
Western Punjab
Punjab
Kawalpindi Division
Punjab
Western Punjab
Punjab
Eastern Punjab
Central Punjab Plains
Western Punjab
Punjab
Sialkot District
Punjab
Western Punjab
Punjab
"Western Punjab
Punjab
Western Punjab
Punjab
Punjab
Ambala District
Hoshiarpur District ...
Punjab
Karnal District
Panjab
Central Punjab Plains
Western Punjab
Punjab
Eastern Punjab
Central Panjab Plains
Panjab
Eastern Punjab
Central Punjab Plains
Punjab
Eastern Panjab
Central Punjab Hills
Central Punjab Plains
Western Punjab
Punjab
Central Panjab Plains
Census Report, ]
314
SOESTDIARY TABLES.
Cb AFTER
SUBSIDIARY TABLE V.
Distribution bv Civil Condition of 1,000 of each sex at certain aees 1
V
for selected castes— 'owf/'u/e^i.
Caste.
Locality.
DlSlRIBOTlON OF 1,000 FEilALES OF EACH AGE BY CIVIL CONDITION'. }
All Ages.
0—5.
5-12.
12—20.
20—40.
40 AND OVER.
•6
-a
■0
ri
•0
V
.®
"O
.S
TS
_o
T3
.2
•a"
.®
t3
0
"O
t
.2
t-t
as
'6
.£
a
•6
•d
%
(3
-a
.2
S
'a
S
'2
o
■a
5
0
s
0
3
0
B
u
0
a
s
0
^3
a
St
a
63
CQ
a
<A
a
■a
s
09
21
22
&
D
2&
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
S
&
0
1^
38
1
2
23
24
34
35
36
37
Labana
Punjab
381
477
142
1,00(
934
63
3
383
598
19
11
894
95
6
497
497
Central Punjab
373
486
141
1,000
• ■■
...
933
64
3
385
596
19
9
899
92
7
518
475
Lobar
Punjab
378
492
130
99f
1
924
74
2
381
604i 15
17
898
85
8
517
475
Eastern Punjab
323
526
151
995
4
1
864
134
2
254
717
29
8
887
105
3
472
525
Central Punjab Hills
316
532
152
997
3
876
119
5
25S
723
IS
30
878
92
16
464
520
Central Punjab Plains
398
481
121
1,000
>••
939
59
2
421
568
11
14
908
78
8
544
448
Western Punjab
417
463
120
1,000
• ■>
...
977
23
528
462
10
27
901
72
9
533
458
Machhi
Punjab
Central Punjab Plains
Western Punjab
Punjab
431
461
108
1,000
974
26
518
474
8
26
910
64
10
570
420
423
46S
111
1,000
961
38
1
502
488
10
20
908
72
10
568
422
439
456
105
999
1
986
14
...
536
457
7
32
912
56
10
573
417
Mahtam
505
410
85
999
1
988
11
1
t;i8
376
6
42
904
54
11
582
407
Bahawalpnr State
543
392
65
1,000
• ••
994
6
...
696
304
• *•
39
932
29
655
345
Lahore District
495
427
78
1,000
...
995
5
...
580
420
■ *•
16
932
52
■ '4
601
395
Moiiigomery District. ..
517
405
78
997
2
1
990
7
3
681
315
4
19
937
44
4
610
386
Mali
Punjab
Eastern Punjab
335
513
152
998
2
904
91
5
269
709
22
6
880
114
4
457
539
334
510
156
999
1
902
95
3
275
704
21
5
875
120
3
448
549
Maliae
Punjab
409
469
122
1,000
976
24
502
485
13
31
896
73
12
533
455
Rawalpindi Division ...
40f)
469
122
1,000
...
976
24
• •.
503
484
13
31
896
73
I2j 533
455
Malcah
Punjab
420
461
119
1,000
971
28
1
463
527
10
23
906
71
6
531
463
Western Punjab
424 46R
110
1,000
...
...
981
19
...
5U4
489
7
24
914
62
7
561
432
Mio
Punjab
366
484
150
999
1
...
944
55
1
360
626
14
6
880
114
4
45(J
546
Gurgaon District
367
483
150
999
1
948
52
363
623
14
5
881
114
2
448
550
MlBASI
Punjab
402
465
133
999
1
959
39
2
494
495
11
29
892
79
11
514
475
Mocui
Punjab
415
468
117
1,000
..*
963
36
1
475
516
9
23
905
72
8
549
443
Central Punjab Plains
404
476
120
1,000
*.•
949
49
2
440
550
10
20
903
77
6
557
437
Western Punjab
434
455
111
1,000
983
16
1
537
455
8
29
9C6
65
n
541
448
Mdgral
Punjab
398 456
146
l.OOn
...
969
30
1
509
477
14
31
874
95
13
484
503
Rawalpindi Diyision ...
390
463
147
1,000
...
970
29
1
526
466
8
32
871
97
12
496
492
MCSALLI
Punjab
464
448
88
999
' 1
978
21
1
540
452
8
35
909
56
13
603
3^4
Western Punjab
457
453
90
999
1
...
982
18
...
532
46O
8
35
908
57
14
587
399
Nai
Punjab
375
480
14?
999
1
936
62
2
397
586
17
19
878
103
8
4ys
497
Eastern Punjab
317
513
170
998
2
916
81
3
267
7O8
25
5
870
125
4
447
549
Central Punjab Plains
394
473
133
999
1
942
56
2
452
536
12
33
885
92
8
530
462
Western Punjab
415
463
122
999
1
...
971
2K
1
5O1
485
14
31
893
76
15
528
457
Fakehiwara ...
Punjab
407
483
ll(
997
■ ••
3
939
61
375
618
7
4
9.30
6b-
563
437
Sialkot District
396
486
118
1,000
...
923
77
...
349
G51
3
931
66
541
459
Fatban
I'nnjab
413
453
134
1,000
...
971
28
1
543
445
"12
39
882
79
"17
502
481
Western Punjab
449 438
113
1,000
• *•
...
991
8
1
634
358
8
54
884
62
17
556
427
Qassab
Punjab
403; 476
121
998
2
924
73
3
424
561
15
26
895
79
15
516
409
Western Punjab
442' 447
HI
1,000
...
985
14
1
55fi
435
9
32
907
61
17
512
471
QCBESllI
Punjab
419 448
133
1,000
• •*
978
21
1
576
414
10
52
856
92
24
509
467
Western Punjab
417i 449
134
1,000
980
20
...
579
411
10
53
859
88
25
498
477
B*JPCT
Punjab
384 448
168
998
"2
...
947
51
2
462
518
20
26
844
130
9
439
552
Saini
Punjab
318 516 166
1,000
...
...
884
113
3
240
738
2?
7
881
112
5
474
521
Ambala District
319' 509
172
1,000
*>.
901
98
1
266
718
16
7
884
109
4
448
548
Hoshi.irpnr District ...
3n' 53(1
159
1,000
...
892
103
5
247
73]
22
7
892
101
8
522
471'
Sansi
Punj'tb
406 480
114
999
...
1
938
61
1
426
560
14
21
891
88
to
584
406
Karnat District
383 474
143
1,000
...
...
909
91
349
626
25
15
858
127
32
463
505
Say AD
Punjab _ ...
410 440
150
999
1
973 25
2
555
429
16
53
840
107
22
480 498
Central Punjab Plains
4I0' 445
145
1,000
• •>
967
32
1
533
448
19
54
838
108
24
506 470
Western Punjab
419 434
147
999
1
983
16
I
585
404
11
60
840
100
22
475 503
SnEIKH
Punjab
373 485
142
998
2
938
60
2
414
571 15|
27
883
90
16
472
512
Eastern Punjab
355' 497
148
995
5
908
89
3
364
621
15
24
882
94
14
447
539
Centrnl Punjab Plains
388 472
140
1,000
...
954 44
2
448
537
15
25
885
90
17
486
497
Sonar
Punjab
373 463
164
999
1
...
928' 70
2
342
630l 28
12
855
133
6
449
545
Eastern Punjab
332 473
195
99b
5
...
898
«8
4
821
729 50
5
809
186
3
395
602
Central Punjab Plains
382 464
154
1,000
...
936
61
a
371
6O5! 24
11
868
121
6
473, u21
Tarkban
Punjab
378' 487
135
999
1
...
940
58
2
382
605| 13
17
896
87
8
512' 480
Eastern Punjab
325 524
151
99G
3
"\
895
102
3
236
7441 20
6
890
104
4
4721 524
Central Punjab Hills...
333, 503
164
1,000
873
122
5
247
732 21
34
859
107
12
434 554
Central Punjab Plains
387 481
132
1,000
...
950I 48
2
411
57s 11
16
900
84
8
524| 468
Western Punjab
425 460
115
1,000
...
,,
980 1 20
...
531
461 ; 8
28
902
70
10
546 444
Teh
Punjab
P79 490
131
909
1
P23] 74
3
362
625 13
15
899
86
9
502 489
Central Punjab Plains
388 483
12t'
999
1
>..
934 63
3
38f'
607 IS
1
13
902
85
9
508
483
NoT«.— (1) The figures against Punjab represent the total population of each caste io the Province.
(2) The localities are those where a caste is found in large numbers
I
VII.
315
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
[ Punjab, 1911-
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VI-
Terms of relationship as used in different dialects of the Panjab.
9
10
11
1»
IH
H
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
2t>
27
28
29
30
31
32
English.
Father
Mother
Elder brother (m.B.)...
Elder sister
Younger sister
Father's bro- | elder
ther \ jounger
Father's bro- I elder
ther'swife. (younger
Father's bro- ( elder
thpr's child. ). younger
Father's sister
Father's sister's hus-
band.
Father's sister's child
Mother's
Mother's
Mother's
child.
Mother's
Mother's
hand.
Mother's
Father's
Father's
Mother's
Mother's
Husband
brother
brother's wife
brother's
sister
sister's hus-
sister s
fnther
mother
father
mother
child
33
34
35
36
37
38
11
42
i3
4A
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
Wiffi'a father
Wife's mother
Husband's father
Husband's mother ...
Wife's brother
Wife's brother's wife
Wife's eister
Husband's sister
bus-
elder
Wife's sii
band.
Husband's
brother's
wife.
Husband's
wife.
Son's wife's parents
I. younger
wife, co-
Son
Daughter
Yonnger brother
Brother's child (m.s.)
Husband's brother's
child.
Brother's child (m.s.)...
Wife's brother's child
Sister's child
Husband's sister's
child.
Wife's sister's child
Son's child
Daughter's child
Wife
Daughter's husband...
Son's wife
Sister's husband
Brother's wife
Sister's daughter's hus-
band.
Brother's eon's wife...
Sister's son's wife
Son's daughter's hus-
band.
Daughter's daughter's
husband.
Brother's daughter's
huabaiid.
Step-brother or sister...
Hindi and Urdu.
B4p or Pita
Ma
Bhai (Bari>
Bari Bahan or Bibi
Chhoti Bahan
Tdu
Chachji,
Tii
Chachi
T4uz4d Bhii
Chachizad Bhii
Bhua nr Pliuppi
Phupha
Bhuiziid or Phuppi-
zid
Mama, Mimun
Mami
Mam^nzid Bbii
Maosi
Mios^
Maosizad Bhii
Biiba, DadS
Dadi. Amm^n
Nana
Nani
Khawind, Khasam
Malik.
Susra, Saohri
Sasu
Susra, Saohra
Sasu
Sala
Salajh
SAli
\and
Hamzulf, Sadhu
Jitbini
fiaorani
S^iokan or Sack
Samdhi and Samdhan
Bet4
Meti or Dhi
Chhota Bhai
Bhatiji and Bhatiji
Do.
Do.
Bo.
Bhanji and Bbinji
Bhatiji and Bhatiji
Bh^nji or sfili ki
Lark&.
Pot a, Poti
DohtA, Dohti
Bivi, Bahu, Lngii,
liharwili.
Jawai, Dum&d
Bahu
BahnoiyS or Bahnoi
Bhivaj or Baha
Bhanaj Jaw£i
Bhiitij Bahu
Bhanaj Bahu
Pot Jawii
Duhat Jaw4i
Bhatij Jawai
Snotela Bh&i, or
Bahan.
Panjabi.
Pyo, Peo, or Bhiiyi
i\M or Ma
Bhra (Vadda)
Bh4in, Bebe
Kaki, Nikki Bhiin
Tayi
Chachi
Tii
Chachi
Taedi Pnttar
Ohacheri Bhri
Bhua or Phuppi
Phupphar
Phuper
Mimin
Mami
Mumer
Masar
Maser
Pida
Dadi
Nana
N4ni
Khasam
Saohra
Sasg
Sauhri
Sass
Sala
Salehar
Sali
Ninan
Sandhu
Jithani
Darani
Srtukan
Knram and Euramni
Pnttar or Pntt
Dhi
Nikka Bhri
Bhatija and Bhatiji
Do.
Do.
Sale da Pnttar
Bbanevinand Bhane-
vio.
Nanin d4 Puttar or
Dhi.
Sail di Puttar or Kofi
Petri, Piitri
Dohtri, Dohtri
Tinvin and Vohti
Juwai
Nunh
Bhanvaiya
Bharjai
Dogri.
Bap-fi
Mi or Ammi
Bhri or Kaka
Bhain or Bahan
Do.
Tayi or Tiii
Chachi
Tai
Chichi
JBhiii
Bui
Buvai
Bhra
Mami
Mami
Mumer
Misi
Masar
Maser
Dad a
Dadi
Nina
Nini
Barka
Saohri
Sass
Saohri
Sass
Sili
Salah
Sili
Nanan
Sindhu
Jithini
Zahki, Decrani
Saukan
Knram and Kuramni
Puttar
Dhi
Nikka
Bhatrija andBhatriji,
Do.
Do.
Do.
Bhanii and Bhanei
Bbatriyi and Bhalriyi
Paoiri, Paotri
Daotri, Daotri
Janrin
Jawii, MaihmSn
Nunh
Bhanvii or Bhanyi
Bharjii
Mntrei
Bhiin.
Bhri
Pothwari.
6
Peo
Mi
BhiraorBhirio
Bhiin
Do.
Chichi
Do.
Chichi
Do.
Bhira
Bhui or Phuppi
Phnpphar
Phuppher
Mima
Mimi
Maoler
Masi
Masar
Maser
Dadi
Didi
Nani
Nini
Jana, Khasam
Saohi'i
Sass
Saohra
MatreS or Matreai
Sili
Silehaj
Sili_
Ninin
Sindhu
Jithani
Derini
Saukan, Pahij
Kuram and Kuram-
ni.
Puttr
Dhi
Nikka Bhira
Bhatrija and Bhat-
riji.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Bhanei and Bhanei
Bhatriya and Bhat-
riyi.
Potri, Petri
Dohtra, Dohtri
Trimat. B o h t i,
Sawini, Bann.
J awitra
Nunh
Bhanvii
Bharjii
Bhaneo Jawii
Bhatreo Nunh
Bhaneo Nunh
Potreon Jawii
Dohtrcon Jawii
Bhatreon Jawii
Matrea Bhira
Matreyi Bhiin
Multani or
Lahnda.
Pin, Abbi
Ma or Man
Bhiri
Bhen
Do.
Chachi
Do.
Chichi
Do.
Sotr Bhira
Bhui or Pbnppi
Phupphar
Phupher
Mami
Mirai
Muler
Misi
Masar
Masera or Masit
Dadi
Didi
Nini
Nani
Pai Mnssili
Saohra
Sass
Sauhra
Sass
Sili
Silehass
Sili
Ninin
Sindhu
Dirini
Do.
Pahij
Senr
Pntr
Dhi
Nikka Bhira
Bhatriji and
Bhatriji
Do.
Do.
Do.
Bhaneji
Bhaneji
Bhatrija
Bhatriji
and
and
Potri, Potrf
Dnhtra, Dohtri
Trimmit, Zil.
Jawii, Jauwfii or
Jawitra.
Nunh
Bhanvii
Bharjii
Matrea Bhra,
Matreyi Bhen
CHAPTER Vlll.
Education.
THE MEANING OF THE STATISTICS.
Beference 412. The statistics of literacy obtained at the recent Census are em-
to Statis- bodied in Imf)erial Tables VIII and IX. Each shows the number of persons
tics. ^ho are literate or illiterate, the former giving the distribution by age and
religion, and the latter by selected castes. The number of persons who are
literate in English is also given in each of those Tables. Figures relating to
literacy (by age and religion) in, and the scripts employed for writing, are
printed as an appendix to Table VIII, in Volume III and similar details by caste
of Arya, iJrahmo and Dev Dharam Sects for selected districts are furnished in ap-
pendix to Table IX, which will also be found in the same volume. Fur-
ther information in the shape of proportional figures is given at the end of the
Chapter in the form of Subsidiary Tables, which have on the present occasion
been increased to ten. Subsidiary Table I shows by religion the propor-
tion of literate males and femalfS at certain ages to the total population of
each sex and also the number per mille who are literate in English. Subsidiary
Table I A. furnishes details by sex and religion, of literacy in the vernaculars
and indicates the scripts employed in each case. Subsidiary Table II contains
statistics of the distribution of literates by age and sex in each Natural Division,
district or state and in the group of cities and selected towns. Subsidiary
Table III gives similar details by religion instead of by age. Subsidiary
Table IV supplies figures of local distribution of literates in English, by age
and sex for 1911 and compares the total for all ages with the statistics of the
two preceding Censuses. Subsidiary Table V shows the progress of educa-
tion by sex since 1881 and by age during the past 10 years, for each unit. Sub-
sidiary Table VI gives the number of literate nnd illiterate, per mille in eAch
selected caste, and the number per 10,000 who are literate in English.
Subsidiary Table VII compares with the departmental figures for 1891 and
1901, the present number of institutions and scholars in the Province. Subsi-
diary Table VIII contains a comparison of the results of University examina-
tions for the years 1891, 1901 and 1911, Subsidiary Table IX shows the
progress, since 1891, in the number and circulation of newspapers pubHshed in
each language. Subsidiary Table X gives the number of books published in
each language for each year of the past decade and compares the aggregate with
the total number published in each of the two preceding decades.
Their scope- 413. At the Censuses of 1881 and 1891, the population was, for the pur-
pose of showing the extent of literacy, divided into three categories, viz., ( i ) learn-
ing, ( ii ) literate, and ( iii ) illiterate. The instructions then issued were : —
" Enter all those as "learning" who are under instruction either at home, or at
School or College. Enter as " literate " those who are able both to read and write any
language, but are not under instruction as above. Enter as " illiterate " those who are not
under instruction, and who do not know bDth how to read and write, or who can read but
not write, or can sign their own name but not read."
As the results i^ecured by means of this system were far from satisfactory,
it was deemed advisable, in 1901, to reduce the number of classes to two, viz.,
" literate " and " illiterate." The instructions then given for the guidance of
Enumerators, in filling up the entries regarding education, were : —
" Enter against all persons, of whatever age, whether they can or cannot both read
and write any language."
These instructions would appear to have been interpreted by the Enu-
merators in their widest sense, so as to include persons just able to spell words
out of a book and able to sign their own names. At the present Census the
instructions were more precise, and defined literacy in stricter terms, thus: —
" A person should not be entered as literate unless he can write a letter to a friend
and read the answer to it."
It appears from various District Reports that in 1901, children who just
knew an alphabet, or grown up persons who could only sign their names were in
many places put down as literates. At the recent Census however, the qualifica-
tion of being able to both read and write a letter was insisted on except in the
case of children in the doubtful stages whom the parents were anxious to proclaim
as more advanced. A few extracts from the District Reports are quoted below.
VIII.
317
EXTENT OF LITEEACY.
[ Punjab, 1911.
Kangra, — "In the Census of 1901 all persons who could merely write tlieirnamea Were
enteredas literate, while in i911 only those who couldreadand write a letter were shown as such."
Eoshiarpitr. — " The decrease in literacy amongst males is due to the fact that in the
former Census all persons who could merely write their names were recorded literate while in
the recent one those alone were returned as such who could read and write well."
Multan. — " Allowance must be made for the fact that while in 1901 males who could
merely read religious books in Sanskrit ur Arabic were entered as literates, this was not the
case at the last Census of 1911."
Ferozepore, — "In the Census of 1901 people who knew merely the alphabets of a
language were classed as literates while in 1911 only those who could read and write fluently
were returneii as such and this accounts for the decrease in the number of male literates."
Chamha. — " The only leason that I can find tor the decrease of literacy in the
State by 139 while the population has increased by ?,039, is that greater strictness has been
observed in returning literate persons during this Census. Persons who have not read up
to the Primary Standard of Examination and who cannot carry on their coi respond ence in
a language have been returned as 'illiterate' while in the Census of 1901 any person who
could even sign his name was returned ' literate '."
Patiala. — " At the previous Census any person who had a little knowledge of any script
was enumerated as ' literate' but at the present Census only those persons have been
deemed as such who could read and write well."
As regards females however, tlie improvement is genuine. Female edu-
cation was really at a vei-y low level 10 years ago and it was not usual to claim
the qualification of literate for a female unless she could actually r ead ar;d write.
So the standard of literacy now adopted has not affected the comparative value of
the figures representing female literacy.
EXTENT OF LITERACY.
411. Out of a total population of 24,187,750 persons, only 899,195 General
(836,463 males and 62,732 females) are literate. In other words only 37 persons Remarks
out of every 1,000 can read and write. Of males, 63 per mille have acquired the
standard,while the corresponding figure for females is as low as 6. But the extent of
Enghsh education is still smaller for only 117,561 (106,707 males and 10,854
females) are literate iu that language. That is to say, of the 37 literates per mille,
only 5 (i.e.,less than one-seventh) know English. But while one in eight male
literates has the English qualification, the few educated females show the somewhat
higher proportion of one in six. Females whose education is an innovation in this
country would thus appear to be learning the Euglish language more readily.
415. The extent of literacy in each sex is much greater in British Territory Literacy
No. PEE MILLB WHO ARE —
Literate.
Literate in
English.
Territorial Division,
2,
a
■3
a
(0
.2
"a
a
6
g
a;
British Territory
Native States ... . .
65
51
6
3
9
3
1
DIACRAM SHOWINt: THE NUMBER OF PERSONS
f PER 1000 WHO ARE UTERATT
-a
PUNJAB INOO HIMALAYAN SUB NORTHWEST
CANCETIC HIMALAYAN DRY AREA
PLAIN WEST
than in the Native States (see mRrgin). t,y jj^^^t^j.^!
But, the difference in the proportion of DjyjgjQjjg,
literates in English is even g^reater. Exam-
ining the figures by Natural Divisions, the
highest proportion of literates is found in
the Sub-Himalayan tract where 65 males
and 7 females per mille of each sex are
literate. The Jndo-Gangetic Plain West
has as many female literates per mille but the
corresponding proportion of males is only 63.
The Himalayan tract stands next with 61
males and 5 females who can read and write,
out of every 1,000, and the Norths West Dry
Area whicli is the least advanced in education,
has 60 and 4 literates per mille, respective-
ly, of the two sexes. The figures are illustrat-
ed by the marginal diagram. That the variation
of the extent of literacy from one Natural
Division to another is not large is an indication
of the general demand for education and the
efforts which are being made all over the
Province to educate the masses. But the
figures of the Himalayan tract have been push-
ed up jutificially by the abnormally high pro-
portion of literates at Simla, m. : — males, 236
per mille and females, 131 per mille. Excluding
Censns Eeport. J
318
EXTENT OF LITERACY.
Chaptbe
the Simla District, the normal state of education in the Natural Division is
much lower than that in the North- West Dry Area, the figures being 56 male
and 3 female literates per mille of each sex.
Literacy
by Districts
and States.
Cities and
selected
towns.
MAP
SHOVTNC THE PREVALENCE OF
EDUCATION AMONGST MALES
416. The map printed in the margin shows the prevalence of literacy
amongst males in each of the
districts and states. The nu-
merical strength of literate
females being exceedingly
small, it appears unnecessary
to illustrate their local distri-
bution. The case of Simla is
an extraordinary one, as in
consequence of being the seat
of the Provincial and Imperial
Governments and a mainly
European station, its inhabi-
tants, whether belonging to
Government or other service
or to trading classes are
usually literate. The only
inhabitants who cannot gene-
rally read and write are
menial servants and labour-
ers. The proportion of literates in that district is therefore nearly four times
as high as the Provincial average. But the Simla Hill States by which the
Simla District is encircled, fall in the lowest grade with less than 50 literates
to every 1,000 males and so does the whole of the Himalayan Division with the
exception of Kangra. The south-east and south-west of the Province are
also very backward in education. The Karnsl, Rohtak, Gurgaon and Hissar
Districts with the Lohara, Dujana, Nabha and Jhind States in the south-east
and the Dera Ghazi Khan District and Bahawalpur State at the south-west fall
in the lowest class. The north-western extremity of the Province is not much
better off, Mianwali and Attock having only 50 to 60 literate males per mille.
But the extent of literacy is not higher in the central districts of Gurdaspur,
Sialkot, Gujrat, Gujranwala, Lyallpur, Montgomery and Ferozepore. The
Kangra, Hoshiarpur, Jullundur, Amritsar, Shahpur, Jhang and Muzaffargarh
Districts with the Patiala, Faridkot and Kapurthala States have a somewhat
better proportion of 62 to 74, while Ambala, Ludhiana, Maler Kotla, Jhelum and
Multan have 79 to 86 Uterates per mille. After the Simla District, the units
containing the highest proportion of literates are, Rawalpindi (101), Lahore (95)
and Delhi (92).
417. The proportion of literates in the towns and cities is much higher
than in the rural tracts. The average for the cities and
selected towns of the Province is 221 Hterate males
and no less than 55 literate females to eveiy 1,000
compared with the Provincial averages of 6.S and 6
respectively. The figures for the three cities and three
largest towns are given in the margin. In respect of
male literacy, Rawalpindi takes the lead with a pro-
portion of 207 but this is due mainly to the large body
of European troops located at the cantonments there.
Lahore with 265 literates per mille is a very close
second, but here the abundance of literates is due to
the fact of its being the headquarters of Government
with a large number of offices and its numerous school?, colleges and trading
firms. The presence of 6,458 European males at Rawalpindi has exaggerated
the proportion of male literates in its comparatively small population, while the
European element has not had an appreciable effect on the much larger popula-
tion of Lahore.
NUMBBE PBR
MILLE.
Citj or town.
m'
ai
cS
s
"a
B
Lahore
285
lie
Delhi
178
35
Amrilsar...
18C
30
Kawnlpindi
267
02
Multan
237
29
Ambala
234
38
VIII.
319
EXTENT OF LITEEACT.
[ Punjab, 1911-
The proportion of literates is considerably higher in Lahore in tho ages
under 20 as shown in the
Scb-Table II (Ch«ptke VIII).
All ages.
0—10.
10—15.
15-20.
20 and
Locality.
over.
.
</>
<D
o
a
(U
a
to
CO
03
d
M
d
m
OP
a
p
P.
Fi
s
cd
4]
<u
0)
01
B4
265
b
a
fa
a
fe
344
fa
316
307
tx<
Lahore city
209
lie
45
35
273
240
97
Rawalpindi town...
208
267
92
40
28
223
127
296
135
317
109
margin
Age-periods.
Number per mitle
who are literate.
Males.
Females.
0—10
10—15
15—20
20 and OTer ...
3
42
78
95
1
9
12
7
But the order is
revei'sed in the age-period
of 20 and over which
includes mo.st of the Euro-
pean soldier.?. Female
literates are however
strongest in the Lahore
city and this is as it
should be, considerino; the
facilities for female educa-
tion which the city affords.
The towns of Multan and Ambala which have strong military cantonments have a
fairly high proportion of literate males and the cities of Amritsar and Delhi
where the extent of literacy is not affected by artificinl causes stand lowest, with
a proportion of literates well below the normal rate for cities and towns.
418. Some 80 out of every 100 literate males are over 20 years of age, I-iteracj by^
11 are 15 — 20 years old and 8 belong to the age-period 10 — 15, while only one is ^^^
below the age often. Amongst females, 61 literates are aged over 20, 17 and 16
are in tho age-periods 15 — 20 and 10 — 15 respectively, and 6 are under ten years
of age. Femtile education being still in its infancy, the proportion of literates in
the earlier ages is comparatively large. The propor-
tion of literates of each sex in each age-period to the
population of that sex at that age, however, tells a
different tale. The Bgures, which ai'e quoted in the
margin, show that in every age-period female educa-
tion is far backward compared with that of males.
Nevertheless the relative strength of literate females
under 10 approaches that of males of the same ages
closer than in any of the higher age-periods-
419. A diagram showing the comparative strength of literates in each of Literacy by
the main religions is given in the margin. Religion.
1'he Jains with 464 literate males per Jains,
mille are fadle frinceps in respect of males and
their proportion of literate females (24) is also
higher than that araoncr the Hindus, Sikbs or
Muhammadans. The Jains who live mostly in
towns, are usually well off and in a position to
take advantage of the chances of educating their
children.
The Christians have 237 males and 125
females per 1,000 who can read and write. The
chief educated factor among them are Europeans
who have no less than 904 male and 813 female
literates in every 1,000, but the fact that the
Indian converts belonging mostly to the menial
castes should have 44 males and 35 females per
mille who are literate speaks volumes for the
laudable efforts of the Missionary Societies in the direction of educating the
poorer classes.
The Hindus and Sikhs stand at about the same level in education, the
former having a slightly larger proportion of male literates (95) while the latter
have more educated females {i.e. 12) per 1,000.
The Muhammadans are out and out the most backward in education.
They have no inoi'e than 27 educated males per mille, and only one female out of
every 500 is literate amongst them.
The Zoroastrians (Parsis) have the exceedingly high proportion of 818
male and 603 feni.-ile literates per mille. The corresponding figures among the
Jews are 667 and 250 respectively. But the whole strength of these two reli-
gions is insignificant and considering that they generally represent commerce, the
UTERATES BY
RELCION AND
SEX PER MILL£
Christiana.
Hindus and
Sikhs.
Muhamma-
dans.
other
KoIigioDB.
Censas Repott. ]
320
EXTENT OF LITKEACY.
Chaptke
Bj locality.
Education
by caste.
high proportion of education among them is by no means strange. The Buddhists
have a fairly low proportion of 157 male and G female literates per thousand.
The proportion cf literate Hindu males is highest in the western Punjabj
the leading districts being Muzaffargaih 400, Mianwali 880, Jhang and Multan
331 per mille, in the North- West Dry Area and Jhelum and Attock with 397 and
371 per unlle, respectively, in the ^^ub- Himalayan Natural Division. The Hindu
population in the western Puiijab is mainly occupied in trade and consequently
every adult is of necessity able to read and write. In the central Punjab,
Ludliiana with 148 per mille is the only district worth mention.
Here again the proportion of the Hindu agricultural population is but
small. The Sikhs, like the Hindus, and for the same cause, have the
highest proportion in the western Punjab. The other units with high proportions
are Delhi 463, Rohtak 461 per mille in the eastern Punjab, and the Mandi State
435 where the total strength of the Sikhs is small. The Jains show cent, per cent,
literates in certain districts and states, but their total population in these places
does not number more than 5. On the whole, however, the proportion of literates is
high among the Jains throughout the Province, and Ferozepore with a population
of "53 males has as many as 675 literate males per mille. Ihe Muhammadan
proportion is very low throughout the Province. Jt is only in Simla that the extent
of literacy among them compares at all favourably with that among the other
religions. That district has 232 Muhammadan males per mille who are literates
as compared with 177 Hindu and 382 Sikhs. Delhi with 90 per mille comes next,
and Lahore has only 52 per mille. The Christiana have a high percentage
of literate males in Simla, Rawalpindi, Attock, Jbelum and Multan, where
the European population is relatively strongest. The proportion is very low
in Lyallpur and Sialkot where the increase in the Christian population has
been the greatest. Most of the converts are of course iJlilerate. Hindu
females have the highest proportion of literates in Lahore, Hawalpindi and
Attock, while Rohtak, Rawalpindi, Simla, Shahpur and Chamba show the beat
record of female education amongst the Sikhs. The proportion of literates amongst
Jain females is smnll in comparison with that of males. It is highest in Shahpur,
Simla, and Montgomery, not counting the Mandi State, where their total number
is only 1. Literacy amongst Muhammadan females is very backward indeed.
Simla Avith a proportion of 35 per mille heads the list of districts, and Delhi
comes next with 12. Lahore has only 9 per mille of literate Muhammadan
females. Even in the three Cities and six selected Towns the Muhammadans
have only 1 19 and 2C literate males and females per mille, as compared .vith 796
and 568 Ciu-istians, 414 and 106 Sikhs and 251 and 66 Hindu males and females
respectively, who are literate.
420. The statistics of literacy by caste given jn Table IX have been distri-
Numbir of Literates per
ten thousand.
Locality.
C
o
m
1
1
S
Eastern Punjab ...
Central ( Hills ...
Punjnb 1 Plains ...
Western Punjab ...
333 573
348 619
3H4 6;h6
381 656
42
49
65
57
buted into the eastern, central (Plains and Hills) and
western Punjab. The units included in each* are
detailed on the title page to Table IX (Volume II).
The extent of literacy in each of the above divisions
is shown by the marginal figures. The Plains por-
tion of the central Punjab is the most forward in
education. In respect of education each of tha fonr
divisions is more or less homogeneous. The eastern
Punjab is most backward in literacy and the hilly por-
tion of the central Punjab is only slightly bettei". The
central (Plains) and western Punjab stand on about the same level in the propor-
tion of literates to total population, although the absolute number of literates in
the former is more than double that of the latter. On the whole, however, the
variation fiom one division to another is confined between 333 and 384 per 10,000
and cannot be considered large bearing in mind the advantages of the central
Funjab (Plains) in respect of the centre of trade, education and Government.
* Easlt rn Punjab comprises the Delhi Division (save Simla) and the States of Loharu, Dnjnna, Falnudi,
Kalsia and Knhan. (.'eniral Punjab includes (a Hills) the 3imU and Kangra Districts, the Simla Hill States and the
States of Mandi. Side! and Chambu, and (6 Plains) the Jullundar and Lahore Dinsions, together with the districts
of Gujral, L.v llpur and Jhang. the Phulkian States and the States of Kapurthala, Faridkct and Maler Kolla. Western
Punjab comprises ihe remaining districts in the Rawalpindi and Multan divisions, together with the State of
£ahauatj)\tr.
VIII.
321
EXTENT OF LITEBACT.
[Punjab, 1911-
No. of Literates
fer mille.
Hindus.
Khatri
.Aggarwal
Arora
Brahman
250
212
210
113
Broadly speaking, all castes show a high percentage of educated
persons in the central Punjab (Plains) except where, owing to the smallness of
numbers, the proportion is higher in other localities. The Aroras who abound
in the western Punjab aud show a higher percentage of literates there, are an
exception. Some of the figures contained in Subsidiary Table
VI are reproduced in the margin. The Hindus, Jains and Sikhs
are mixed up in the first four castes for the sake of brevity
and will be mentioned as Hindus. Education is backward in
the castes which are common to Hindus and Muharamadans. It
will be seen that the Kliatris found mostly in the central Punjab
Plains are the most advanced in education, having one literate
in every four persons. The Aggarwals who have a large pro-
portion of Jains confined mainly to the eastern Punjab, Aroras
wlio live mostly in the western Punjab and Brahmans who are
equally distributed all over the Province are the only other
castes which run into three figures. The most highly educated castes of Muham-
mandans are the Say ads with 83 literates per mille. Qureshi^ with 77, Sheikhs
with 74, Khojas -with 58 ai:d Pathans with 53 showing a decent proportion.
These four Muhammadan castes are most numerous in the western Punjab and the
central Punjab Plains. Tlie most backward castes of importance are the
Dhanaks with less than one and the Chuhras and Musallis with one literate each,
per mille.
The Brahmans, who had the monopoly of learning in the olden times,
together with the trading classes of Khatris, Aroras and Aggarwals, include about
half the total number of literates in the Province.
Figures of literacy were not abstracted by caste either in 1881 or in
Jiuhammaiana,
Sayad .^ ... 83
QoreBhi 77
Sheikh ... 74
Khoja ... 58
Pathaa ... 53
So, of literates per mille.
Caste.
1891.
1911.
Caate.
1891.
1911.
t.—Agriculturo
14
19
V.-Artizans ...
20
26
Arain
7
11
Chhimbu ...
19
28
Awan
14
13
Kashmiri ...
17
34
Ghirath
8
U
Lobar
U
14
Jat
13
17
Nai
10
13
Kamboh ...
12
16
Sunar
76
80
Labana
10
23
Tarkhan
15
23
Moghal
30
49
Pathan
41
53
Rajput
12
26
VI.— Criminal
Rnini
15
26
tribes
2
3
II,— Priests anil
Bawaria
2
4
devotees •■■
37
lo7
Harni
2
3
Brahman ...
102
113
Pakhiwas ...
3
Sayad
71
83
lll.—H u nte rs
(Mahtam) ...
4
9
VII. -Others ...
7
lO
IV.— Traders ...
173
191
Barwaia
5
7
Arora
203
210
Bhaiai
2
4
Khatri
218
250
Jhinwar
6
U
Sheiith
62
74
Jogi-Rawal
17
21
1901. But the statistics
of 1891 ai-e luckily avail-
able for comparison. The
figures of the more im-
portant castes are com-
pared in the margin.
They show a marked pro-
gress in literacy all round.
As a class the traders and
the priests have improved
least, evidently because the
extent of education has-
always been large amongst
them
though
The criminal tribes
still very back-
ward have secured a large
increase relatively. It is
remarkable that Pakbi-
waras who had no literate
in 1891, now have 3 such
premature to say that the
the efftirt of the Salvation
that Sialkot where
persons out of every 1 ,000. It would be rather
improvement among the criminal tribes is due to
Army towards their reclamation, but the coincidence,
they established a settlement in May 1910, contains eight literate Pakhiwaras
out of a total of 11, is worth notice. The Mahtams have also improved
ramarkably from 4 to 9 literates per mille in 20 years. The agricultural
castes have risen 17 per cent, in literacy and, with the exception of the Awans
who have not gained in education, every one of them has exhibited a fair advance.
The Labanas have 23 literates now against 10 in 1891 and the proportion of
literates among Rajput.s has risen from 12 to 26. The Moghals aud Pathans
have secured noticeable gains and industrious Arains also seem to bo benefiting
largely. The Jata and Kambohs are progressing at a slow pace. -»:
The artizans appear to be educating themselves notwithstanding the great
demand for skilled labour. Of the " Other " castes, the improvement shown by
Jhinwars (from 6 to 11 per mille) is remarkable.
Census Report,]
822
■XTBNT OF LITEBACT.
Chapter
Males.
Hindus, Jaint and Sikh;
Iduhammadans.
Khatri *05
Sayad
US
Aggarwal 381
Qureshi
13B
Arora 367
Sheikh
124
Brahman 195
Khoja
loV
Patban
86
Moghal
82
Kashmiri
57
Ftmales.
Tignrea for
Reform soois-
ties.
The Brahmos,
Literacy among the males is much higher than in the whole population.
Figures of the more important castes are enumerated in the margin. Among the
Hindus, it appears to be highest in
the trading classes — i.e., the Khatris, Ag-
garwals and Aroras. More than 40 per
cent, of Khatri males are literate. But
the Brabmans who should according to
their traditions, have been the most
generally educated, have less than half of that proportion. Education among the
Muhammadans is confined to the priestly tribes of Sayad and Qureshi, the trading
castes of Sheikh and Khoja who also include a large element of converted Hindus
and the tribes of high status — e.g., Pathan and Moghal, who are scattered all
over the Province. The Kashmiri (Muhammndans) of the trading classes are
well advanced in education, bat the large numbers of labourers whose strength is
augmented from time to time by fresh migration from Kashmir have tended to
keep down the proportion for the caste as a whole.
The lowest figures are those of Dhanak 1, MuPalli 1, Chuhra 2, and
Dumn? 3. The criminal tribes show a somewhat higher proportion of literates —
viz., Pakhiwara and Sansi 4 each, Harni 5 and Bawaria 6, per mille. Macbhi and
Dagi-Koli with 5 each and Mallah with 6 literates out of every thousand are
no better. The Chamars. Kumhars, Bharais and Mochis have only 7 males per
mille, who can read and write.
The obvious inference to be drawn from these figures is that the menial
castes are the least educated, the sea yenging class standing lowest.
The castes with the largest proportion of female literates are named in the
margin. The order is about the same as among
males. The Khatris again take the lead with
60 literates per mille, then come the Aioras 2S,
Sheikhs and Aggarwals 13 each, Brahmans and
Sayads 12 each, Qureshis 10, Patbans and Mogahls
8 each, Kashmiris and Sunars (mainly Hindu) 7
each, per mille. The depressed classes and criminal
tribes have no literate females, with the exception of the Pakhiwaras who have
one literate female in every 1,000. This one female also belongs to Sialkot.
The figures for the more important agricultural tribes not mentioned
above are shown in the margin. The Rajputs though much
less educated than the Pathans, are somewhat better than
other warrior classes like the Jats, Awans and Biloch. The
last who live mainly at the south- westeni end of the
Province are not yet taking to education in large num-
bers. The Ahirs and Meos at the south-eastern corner are
equally bad and Gujars who are most numerous in Guj rat and Hoshiarpur are
very largely pastoral by occupation.
421. The Reform Societies among the Hindus appear to be much better off
in respect of education than
No. of female literates per mille.
HindtiS.
MuhammadavB.
Khatri
. 60
Sheikh ... 13
Arora
. 28
Sayad ... 12
Aggarwal
. 13
Qureshi ... 10
Brahman
. 12
Moghal ... 8
Pathan ... 8
Kashmiri ... 7
Agricnltnral
a —
tribes.
Literates per mille.
Ahir
8
Jat
17
Araia
U
Khokhar
16
Awan
i:<
Meo
5
Biloch
8
Kajput
26
Uhiratb
11
Saini
26
Gujar
7
Hindu.
Asia.
Bbahmo.
Dev Dhasm.
a
01*
o
"5
i
"5
E
o
m
a
1
n
flO
1
c
o
0..
DO
1
m
g
s
&
'eO
1
Literate ...
55
95
7
166
230
80
375
547
153
184
2i5
103
Literate in
6
10
40
67
i
131
195
47
29
47
6
English.
the Hindu population taken
as a whole. Tlie figures given
in Appendix to Table IX* for
the Arya, Brahmo and Dev
Dharm sects are re|)roduced
in the margin. The Brahmos
have by far the largest pro-
portion of literates, more than
half the males and more
than 1 5 per cent, of the females being able to read and write. Close on
20 per cent, of males and 5 per cent, of females possess the additional
qualification in English. Had it not been for the classification of some
orthodox Hindus as Brahmos, referred to in paragraph 179 the extent
of literacy would probably have appeared still higher among the limited
circle of Brahmos, and there is nothing strange in this. f=eeing that only
" ' • See , Volume IIL
VIII.
323
EXTENT OF LITERACY.
[ Punjab. 1911.
2
Caste.
o
BrahmaD
236
99
Khatri ...
171
60
Arora ...
I2ti
52
Suuar ...
23
11
Actual
FIGURES.
Caate.
1
(0
13
Arora ...
337
168
Kbatri ...
209
104
Brahman
142
58
Tarkhan
37
25
Actual figcbis.
Actual Figures. the educated classes join the society. The most educated
castes included in Biahmos are given in the margin. Most
of the hterate Brahmo Brahmans and Khatris are to be
found in Lahore, the Aroras in Lahore and Shahpur and the
Sunars in Gurdaspur. The followers of Dev Dharm have '^''^ ^f"
also more than three times as many literates per mille as for ""*'
all the Hindus taken together. But the special feature of
the figures of this sect is that they bave 32 literate females for every 100 literate
males while the corresponding figures for Brahraos »nd Arjas are only 22 and
20 respectively. Their superiority in female education is due to their sustained
and vigorous efforts at the Girl School at Ferozepore, that District having return-
ed 77 literate females among the followers of Dev Dharm, out of the total of 103
for the whole Province. But like the Brahmos, Dev Dharm has apparently
suffered by the inclusion of a number of followers of the
Goddess (Devi Dharm) as alluded to in paragraph 180
(Chapter IV.), which must have caused a shrinkage in
the real proportion of literacy in this small sect recruited
mainly from the educated classes. The more important
castes of Dev Dharm in point of literacy are given in the
margin. The Aroras'and Khatris contribute most to the
strength of hterate Dev Dharmis and 42 out of the 103
literate females of this sect belong to the Arora caste.
Compared with the Brahmos and Dev Dharmis the Aryas are an enormous jheAryas.
body and embrace many more castes. The recent admission of the Meghs, Ods
and other menial castes brings the extent of education in this body of reformed
ideas down very much nearer to the Hindu figures. But, although they have only
more than twice as many literates per mille of males as the average for all
Hindus, yet 80 per mille of their females are educated
against 7 for all Hindus. The castes of Aryas show-
ing the highest proportion of literates are Suds (111
out of 306), Kalals (lOH out of 319), Kayasths (129
out of 337), Mahajans (54 out of 108) and those with the
largest number of educated persons are entered in the
margin. The Arya Aroras belong mainly to the west-
ern Punjab. The Khatris and Brahmans are inhabit-
ants of the central Punjab and the Aggarwals have
been returned mostly in the eastern Punjab — Districts
of Delhi, Hissar and Karnal. The Rajput Aryas being generally educated people,
it is not startling to find that they have 175 literates per mille against the pro-
portion of 26 for all Rajputs. But the fact that more than one-tenth of the Ods
who have attached themselves to the Arya Samaj are literate and that even the
Meghs (mostly of Sialkot), wlio have been recently elevated, have 5 literates per
mille, appears to be a proof of the activity of the Arya Samaj in imparting educa-
tion to the menial classes.
422. At the Census of 1901 literacy in the vernaculars was diffwreutiated Litgrg^yintljg
with reference to the script employed and the figures were classified into (1) Urdu or versacnlars.
Hindustani, (2) Hindi or Bhasha, (3) Gurmukhi, (4) Pashto, (5) Tibetan, (6) Tankri
and (7) Lande or Mabajani. A slightly different classification has been adopted
on the present occasion which, however, admits of a comparison. Literates in the
vernaculars have been grouped into
those who correspond in (1) LTrdu,
(2) Hindi, (3) Panjabi and (4) other
dialects or languages. Separate figures
hhve been given in Appendix to
Table VIII for the script employed
'i24 in writing each vernacular, the lesser
used scripts being clubbed together
"others" under each head. For f Hcility
of reference, the absolute figures for
all religions are reproduced in the
margin. In spite of the Urdu —
Caste.
Total.
Lfterate.
Arora
10,547
3,613
Brahman
7,240
2,077
Khatri
17,237
5,212
Od
5,102
542
Bajpnt
2,403
421
Aggarwal
1,983
474
Vernaculars with script
-- •
employed.
Persons.
Males.
Females.
Urdu (Total)
402,728
385.091
17.637
„ . . Persian
^'"P"- Others
394,353
377,252
17,101
8,37.-;
7,839
53G
Hindi (Total)
149,336
137,985
11,351
( NaRri
Scripts... < Lande or Mahajani
( Others
75,47,5
05,538
9,937
72,541
71,251
1,290
1,320
1,19C
124
Panjabi (Total)
311,255
285872
25383
/ Gurmukhi
141,801)
I2l,()0ti
20,734
\ Lande or Mahajani
122,04t;
120,720
1,326
Scripts... i Nagri
27,191
24,281
2,910
J Tankri
17,463
17,13(i
327
(.Persian
2,755
2,669
RG
Others
3.905
3,440
465
Census Report,]
EXTENT OP LITERACY.
Chaptkr-
The Boripts.
Panjabi — Hindi controversy, which is dealt with in the next Chapter, the
record respecting scripts does not appear to have been affected by indivi-
dual prejudices to any appreciable extent, for even though a man may
profess to talk in one vernacular while he actually uses another, it is less easy for
him to conceal the script in which he is accustomed to write his letters. More-
over, it must not be as^sumed tl-.at because a person talks one language at home, he
necessarily carries on his correspondence in the same vernacular and in the script
usually employed for it. Instances of people talking nothing but Panjabi
at home, but conducting their business and correspondence in the Urdu
language and Persian script are numerous. Certain corrections had, however,
to be made ia the returns in respect of double and triple entries regarding literacy,
which had been made in a few cases, contrary to instnictions. Under these orders
tne persons could be classed under only one of them, and the absolute rule
adopted in such cases was to take the first entry and to ignore the others. For
instance, if a person had been returned as literate in Urdu (Persian), Hindi (Nagri),
and Panjabi (Garmukhi) he was put down as literate in Urdu and using the
Persian script. From the results of inspections at the Sorting offices, there is
reason to believe that Urdu (Persian) gained to a certain extent by this rule of
thumb, but it was not possible to adopt any other means of eliminating super-
fluous entries and after all Urdu being at present the most important of the
written vernacvilars, it was only fair that a person who had acquired the neces-
sary efficiency in fhat vernacular along with a greater or lesser knowledge of
the others should be reckoned as literate in that. On)issions had also to be
supplied in some cases where the languaere alone had been returned without noting
the script, for instance wiien the entry was merely Urdu, Hindi or Panjabi. In
such cases, it was assumed that the language was written in the script most com-
monly employed. This explanation will make the exact meaning of the figures clear..
Literates in Urdu number 17 per mille and of these 16 use the
Persian script, while one per mille write the language in Nagri, Lande,
Gurmukhi, Gujrati, Bengali, Tankri or Roman characters. Panjabi comes
next in importance being used by 13 per mille. The scripts employed are : —
Gurmukhi by 6, Lande or Mahajani by 5, Nagri by 1 and Tankri by 1. Only
2,755 persons write Panjabi in the Persian character (mostly in Gurdaspur,
Ferozepore and Patiala) but the proportion is less than 1 per mille. Literates
in Hindi aggregate 6 per mille, half of them using the Nagri character and half
the commercial script called Lande or Mahajani. The proportion employing
other scripts is insignificant. But it may be mentioned that 148 persons write
Hindi in the Persian character, 148 in Tankri, 184 in Bengah , 128 in Gujrati
and 711 in Gurmukhi. When Hindi is written in Gurmukhi* it is difficult to
decide whether it is really Hindi or F'anjabi. The figures are however too
small to affect the results.
423. The proportion of
other vema-
oolars.
Script.
1 I
Persona. Males.
Persian ...
Nagri
Gurmnkhi
Lande or Mahajani
Tankri
Others
397,256
140,170
143,040
200,491
17,631
4,636
380,061
01,143
122 204
197,640
17,238
4,102
persons using
given by
each language and script is
Table
sexes
in
Females.
17,195
13,027
20,836
2,851
393
534
Subsidiary
I, A. Persian still remains the most
important script as will be seen from
the marginal figures, which combine
the per sous using each script under all the
vernaculars. Close on 400,000 literates
write in that character. Next in numerical
strength comes Mahajani or Lande (with
■ less than 200,000 writers). Gui-mukhi
appears to be somewhat more in nse than Nagri, but the two taken together are
only a little more than half the strength of the Persian script.
The other vernaculars uped are detailed on the title page of Appendix
to Table VIII (Volume III), the more important of them being Nepali,
Bengali, Bhoti, Gujrati, Tibetan, and Arabic. As many as 119 males and
75 females have put themselves down as reading and writing Arabic. This
is not very inconsistent with the presence of 548 male and 421 female Arabs in
the Province, although the number of females seems to admit of some exaggeration
• The Gnrmukhi character was invented in the 16th Century by Guru Angad. the second Sikh Guru, to improve
upon the crude Lande script, which was then employed for writing in Panjabi and Vulgar Hindi.
325
Vni, EXTENT OF LITKBACT, [ Punjab, 1911.
and it appears that some females as -well as males -who are constant readers of the
Koran have returned themselves ns literate in Arabic, Now that the North- West
Frontier Province has been separated, only 26 males and 1 female have been regis-
tered as literate in Pashto. Roman is employed as a script by 275 persons writ-
ing in Urdu and 1 female writing in Hindi. The character is, however, used
somewhat more extensively, althouoh with reference to the script moat commonly
employed, it has been recorded only in a few cases.
424. The Parsis ahotv the largest proportion of persons conducting their Uae of Tema-
correspondence in Urdu mostly in the Persian character, but their number is small, f-"^*" ''^ "'
The Jains have 84 per mille who write Urdu, 73 of them using the Persian script. '^'°°*
Of every 1,000 Indian Christians 33 write in Urdu and 19 per mille of the Hindus
can read and write in tliat language. The proportion of Muhammadans using
this language is only 15 per mille and they all write in the Persian character (ex-
cept 90 males ann 19 females who use other scripts). It is, however, to be remem-
bered that the total number of literate Muhamrandans is not more than 16 per mille.
The Sikhs have as many as 14 persons out of everv 1,000 writing Urdu in the
Persian character. The Jains also lead in literacy in the Hindi language(l23)but
the Hindus have only 16 persons per mille writing Hindi, half of them in Nagri and
half in the commercial script. The Sikhs have only 1 per mille writing Hindi in
the Lande character. The Zoroastrians have 25 per mille writing Hindi, mostly in
Na^ri. The distribution of persons using Panjabi in correspondence is, Jains 55,
Sikhs 43 (using the Gurmukhi character 36, Lande 7 and Nagri less than 1), Hindus
20 (using mostly the commercial script, a little Nagri and some Tankri) in every
1,000. The proportion of Muhammadans using Panjabi in the commercial script
is less than 1 per mille.
It will thus appear that, although the absolute strength of the Muham-
madans reading and writing in Urdu is the largest, that of the Hindus is not
much smaller, and together with the Jains and Sikhs they use that vernacular
more widely than the LIuhammadans, while its relative use is larger amongst
the Jains and Hindus. But the establishment of numerous Hindi-teaching
Schools and the organization of Hindi Pracharni Sabhas is likely to extend
the use of the Hindi language and the Nagri script amongst the Hindus, while
Panjabi written in Gurmukhi, which is being fostered particularly by the Sikhs,
is also bound to come into more extensive use.
425. The Bgures of each of the three main vernaculars are compared in the Variation.
margin with those of 1901. Literates in Hindi
have improved in the past ten years by 8 per cent,
the increase being more prominent amongst
females (110 per cent.) compared with that in
males (3 percent.). This gain may be as-
cribed to the general development in education.
But it has also to be borne in mind thf»t in
1901, the script alone was the differentiating standard and that all persons writino-
Lande or Mahajani were put down as literates in Panjabi ; while, as a matter oi
fact, both Hindi of the eastern Punjab and Panjabi of the central and western
tracts are writtt-n in the commercial script and consequently the present figures
distinguish Urdu, Hindi, and Panjabi written in that character. A good deal of
increase must, therefore, also be due to the transfer to Hindi of a number of
persons put down in 1901 under the head Panjabi. Panjabi has shown a con-
traction of 24 per cent. ; literacy in that language having increased 73 per
cent, amongst females and decreased 28 per cent, amongst the males.
The loss in Panjabi would appear to have been a gain to Urdu and Hindi ; the for-
mer now shows 18 per cent, more literates than in 1901, an increa.se of 16 per cent,
amongst the males and 110 per cent, amongst the females. It is possible that the
increase may have been exaggerated to a certain extent by persons (Khojas, &c.)
who correspond m Panjabi but use the commercial or Persian script having been
taken as writing Urdu. But, generally speaking, more and more boys who formeily
read nothing but Gurmukhi, are learning Urdu at the schools. When they have
acquired sufficient efficiency in the latter vernacular, it usually replaces Panjabi
in their business and private correspondence. It is also a fact that numerous
traders and business men who ten years ago kept up their account books in
Vernacular.
1911.
1901.
Difference
per cent.
Hindi
Urda
Punjabi
149,336
402,72H
311,255
138.786
341.547
412,117
+ 8
+ 18
-24
Census Report, ]
EXTENT OF LITERACY.
Chapter
Dietribntion
by age.
English
education.
Per mille literates in each uernocuJar.
Age
Urdn
Hindi
Panjabi
0-10
16
14
10
10-15
120
62
54
15—20
147
108
93
W and over ...
717
816
6i3
Panjabi, vising the commercial script, find it more convenient now to use Urdu
language in the Persian character, in their accounts. Enghsh account books have
been introduced by a few advanced firms, but education in that language is not
yet suflBciontly widespread to come into general use by the commercial classes.
426. The distribution of literacy in each vernacular by age-periods, given
in the margin, is interesting. It shows that in the
ages below 20, Urdu is employed roost largely as
the medium of communication. Hindi stands
next and Panjabi comes last, while on the other
hand, the order is just tiie reverse in literates
over 20 years of age. Widespread literacy in a
vernacular during the earlier ages is apparently
the sigu of its growth, while the contrary coupl-
ed with a higher proportion of literates in the
Judged by this standard, Urdu would appear
to be in the most favourable position. But
a comparison with the similar figures of
1901 given in the margin, reveals the fact that,
in spite of the improvement shown by the
absolute figures, Urdu has been losing ground
in the early ages, and that its proportion
of literates over 20 has risen from 677 to
717 per mille, and that in this respect it is
Hindi on the other hand is gaining in the
of the proportion in the higher ages.
Hindu schoolboys have largely taken
The small total increase in literates
Deputy Commissioner
older ages indicates decadence.
Age
Urdu
Hindi
Panjabi
O-IO
10—15
15-20
20 and over ...
29
138
156
677
11
69
97
833
12
59
97
832
sharing the fate of Panjabi.
ages below 20 at the expense
The explanation of this is that
up Hindi fiS their vernacular in place of Urdu
in Hindi is also to some extent due, as pointed out by the
of Rohtak, to heavy losses from epidemics, among the illiterates in the tracts
with a pieponderance of persons employing Hindi (written in Mahajani script)
for con-espondence. The general conclusion which can be deduced from the
figures is, that Urdu is being speedily substituted for Panjabi in commercial
circles and that Panjabi with its Gurmukhi and indigenous commercial scripts
is losing ground in spite of the vigorous efforts in its behalf, which would not appear
to have done more than saved it from a more rapid decline, and that Hindi is mak-
ing a slow but steady progress and is replacing Urdu amongst the Hindus.
427. Only 8 males and 1 female in every 1,000 of the population of each
sex are literate in English, the proportion of Knghsh-knowing persons to the total
population being 5 per mille. The ratio of total literates to those knowing
Englisli is 37:5, but while only 1 in every 8 literate males has a knowledge of
English, the similar proportion for females is 6:1.
A correct idea of the extent of English education among the Indians
can be fonnedonly by separating the figures of hterate Kuropeans and Anglo-
Indians, whicli aggregate 31,455.* Deducting this from the total of literates
in English — i.e., 117,561, the balance of 86,106 represents Indians who
know Knglish. In other words, only 36 Indians — including Parsis — per 10,000
117,661 can read and write I'lnglish. It may,
however, be noted that 283 Europeans
and Anglo-Indians are also literate
in vernacular. Of the Indians, 807 per-
sons profess to know iingiish alone
and no vernacular. As many as 477 of
them are Indian Christians who may
have some justification for claiming to
have learnt no vemaeular, and 76
Parsis may also be right in their
83,142 allegation. But it is somewhat strange
'Literates in English
Europeans and Anglo-Indians
wliii know English only ...
Ditto who also know vernacu-
lars
■!
Indian Christiana who know
English only
Ditto whii also know vernacu-
lars
Other relipions who profess to know
only English
31,164
291
477
2,487
330
31,455
2,964
Ditto who know vernaculars as well 82,812t
* Ihe figure is arrived at by deducting Indian Christian literates in English (2,964) from the total number of
Christian and Jewish literates knowing English (34,419).
t 'Ihe figures include only 12 Jews.
j This IS obtained by deducting from **5, 590— English literates who also k-now vernaculars— 2,487 Indian
Christians knowing vernaculars and English and 291 Europeans, &c., who also know vernacular=2,778.
VIII.
327
EXTENT OP LITERACY.
[ Punjab, 1911.
that 254 Indians of other persuasions (Hindus 202, Sikhs 17, Jains 10 and
Muhammadans 25) should also own complete ignorance of any vernacular langu-
age and script. The above 6gures which were obtained by special sorting
and have not been incorporated in any table are detailed in the margin.
428. The Sub-Himalayan Natural Division leads with 100 male and 11 By locality,
femaie litei-ates per 10,000 and the N.-W. Diy Area occupies the last place Avith
46 males and 4 females. Simla with its large European population stands easily
first. The districts with large European stations and cantonments, of course, have
an abundance of literates in English and the proportion varies from Simla with
1,087 male and 1,089 females per 10,000, and Lahore with 327 males and 69
females, to the Mandi and Suket States which contain only 7 males and no females
and 9 males and 1 female, respectively, literate in English per 10,000.
The Nabba State would also appear to be very backward in English education,
there being no more than 14 males and 1 female in every 10,000 persons in the
State who know Enghsh. An Indian schoolboy cannot read and write a letter in
English till he is about 15 years old and the ever-increasing number of scholars
in Anglo- Vernacular schools is largely responsible for the proportion of English
literacy being highest in the age-period 1 5 — 20 (141 males and 18 females per
10,000). The comparative figures given in Subsidiary Table IV show very clearly
how great the progi-ess in English education has been during tbe past two
decades. The proportion for the Province is 80 literate males and JO literate
females per 10,000 as compared with 62 males and 6 females in 1901, and 28
males and 4 females in 1891. The greatest snccess has been achieved in the Sub-
Himalayan and Indo-Gangetic Plain West Division.
429. Leaving alone European and Anglo-Indian Christians who have 904 By religion.
•males and 812 females per mille literate in English, the Jews with 667 males and
222 females per mille, and the Zoroastrians who form an exception to the
Indian community in point of English education, having 745 males and
463 females per mille literate in that language, the Jains lead in English
education with 42 male and 1 female literates per mille. The similar
figures for the Hindu, Sikh and Muhammadan males are 10, 6 and
4, respectively, but the number of females with the English qualification
amongst them is much below 1 per mille (being Hindus 3, Sikhs 1 and
Muhammadans 1 per 10,000). The proportion of Indian Christians who are
literate in English is small, being only 20 males and 16 females per mille.
480. The ciistes which contribute the greatest proportion of literates in By caste
English to the population are noted in the
margin in order of merit. Comparing with
the figures given in paragraph it would
be seen that the Khatris and Aroras who
depend a good deal on service besides trade,
maintain in respect of English education
their superiority in general literacy, but that
the Aggarwals who are a purely trading class
have, in spite of their high standard of
literacy in the vernacular, a comparatively
smaller number of males educated in English. The Brahmans of this Province
do not appear to be very go-ahead in receiving English education. On the
other hand, the Sheikhs have a comparatively large proportion of literates
in English and the Sayads also seem to be devoting attention to English
education. The Khojas who also live mainly by trade are apparently con-
tent with literacy in the vernaculars, for their proportion of male literates in
English is only 86 for every 10,000. It may be inferred from these figures that
English education is at present the monopoly of the higher castes, both Hindu
and Muhammadan, who can afford to meet the necessary expenses, and that the
castes engaged mostly in ti-ade do not find it necessary or convenient to impart
Bnglinh education to their children with anything like the zonl which possesses
the other liigher castes, although they cannot do without a fairly large degree of
literacy in their respective vernaculars. Nor are the agricultural castes making
much headway, yet, in English education. 'IMie Jats with 17 literates per mille
have only one in a thousand, who knows English. Tho zeal for Female educatioa
Males per 10,000.
1.
2.
8.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Khatri
Sheikh
Arora
Sajad
Aggarwal
Brahman ,
Qureshi
Mofthal
Pathan
Kashmiri .
801
272
225
219
209
198
183
160
154
141
Females per 10,000.
Khatti
Brahman
Aggarwal
Sheikh
Sayad
Pathan
Arora
Kashmiri .
Khoja
Moghal
Qureshi
10
10
9
i
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
Census Report, 1
328
EXTENT OF LITERACY.
Chaptbb
seems, however, to be general and even the trading classes, when they begin to
educate their females, prefer to include a certain amount of English education
in their curriculum.
Female 431. Female education has made wonderful progress during the past
education thirty years ; the proportion of literate females having risen from 1 to 6
per miile, and it is noteworthy that 1 in every 6 of educated females knows
Bno-lish (paragraph 427) while the similar number of males is I in 8.
It would thus appear that the females "wbo ai'e foremost to receive educa-
tion are those who have the facilities of learning the English language besides
a vernacular. The rural tracts are very backward indeed, and the fact
that female education is con6ned mostly to the towns is clear from the high
proportion of 55 per raille in the cities and selected towns. The people take strong
exception to girls being sent to the same schools as boys and this has led to the estab-
lishment of a large number of Girls' Schools by Municipal Boards and by private
enterprise. There are now 15 High aud 599 Primary Girls Schools in the
Province, with 1,244 and 26,174 scholars respectively, the aggregate of the
latter representing 24 per mille of the females of school-going age {i.e., 15 per
cent, of the total female population) and 10 per mille of the girls 5 — 15 years old.
=====^=====r==: The results of University examination at
■which female students appeared, are noted
in the margin. Twenty years ago only one
female appeared at and passed the Matri-
culation examination. By 1901, the number
going up for that examination had risen
to 10, but few went higher, while the
figures of 1911 show that four female
students passed the First Arts (Inter-
mediate) examination and that the Degree
examinations were also attempted, although
without success.
The progress has been general with the exception of the units named in
Examinations.
Matricalation
F. A
B. A
M. A
Degre in Medicine
1891.
1901.
10
1911.
Proportion nf female Literates
per mille.
District or State.
Faridkot ...
Simla Hill States.
Mianwali ..
Jhanf;
n. G. Khan
Lohani
Chamba
1911.
1901.
emigration
females by
Proportion of female Literattt
■per mille.
the margin. The actul decrease in female literates is,
however, very small in the Loharu and Chamba States,
being 3 and 22 respectively. The variation in Faridkot
and Simla Hill States are also trivial. The transfer of
the Leiah Tahsil from the Mianwali District accounts
for the decrease in that District (it has not been
possible to adjust the figures of literacy for 1901 ac-
cording to the present District limits), and the falling
off in Jh&ng is due to similar transfers to the LyaUpur
District. Dera Ghazi Khan has lost 151 educated
owing to the destruction of the old town of that name.
The most marked increases are noted in the margin.
It is satisfactory that the Native States of Patiala,
Nabha and Malerkotia have registered substantial in-
creases in the number of female literates. The Lahore
District shows the largest improvement, but Rawalpindi
has also achieved remarkably good results. The actual
variations in the other districts are comparatively
small.
The following quotation from the Tribune of the 26th July 1912 gives a
succint account of the state of female education: —
" In the Punjab tlie achievements of private enterprise in the matter of female
eflucation are considerable. P.indu«, Sikhs and Muharnmadans have vied with one another
in promotiner female edncation. The various rehgious and social organisations in the
Province, the Sabtias, Anjunians and the Samajes have done much to promote the education
of women. Muharnmadans and Sikhs have shown as much commendable enterprise and
Belt-sacri6ce in tliis matter as the Hindus, and indeed in some ca.=es have outstripped the
Hindus in the rHcefor progress. Miihaminiidan Aiijumans hiive established schools of their
own all over the Province. The Arya Samaj has its own network of girls' schools. The
Dev Samaj has taken a most admirab'o lead in the matter of female education. The Singh
frabhas and the Kbalsa Dewans have started their own schools. All these schools are in a
District or Slate.
1911.
1901.
HoshiHrpur
5
2
Lahore
25
7
Kawalpindi
20
9
Lvallpnr ...
4
1
Malerkotia
6
2
Patiala
4
1
Nabha
3
1
329
VIII. KXTENT OP LITEBACY. [ Pnnjab, 1911.
flourishing condition. The attendance is fall, in fact in most cases greatly in excess of the
accommodation available. Not a few of the large schools maintained by these religious
bodies have suitably equipped Boarding Houses of their own. So keen is the interest taken
by the people in female education that they have begun to send out their daughters as
boarders. The leading features of these denominational schools, some of which have begun
to send up candidates for the Matriculation examination of the Punjab University, are the
education imparted in the religions of the girls and the practical training in cookery and of
domestic matters given them. The schools are under the general supervision of religious
and social organisations, but the immediate control vests in persons who have devoted
themselves to the work for patriotic reasons and who take for their devoted and whole-
hearted labour no more than a small subsistence allowance. This is the most creditable
feature of the whole affair, and one on which these bodies and persons deserve to be most
heartily congratulated. The trend of the progress is still upward. Education of women
has begun to be appreciated by the people. Among tho better classes of the people — Hindus,
Sikhs and Muhammadans, it has begun to be understood and recognised that a girl must be
well educated before she can expect to get a suitable match. So keen is the desire for
English and Anglo- Vernacular education among the people that in Lahore a large number
of Hindu, Sikh and Muhammadan girls have joined the Kinnaird High School for Girls,
the Convent School and the Victoria May Girls' School. The fees charged in all these
schools are high and girls have come from the rnofassil in several cases. During the past
five years several girls have passed the Matriculation examination of the Punjab University.
Arrangements have only recently been made to raise the Victoria May School for Girls to
the status of a College."
That there is a rush for higher education among feraalps is evidenced by
the following remarks of the Director of Public Instruction in his Departmental
Report of 1909-10* :—
" In addition to the marked increase in the number of pupils during the year, there are
many signs that the education of girls is being more fully realized as one of the needs of the
time. Higher education is being taken up energetically by private bodies and the new unaided
schools, Buch as those of the Maharani of Burdwan, the Vedic Putri Pathshala, and the
Khatri Girls' School at Lahore, all aim at having High departments."
The recent opening of the Queen Mary's College at Lahore, connected
with the Victoria May Girls' School, is an important step towards the education
of Purdah girls.
432. But the prejudice of the masses against female education has not died. Prejudices
out yet. Among the Hindus, the idea is that no one but the father, uncle, ^^"^d ^^'
brother or husbind may teach a female,t and that she must read at home. J tion.
Again according to Muhammadans no female shall expose her face to a person
not falling within the degree prohibited for marriage. The perpetual tutelage
of woman which has been practised so long does not, moreover, allow the parents
to be reconciled to the education of their girls which i? likely to make the latter
independent.
433. What particular kind of education is needed, for the Indian girl is Kind of
a subject which has been exercising the minds of the Indian public. It would ^^"f*^'""
be vain to conceal the fact that neither the Primary nor the Secondary education
of the typo now in vogue conduces to the happiness in social life of either sex.
There are no doubt solitary instances in which the marriage of a highly
educated girl to a highly educated man of independent means results in
typically happy conjugal life. But ordinarily the Primary education does
not teach a girl much more than to read and write letters, which instead
of helping hei' in house management in after life, usually becomes the source
of suspicion and jealousy in the mind of her husband and elder female relatives.
On the other hftnd, high education which is of necessity secular, atrophies the
religious side of the woman and creates in her mind ideals which under ordinary
circumstances are incapable of realization. The result is that when married,
she alienates the feelings of the females near and dear to her and in many
cases proves a somewhat unmanageable luxury to the husband, unless he
happens to bo of an extraordinarily go-ahead frame of mind. I have talked
to many an educated Indian of less advanced views and have been often told
that the female education needed is one in which the girls should be taught —
subjects relating to household management, based on the ethical teachings
* Para. 75, page 19.
t Pita Piirivyo hhrdtd, Nainam adhyi — paijetparah. (Father, uncle or brother (alone may teach her), no
outsider raay teach her;. — Yama Smriti.
X Svagrihe jdhyayanam (she must read at hotno). — Han't Dharma Suira.
330
Census Report, 1 extent of literacy. Chapter
of their religion, so that they should develop a strong religious aud moral
character, along with the capacity for becoming useful help-mates under
the social conditions prevailing in the grade of society to which they belong.
This must naturally depend upon the efforts of philanthropic gentlemen, and
a good deal is being done ; but until a sound basis for female edacation can
be arrived at, it must be considered to be in a transition stage and the
advocacy thereof by the masses will continue to remain half-hearted. By
way of illustration I quote below the views of an enlightened Muhammadan
gentleman. More or less similar ideas have been expressed to me by Hindus
and Sikhs who have had experience in the education and bringing up of girls.
" The woman is the principal depositary of the religious idea. In the interests of a
continuous national life, therefore, it is extremely necessary to give her, in the first place, a
pound religious education. That must, however, be supplemented by a general knowledge
of Muslim History, Domestic Economy and Hygiene. This will enable her to give a degree
of intellectual companionship to her husband, and successfully to do the duties of mother-
hood which, in my opinion, is the principal function of the woman. All subjects which
Ijave a tendency to dewomanize and to de-Muslamise her must be carefully excluded from
her education. But our educationists are still groping in the dark. They have not yet
been able to prescribe a de6nite course of study for our girls ; and some of them are,
unfortunately, too much dazzled by the glamour of Western ideals to realize the diSerence
between Islam which constructs nationality out of a purely abstract idea — i.e., religion, and
Westernism which builds nationality on an objective basis — i.e., country."*
Considerable efforts are, no doubt, being made as the following extract
from the Provincial Report on Public Instruction for 1909-1 Of will show.
" Domestic Economy is one of the greatest needs of the Punjab and one of the most
difficult to supply. All the Christian boarding schools teach the subject practically, as also
the Hindu orphanages. The Arya Orphanage in Ferozepore is noticeable in this respect,
for it has some quite tiny babies who are managed entirely by the elder girls. The Sialkot
boarding school divides the children into families of 12 girls who each do their cooking,
washing and house work, even the little ones helping. The older ones of the family are
responsible for the young ones, taking general care of them and mending their clothes.
The industrial schools have the same method. Lectures on Domestic Economy and Hygiene
were delivered by a lady doctor to the pupils of the Normal School at Lahore, and a practical
book has been written for the use of the teachers and translated into Urdu. Geography is
still very badly taught. The teachers have no books of reference in their vernaculars from
which they can enlarge their lessons. Fine sewing has received a great impetus from the
inclusion of all kinds of sewing and embroidery in the ladies' section of the Lahore exhibi-
tion. Girls from all parts of the Province attended it and were able to see good examples o£
many kinds of embroidery, lace and plain sewing and to get new patterns and ideas and
compare their work with that of the women of other districts. Physical training is still
neglected in the Board primary schools."
But Miss Francis who went home three years ago with a vast experience as
an Inspectress of Schools seems to have rightly gauged the situation as shown
by her remarks at the last meeting of The JSational Indian Association of London.
" She said that there was one thing that had struck her during the whole time she
was in the Punjab, and that was that the^ did not succeed in reaching the class of girls who
were really most in need of education, who would profit by it most, and that was the wives
of those professional men who had bad their education in England, and who by reason
of their English education found themselves further from sympathy with their wives than
if they had had no education at all. The homes of these people were less happy in many
cases in consequence of their education simply because their wives had not been brought
op to their level. She stated that " the reason was that wo had not yet succeeded in
working out any system which entirely suited these classes. In the first place, we had
a difficulty with the very notion of school. It is difficult for purdah girls to attend school
beyond very early childhood, and even to attend school at all. Consequently the
Government plans, moulded on the boys' schools were not found suitable to the needs of
girls. It is impossible for the English Government to know what are the real needs of
Indian homes, and it must be for you Indians entirely to plan out a system of education for
the ladies of your families. It is only you who know what you really require in your own
homes. An Englishwoman cannot know it, still loss an Englishman, and still less again the
English Governii.ent. It is for you, then, to tliink out how to meet the necessities apparent
when you find your home life deficient owing to the want of education amongst the women
of your families and to decide for yourselves on what lines their education should run. " J
* Kitract from a lecture on Maslim Community delivered by Doctor Sheikh Muhammad Iqbal, M. A.,
Barriater.at- Law.
T Para 73, page 18.
j Tribune 26lh July, 1912, p. 8.
331
VIII.
COMPARISON WITH PBEVIOOS CENSUSES.
[Punjab, 1911-
So in spite of all that has been done and the fever heat with which people
are rushing in for female education, the right type of education needed for the
Indian and particularly the Panjabi girls still remains to be determined.
434. No distinction is made ia the public schools between boys of high and Education
low castes, but the untouchables — i.e., Cbuhras, Chamars, Meghs, &c., are found very of depressed
rarely in such schools. The education of the depressed classes is, however, engag- classes-
ing much attention, and besides the Mi?sionary Schools opened expressly for their
beneBt, efforts are being made in many places to establish local schools for the
education of the members of untouchable castes who have been elevated to the rank:
of touchables. By way of example may be mentioned (1) the Megh High School,
feialkot; the Primary Schools at Gondal, Eila Sobha Singh, Zaffarwal and Marala
(Sialkot District) for Meghs ; the Dumna Primary School at Behlolpur, in the
Gurdaspur District, all founded by the Arya Samaj, the Ranika RRipur and
Ambala Schools for Chamar and the Dev Ashram School for Chuhras at Lahore
managed by the Dev Samaj. The following extract from the Provincial Report
of the Edacational Department for 1909-10 refers to the education of the
depressed classes : —
" The Delhi Inspector reports the existence of 29 schools classed as " low caste,"
chiefly attended by Chamars. He says: — ''The London Baptist Mission , Kharar, opened
some new schools in the Ambala District, replacing in some instances a number of such
schools which had disappeared. District Inspectors, however, encourage low caste boys
to read in ordinary schools, and all the districts except Delhi and Karnal give evidence to
this effect. There are 133 (against 100) such children who read in ordinary schools;
"but they are generally not allowed to mix with the higher classes except in the Simla Dis-
trict where this distinction does not appear to be observed at all. There were also 78 boys
of the Mina tribe (a criminal tribe with Shahjahanpur as its centre) reading in different
schools, the bulk of them being in Shahjahanpur Primary School (Gurgaon District). The
District Inspector reports that their education has done thera good, as in the majority of
cases their criminal instincts are curbed and they do not so freely and fearlessly take to crime
as their elders did before them. Stipends and rewards are given to Mina boys by Government
as an inducement. In JuUundur there is an aided school in Kulu for Koli boys and 231 low
caste pupils are studying in ordinary schools. In the Lahore Division several schools, attended
chiefly or wholly by low caste children, are maintained by Missionary bodies. No special
schools are reported to exist in the other divisions, and the general opinion is that the
prejudice against low castes is weakening. The Multan Inspector notes the case of a boy
belonging to a criminal tribe who attends an aided school in the Jhang District."
Comparison with previous Censuses.
435. The proportion of literates per mille at each Census is compared in Progress
the margin. Under the Census Commissioner's orders, the since I88l.
figures of those ' learning ^—i.e., of persons under 1 5 years
of age, have been excluded from the statistics of 1891 and
1881, for the purposes of comparison^ in order to bring
the figures of these Censuses oti a par with the present
ones. liUt this procedure has resulted in the omission
from the statistics of 1881 and 1891, of such of the boys and girls under tuition
as have now been returned under the head hterate. The proportion of 1891 and
1881 should, therefore, be somewhat below the mark. But the figures may bo
taken as good enough for a rough comparison. That the progress in education
has been marked and continuous, is obvious.
But while there are one-third as many male literates more per mille now
as there were in 1881, the improvement in female education has been quite pheno-
minal and the relative strength of educated females has become six-fold dur-
ing the past thirty years. The Indo-Gangetic Plain, which contains most of
the educational centres, has been at a
distinct advantage, and in all Natural
Divisions, the Districts with a large
number of teaching institutions show
the best results, as indicated in the
margin. A detailed examination of the
figures is possible only for the two last
Censuses.
Compared with 1901 the total number of literates has increa-^ed from Compari-
- - - ■ - • - .son V--'-'-
1901.
o
00
l-t
CJO
<— 1
Persona
37
36
34
26
Males ...
63
65
61
47
Females
6
'
2
1
Males.
Females.
District.
1911
1901
80
IK91
82
1881
43
1911
13
1901
6
1891
3
1881
Delhi
02
2
Lahore
95
74
G9
5i
25
7
5
2
Rawalpindi
101
92
81
55
20
9
4
2
436.
898,3'35 to 899,195 or by 1 per mille. But this will be taken as showing a large f"'^ ""^^^
332
Census Report, ]
COMPARISON WITH PBKVIOUS CENSUSES.
Chapter
By sexes.
Local vari-
ations.
By Districts
and States.
Vaeution pee millb.
Detail.
Brilish Territonj.
Native States.
Males.
Females.
Males.
Females.
Population
Literates
Literatea in En-
glish.
+ 5
-36
+303
-43
+ 659
+ 547
-36
+21
+112
-62
+818
+412
ffain when it is remembered that the total population has contracted by
542,900 i.e., 2 per cent. The proportion of literates to every thousand of
population has increased from 36 to 37 which in itself would imply an improve-
meut against the much larger decrease in population. But the higher standard
of literacy adopted at this Census (see paragraph 413) has dwarfed the present
figures. It will be shown further on in paragraph 439 that education has really
progressed, by rapid strides during the past decade.
There is alargedecrense (of 24, 371) in the number of male literates, which
out-numbers the decrease in the total male population of the Province (24,080),* but
quite an appreciable increase of (25,201) in the number of Uterate females in
spite of a loss of 518,820* in the total number of females. The variation in the
relative strength, therefore, is a decrease from 65 to 63 per mille amongst males,
and an increase from 3 to 6 in females, per mille of the total population of each
sex, Jit each Census. The decrease in population has not affected the hteraoy
fit^ures among the females as the majority of the victims of plague and other
epidemics belonged to the unlettered classes.
437. The variation per mille in population and literacy, for British Terri-
=,======^=^==^===^ tory and the Native States, separately,
is shown in the margin for purposes of
comparison. It will be seen that in spite
of the population of the Native States
having decreased to a greater extent
than that of British Territory, the
number of male literates, has shown an
improvement in the former against a
decrease inthe latter, while the rise in the
number of female literates has also been
larger in the Native States. In British
Territory, however, greater progress is being made in English education.
The only districts in which male literacy has increased are Delhi,
Simla Lahore, Gujranwala, Shahpur, Lyallpur, Jhang and Muzaffargarh. In
the three districts first named, the number of male literates has increased
in spite of a diminished male population. This result in the Districts of
Delhi and Lahore is due partly to the reduction of population in the
rural areas where tbe people are almost all illiterate with no appreciable diminu-
tion of the urban population which embraces most of the literates in the
districts, and partly to the fact that they contnin cities which are large educational
centres besides having numerous schools in the rural tracts. The increase of
literacy in Simla is very slight, being 35 males only, and needs no comment,
especially as the decrease in the males is only 1,446. In the remaining five districts
the increase in main literacy is accompanied by a growth of the male population,
and yet the rise in the former is not at all proportionate to that in the latter.
In the seven districts noted in the
margin, the male population has increat-ed but
the number of male literates has declined.
The decrease of literacy in these districts is
generally attributed to the stricter definition
of the term 'literate' at the recent Census, but
in the Dera Ghazi Khan District the figures
of male literates have also been affected by
emigration from the ill-fated town. The im-
portant variations in the Native States are
noted in the mHrgin. The Chief of the Nahan
State attribuies the decrease \o the inclusion
in the State returns of the Census of 190] of a
body of sappers who were almost all literate.
Bnhawalpur and Mandi put forward explana-
tions to the effect that formerly people used to
go in largely for religious instruction and were
returned as literate. At the recent Census such persons were not so returned unless
• Excluding the Bilocb <rans. Frontier.
Increase in
Decrease in
Districts.
Population.
Literacy.
Kangra
2,003
4,137
Ferojepore
14,091
9,778
Gujrat
11,194
2,089
Montgomery
43,854
341
Multan
56,133
928
Dera Uhazi Khan...
32,200
3,293
Uissar
20,291
762
Increase-^- or
DecreaBB —
states.
In
popnlation
In Literates.
Nahan
Mandi ...
Bahnwalpar
Kapnrthala
Ualnrkotla
Patiala
+ 583
+ 2,782
+ 34,570
-19,577
-1,313
-84,657
— 1,036
— 1,246
— 4,404
+ 552
+ 302
+18,023
333
VIII. STATISTICS OF THE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. [Punjab. 1911.
they fulfilled tho conditions now prescribed. Another reason for the decrease in
Bahawalpur is that in 1901 the State was under Settlement and a large number
of the Settlement staff, down to chain men, who were mostly outsiders, were liter-
ate. In Patiala the increase is the result of the opening of several new schools
during the past decade and the growing demand for education among the people.
The increase in Kapurthala is also due to the same cause. The State had increas-
ed its educational grant from Rs. 36,863 in 1901 to Rs. 57,663 in 1910 and
the number of schools had risen during the same period from 33 to 42. The
increase in Malerkotla is attributed to the presence of a large educated staff for
tho conduct of Settlement Operations in the State, besides the efforts of the
bief in the interest of education.
Statistics of the Education Department.
438. The statistics of Education contained in the Departmental returns Primary
and printed in Subsidiary Table VII to this Chapter show that Primary education education,
has grown rapidly the number of schools having risen in the last ten years
from 2,682 to 3,920 and that of scholars from 117,420 to 190,255. Since 1891
the strength of these institutions has been doubled both in number and attend-
ance. Private elementary and advanced schools which fulfil the prescribed stand-
ard of efficiency are getting rapidly converted into aided public institutions.
The result is a steady falling off in the number and attendance of that class of
schools from 7,312 and 105,312 in 1891 to 2,935 and 57,322 respectively
in 1911.
439. The number of Secondary schools has fallen from 406 in 1901 to 357 Higher
in 1911 owing to the separation of the North- West Frontier Province. But the education,
schools so transferred had few scholars and the attendance at the schools in the
Province has increased nevertheless from 68,067 to 92,445 and is almost double
of that in 1891. The rush for higher education led to the establishment of six
new Arts Colleges by private bodies in the decade 1891-1901. But three of
them were unable to stand on their legs and were consequently ceased to exist
during the past decade. One new Arts College has, however, been opened
during the last ten years and the total number of such Colleges now stands at
11 coaapared with IB in 1901. The number of Arts College students has,
however, risen from 468 in 1891 and 1,251 in 1901 to 2,270 in ISll, that is
to say, the attendance has nearly doubled in 10 years and is five times as large
as it was 20 years ago. The passing of the Universities Act of 1904 has greatly
improved the efficiency of the Colleges, a step which was essential in the
interests of the rapidly growing strength of scholars, desirous of applying them-
selves to intellectual and scientific pursuits. The need for technical training has
at the same time been duly recognized and Professional Colleges have increased
in number from 1 to 7* and in scholars from 178 to 709.
The teaching institutions are becoming more and more residential. The
number of students in hostels attached to Secondary Schools has risen in the
past 5 years from 3,322 to 12,213.
The results of University Examinations set forth in Subsidiary Table VIII
-give an idea of the extent of work which the Colleges are doing. Against 92,445
scholars attending Secondary schools only 4,037 (rather more than 4 per cent.)
appeared at the Matriculation examination in 1911, while in 1891 less than 2
per cent, of tho Secondary school boys attempted to pass that exatuination.
The efficiency of tuition at the Secondary schools has also improved for, in spite of
an appreciable advance in the standard of the examinations some 51 per cent, of
the candidates passed in 1901 and 1911 compared with only 38 in 1891. Most
of the scholars who qualify at the Matriculation examination seem to enter one
College or another, and judging by the results of 1911, it would appear that some
36 scholars are successful in obtaining a higher quahfication and nearly 15 secure
one University degree or another against every 100 students who matriculate.
This is by no means unsatisfactory, even though the increasing number of candi-
dates for University degrees obviously results in more uncertain success.
These facts tend to show the enormity of the demand for higher education.
On the other hand, Primary education is spreading rapidly amongst the masses
•Tho more important institutions are: — 1 Merticftl College ; 2, Veterinary CoUego; 3, Central Training
College ; and 4, Law College at Lahore ; and 5, Agricultural College at Lyallpur,
Census Report. ]
834
OTHER STATISTICS.
Chapter
Books.
News-
papers
1881 I 1891
to 1 to
1890.! 1900.
16,906
12,448
1901
to
1910.
14,122
aud people are already beginning to agitate for compulsory Primary education,
but the fact that only 346,940, i.e., 14 per mills of the total population were
attending schools and colleges in 1911 seems to show that the stage of universal
education is still far off and that, according to the remarks of Sir Harcourt Butler,,
people will have to give much more practical proof of selfhelp before the end can
be attained.
The Muhammadan, Sikh and other Educational Conferences are striving
to spread Primary education and the establishment of the Hindu Educational
League in Lahore is a noticeable feature of the movement. The Members of the
League have made it a point to open a Bojs' School in every street or lane where
there are 20 boys or more of school-going age and a Girls' School, where there ia
a similar number of girls.
Other Statistics.
440. The publication of books affoidvS an index of the extent to and the-
direction in which the needs and tastes of the literate population lie. The
number of books registered under Act XXV of 1867 during the past three
decades is compared in the margin. The ten years preceding
the Census of 1891 would appear to have been most prolific in
the out-turn of books and the run on Arabic, Hindi, Panjabi and
Urdu publications appear to have been great. In the next ten
years, however, the publication of books slackened and Subsidiary
Table X appended to this Chapter will show that Arabic suffered
most, books in that language dropping from 852 to 376 — i.e., to
less than one-half. Arabic works being mainly on religion, the scope for new
productions is naturally limited. Bnt publications in other languages also
diminished more or less, except those in Euglish which showed a small improve-
ment and inSindhi which although pubhshed in the Panjabi were not intended for
circulation in this Province. The decade just ended has evidenced a further fall
in the registration of new books in the Arabic, Persian, Pashto and Sanskrit
languages which are gradually falling out of the current studies of the public.
On the contrary, English, Hindi, Panjabi and Urdu books have been published in
large numbers, and the total number of books registered in these languages has
risen from 12,448 to 14,122. Books have also been produced for the first time in
Balti, Gujarati, Gurkhali (Nepali) and Tibetan. Most of the works were registered
in the years 1905 and 1906. A large proportion of the literature in English and
Urdu is intended for use in public schools and those in Hindi are written largely
for Schools for Hindu girls s\nd boys run by Hindu institutions. But the bulk of
the local literature is still published in Crdu, although Panjabi is running it very
close. The percentage of books in various Innguages, turned out during the past
decade was :— Urdu 42, Panjabi 28, Knglisb 7, Hindi 6, Persian 2, Arabic 2,
Sanskrit 1, other languages 3, while 8 per cent, of the books were published in
two, 1 in three and just a few (only 7) in more than three languages.
The books registered do not, however, exhaust all the literature that issues
from the local presses. Numerous pamphlets on religious and social reform and
other connected subjects are printed every year in Urdu, Hindi and Gurmukhi
and sold by the thousand.
441. But the craving of the masses for literal y pursuits and for the study
of news may be gauged better from the growth of newspapers and the wide
circulation they command. The number of newspapers and magazines of all classes
has risen from 74 in 1891 and 166 in 1901, to 229 in 1911 aud the circulation
has increased in 20 yearft from 24,258 to 183,518. In other words, 8 persons in
every 1,000 now get one newspaper against less than one per mille in
1891. One in every five literates has thus a paper to himself and one paper is
read by very many more persona than the one subscriber. Papers now filter
down to every village and the educated folk usually collect at the house of the local
magnate or in the village chaupdl to read news of Provincial or Local interest or
items of graver concern relating to remoter places. In the towns the papers are
generally passed on from one man to another, and it would not be far from truth
to say that every adult literate now spends a part of his time in reading a news-
paper, particularly when some exciting incident in the country or abroad ia agitat-
ing the public mind and affords the necessary attraction.
335
VIII. OTHER STATISTICS. [ Punjab, 1911.
Urdu is by far the most favourite language for the circulation of news.
The number of Urdu papers has risen from G4 in 1891 to 177, and the circulation is
142,884 now against less than 20,000 twenty years ago. The most favourite type
is the weekly, and although the number of this class of papers has fallen
from 74 to 60 within the past decade and is hardly 50 percent, more than in 1891,
the circulation is five times as great now as it was 20 years back. Next in import-
ance are the monthlies which have a somewhat smaller circulation (63,302) but
are the most numerous (86) and are almost wholly the production of the last two
decades. There are three Urdu dailies now against two in 1901 and only one in
1891. The progress in English journalism is by no means less significant.
The number of Indian owned English papers has multiplied more than six
times and the circulation has also become six-fold in twenty years. There is only
one daily (the Tribune) but its circulation is fairly large (1,358*). The number of
bi-weekly and tri- weekly papers has been stationary. The majority of the monthly
magazines are either of a religious character or connected with literary institutions.
The weekly papers are the most in demand. On the whole, the total circulation of
all English papers (Indian owned) stands in tha proportion of 1 in 86 to the total
number of literates in English and yet the legal publications are read only by
members of that profession.
There are no daily papers in any other language. Gurmukhi weekly, fort-
nightly and monthly papers have gone up from 5 to 17 in number and from 2,672
to 16,700 in circulation in the last ten years. Hindi has one weekly with a
circulation of 1,000 and two fortnightlies started during the past decade. The
number of monthly mngazines has decreased by one compared with 1901. Oue
paper which combines English with Urdu and Persian is of recent origin, but has
a fair circulation.
♦The circulation is reported to have increased to 2,000 since last year.
Census Resort, ]
336
8UBSIDIAKT TABLSE.
Chapter
SUBSIDIARY TABLE I.
Education by age, sex and religion.
NUMBKE PKB MILLS
NCUBEE PKE MILLE WHO ABE LITKBATE.
WHO ABE LITERATE
IN English.
All ages.
0—10.
10-1.5.
15—20.
20 and over .
Beligion.
as'
*
0)
o
to
(U
o
.
m
cd
ID
o:
OD
a
m
CB
S
CS
•
05
OS
5
s
0)
s
B
s
a
Q>
s
o
o
V
to
O
Oi
o
<»
H
s
p=<
a
b
s
Ec
s
Eh
a
Pm
EH
S
Eq
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
ALL RELIGIONS ...
3'
6
3 6
3 1
42
9
78 12
95
7
5
8| 1
Hindn ... ... •.
5£
, 9
5 7
4 1
62
12
112 16
140
7
5
10 ...
Sikh ...
55
» 9
4 12
4 3
63
18
103 23
141
13
3
6 ...
26i
46
4 24
5
iO 6
293
28
548 43
670
29
23
42 I
Bnddhiet
7£
15
7 6
1 ...
51
159 ...
226
10
1
2 ...
Zoroastrittn
734
81
8 eon
2C
3 172
737
833
850 870
982
691
634
745| 463|
Mohammadan
IC
2
7 2
1 ...
21
2
3?
4
41
2
2
4 ...
Christian
190
23
r 125
£
9 32
101
143
154
t 189
369
175
172
2181 108
„ (European, 4c.)
„ (Indian)
ST9
4C
90
4-
* 813
i 35
J Notava liable.
;
879
18
904 812
20\ 16
Jew
389
66
250
3331 1 ... 5001 706
222
370
66
- 222
SUBSIDIARY TABLE I A.
Education by sex and religion in Vernaculars
•
NUMBER PER MILLE WHO ARE LITERATE IN
Ubdu. 1 Hindi.
7otal. i
Persian.
Others. 1 Total. 1 Ndari
Lande or
Others. 1
RsLieioN,
1
1
1
Mahdjani.
1
OD
00
OD
od'
m
CO
w
t 1 »
CO
CQ*
CO
Ct
QD
o
03
O
a
o
a
a
o
a
o
2 =3
o S
d
cs
'a
s
oo
*«
S
o
2
CO
B
00
U
IS
a
11
CO
"3
£
5 e
£
"3
a.
2
y
i 4
5
»=5
6
7
&4
8
9
10
11
y
b
Cu
a
Es.
(2 :
S b
Od
^
to
22
1
12
13
14
IS
16
17 ]
18 19
20
21
ALL RELIGIONS
17
2
3 2
16
2J
2
1
]
L ...
6
1
0 ]
a
& 1
3
F) ...
...
Hindu
19
3
4 1
18
3i
1
1
>
16
2
ti 3
ft
1
3 3
8
13 ...
...
...
Sikh ...
14
2
4 ...
14
24
...
,,
1
2 ...
1 ...
1
1 ...
.Jain ...
84
15
1 4
73
131
a
ii
IS
) 1
12s
21
4 1!
3fc
5
i li
84
53 S
3
3
Buddhist
1
3 ..
I
...
• •.
2
3 ...
£
3 ...
...
Zoroastrian
129
14
1 10i<
126
13t
lOti
3
£
» ...
25
3
8 4
It
2
3 ...
2
3 ...
8
io
4
Mohammadan ...
15
2
6 2
15
2t
.*•
• <•
• •.
...
...
...
...
Christian
29
29; 28|
28
25
27
1
...
1
1
1 1
1
1 1
...
,, (European, &c.) ...
«
5 13
S
i
• 13
...
...
■ ••
J
...
...
...
1
...
„ (Indian)
.33
3
5 30
32
3.
29
1
.
f 1
1
2 1\ 1
2 J
.
...
...
Jew
74
16
7 28
18
51
5b
11
L 28
19
28l IJ
» ... 2i
1
...
...
NUMUER PER MILLE WHO ARE LITERAl
•E IN
Panjabi.
Total. 1 Ourmukhi.
Lande or Mahdiani.t
xVdffri. 1
Tdnitr<. 1
Persian.
RK.IGION.
1
1
1
1
1
w
£ «• 1
CD
CO*
00
00
cs
<X)
m
m
s
o
£
o!
o
a
O
O
OQ
o a
o
03
E
CO
R
2
t:
<1>
b
a
■X.
—
s
a>
a>
o
q>
o
<o
0)
3>
23
a
b.
a.
S3
27
b
(^
a
31
32
a
Cr,
ch a
35 3
b,
3 37
CL,
a
b
24
25
26
28
29
30
33
34
38
39
40
ALL RELIGIONS
13
21
2
6
9
2
5; 9
1
2
1
1 ...
Hindu
20
35
:<
4
6
2
1
I 20
3
5
1
2
4 ...
..
Sikh ...
43
67
11
36
54
11
7 12
...
1
,, ,,
...
...
Jain ...
55
97
4
2
2
1
4
S 85
1
5
7
2
2
3 ...
Buddhist
...
1
• •*
...
1 ...
...
Zoroastrian
6
10
6
10
...
Mnhammadan
• ••
I
...
1
...
...
. .••
Christian
2
2
1
2
2
1
...
...
...
„ (European, Ac.)
• ••
• ••
■ ••
...
• •
„ (Indian)
2
2
i
2
i!
1
...
...
, ,
... !
Jew
...
...
•
...
...
...
...
...
-I
VIII.
337
SUBSIDIAET TABLKS.
[PuMJab, 1911,
SUBSIDIARY TABLE II.
Education by age, sex and locality.
DisTEioT OR State and
Natcbal Division.
TOTAL PROVINCE
1. Indo-Gangetic PtAll
West—
1.
Hissar
2.
Loharu State
3.
Kohtak
4.
Dujana State
o.
Gnrgaon
6.
Pataudi State
7.
Delhi
8.
Karnal
9.
JuUuDdnr
10.
Kaput thala State .
1].
Ludhiana
12.
Mulerkotla State .
13.
Ferozepore
14.
Faridkot State
15.
Patiala State
16.
Jind State
17.
Habha State
18.
Lahore
19.
Atnritsar
20.
Gujranwala
2. Himalayan —
21.
Nahan State
22.
Simla
23.
Simla Hill States
24.
Kangia
25.
Mandi State
26.
Suket State
27.
Chamba State
Number pek mille who are litbratb.
3. SuB-UlMALATAN —
28.
Ambnla
29.
Kalsia State
30
Hoshiarpur
31.
Gurtlaspiir
32.
Sialkot
33
Guirat
34.
Jhelum
35.
Rawalpindi
36.
Attock
4. North-West Det Arba —
37.
Montgomery
38.
Shahpnr
39.
Mianwali
40.
Lyallpar
41.
Jhiiiif;
42.
Multan
43.
Bahawalpii/r State
44.
Muzaffargarh
45.
Dora Ghazi Khan
Cities
Selected Tt>wn8
Total Cities and Selected
Towna.
All ages.
S
87
26
14
is7
22
23
29
56
23
38
39
52
48
36
39
37
25
29
65
44
31
3i
28
197
24
40
17
23
18
49
29
40
30
32
31
45
64
31
35
33
40
33
31
40
49
21
37
2
152
157
155
B
63
46
26
49
41
42
53
92
41
63
66
85
79
60
67
62
44
49
95
72
52
61
47
236
45
74
32
43
34
65
81
50
69
50
53
54
79
101
54
60
57|
66
60
52
71
86
37
67
48
214
23)
221
0—10.
5
2
1
:;
1
2
2
13
2
6
5
9
6
s
i
3
25
S
5
4
131
2
3
2
1
1
3
4
5
4
6
20
5
62
46
55
1
76
1
3
22
25
10—15.
96
a
42
41
28
6
85
30
29
29
61
20
46
46
65
37
37
28
27
1
20
69
50
44
36
21
272
22
44
12
13
14
48
39
22
55
42
39
49
57
76
39
38
36
48
42
35
38
50
20
43
32
176
169
1731
15—20.
g
10
2
2
3
1
3
1
14
2
8
6
13
6
9
1
3
2
2
50
12
6
4
177
2
4
2
1
1
10
2
7
6
10
7
11
82
9
&
U
5
5
5
G
3
105
72
P2
10
78
76
52
31
63
73
53
44
105
43
88
83
108
92
65
70
62
44
49
127
94
79
62
33
245
47
78
30
38
27
87
82
41
95
63
75
85
116
13'
7Y
82
65
92
107
66
07
113
42
97
76
268
280
273
20 and over.
12
14
21
2
13
10
18
12
10
2
6
5
4
72
IS
13
8
5
215
3
6
2
2
3
13
10
4
10
8
11
9
14
35
U
10
9
3
5
3
144
74
116
a
11
12
70
41
72
59
63
86
131
63
92
98
122
113
94
110
97
6P
77
135
107
76
71
262
64
110
50
63
52
118
78
97
74
82
79
115
144
85
95
94
100
95
84
114
137
57
105
75
265
295
278
2
1
2
2
8
3
15
2
6
7
11
1
5
3
i
23
10
6
123
3
4
2
1
2
8
9
6
6
5
5
5
7
23
f>
59
52
56
Censas Beport,]
338
SUBSIDIARY TABLK8.
Chaptee
'
SUBSIDIARY TABLE III.
Education by religion, sex and locality.
District ob Statb and
NiTUKAL Division.
1
TOTAL PROVINCE
1. iNDo-QiNoiTio Plum
WBiT—
1. Hissar
2. Luhnru State ...
3. Rohtak
4. Dujana State
5. Gargaon
6. Pataudi State ...
7. Delhi
8. KHrnal
fl. Jullucdnr
10. Eapurthala State
11. Lodhiaua
1 2. Ma lerkotla State...
13. Ferozepore
14. Faridkot State ...
15. Patiala State ..
16. Jind State
17. Nahha State ...
18. Lahore .. .
19. Amritsar
20. GujranwaJa
HlUALlTAN —
21. Kahin State ...
22. Simla
23. Simla Bill Statet
24. Kangra
25. Mandi State
2G. Suiet State
27. Ckamba State ...
3. SUB-HlHALATAN —
28. Ambala
29. Kahia State
30. HoBhiarpnr
31. Gurdnepnr
32. Sialkot
33. Oajrat
34. Jhelum
35. Rawalpindi
36. Attock
NCMBKR PER MILLE WHO ABE UTEEATE.
Hindu.
la
North-
Area —
West Dby
37. Montgomery
38. Shahpnr
39. Mianwali
40. Lyallpar
41. Jhang ...
42. Jlultan
43. Bnhawilpur Slate
44. lluzaffiirgarh ...
45. Derabbail Khan
Cities
Selected Towns
Total Cities and Selected
To wna.
95
7g
54
22
46
38
48
48
79
43
84
135
148
106
104
122
92
40
62
191
41
118
5B
46
177
44
74
32
42
34
102
77
57
80
83
88
246
397
271
371
1
1
2
2
9
1
7
10
12
5
8
2
3
1
2
67
10
11
3
22
2
3
2
1
1
4
3
5
6
6
18
31
61
50
253
14
173
16
311
35
380
10
111
7
331
18
331
16
178
8
400
12
320
8
247
80
257
46
251
66
Sihh.
04
67
41
461
153
463
43
71
81
79
52
62
57
45
83
45
88
80
11
171
60
382
94
284
435
159
349
142
89
86
90
49
102
302
429
391
406
177
180
307
386
104
348
393
51
209
145
382
456
414
b.
12
174
43
61
4
5
9
8
2
6
1
4
9
4
6
12
15
21
13
111
7
32
74
103
24
7
15
8
6
13
29
67
160
53
20
11
80
3S
11
21
28
3
20
16
56
187
IOC
Jain.
464
452
393
857
464
"548
625
492
358
507
558
396
341
675
586
433
334
471
501
445
512
759
769
651
025
1,000
'i"ooo
510
692
271
402
525
466
419
488
570
1,000
575
571
552
662
24
24
18
14
24
52
9
64
35
17
24
57
23
11
12
85
38
34
S
72
50
400
35
61
1,000
Muhammadan.
24
27
"'l6
152
14
176
52
500
400
1,000
667
357
564
128
1,000
581
25
500
1,000
611
89
44
66
27
35
17
46
40
54
22
65
90
28
37
31
39
63
21
21
33
30
20
52
37
22
58
46
232
39
40
27
68
31
29
46
23
37
28
28
23
33
37
19
18
16
20
16
20
15
25
12
20
16
136
97
119
1
7
2
3
1
3
12
2
3
2
6
9
2
2
1
3
9
3
2
5
35
1
3
1
Christian.
26
12
20
10
287
206
730
"207
367
571
371
185
622
254
534
667
711
200
616
649
1,000
327
209
35
759
667
800
595
575
1,000
1,000
442
246
682
87
28
35
87
349
814
903
939
go
260
36
495
14
120
860
793
463
684
712
832
796
S
u
125
193
760
145
"355
261
212
340
354
562
909
339
1,000
534
742
1,000
239
198
19
773
842
827
500
441
1,000
1,000
289
82
510
125
78
25
17
341
741
670
614
45
234
26
477
10
131
670
783
263
737
597
534
568
»
VIII.
339
SnBSIUlAKT TABLES.
[Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV-
English Education by age, sex and locality.
District or Statu and
Natcral Division.
TOTAL PROVINCE
1, Ihdo-Ganoktic
WB8T—
Plain
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9
10.
11.
12.
13.
11.
13.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Hi sear
Loharu State
Rohtak
Dujana State
Gurgaon
Pataudi State
Delhi
Karnal
Jallundur
Kapurthala State
Ludhiaoa
Malerlcotla State
Ferozepore
Faridkot State
Patiala Slate
Jind State
Nabha State
Lahora
Amritsar
Gujranwala
LiTERATK IN ENGLISH PER 10,000.
2. HiMALATAN—
21,
Nahan State
22.
Simla
23,
Simla Hill States
24.
Kan(?ra
25.
Mandi State
26.
Suket atate
27.
Chamha State
3. Sob-Himalayan —
28.
Ambala
29.
KaUin Stale
30.
Hoshiarpur
31.
Gurdaspur
82.
Sialkot
33.
Gujrat
34.
Jhelum
35.
Rawalpindi
36.
Attock
4. North-West Drt Area —
37.
MontgotnPpy
38.
Shahpur
39.
Mianwali
40.
Lyallpur
41.
Jhftng
42.
Multan
43.
Bahawalpur State
♦4.
Muzaffargarh
45.
Dera Ghazi Khan
1911,
0—10.
1
545
1
1
2
1
1
2
18
a
10—15.
16
52
20
10
14
46
10
45
77
15
44
?7
66
30
38
6
28
11
12
203
66
60
a
12
11
10
2
10
2
1
8
7
" 1
7
2
118
15
4
15-20.
15
4fl
29
37
4
900
1,4C2
1,503
1
7
2
1
17
3
1
••
10
...
3
52
12
8
50
16
17
44
4
2
55
8
2
40
8
45
1
40
4
17
140
63
20
2
27
3
23
2
41
3
31
1
24
2
6
1
52
10
19
1
21
...
18
Ill
152
39
55
157
51
48
242
50
190
186
226
123
83
28
80
70
26
496
215
184
66
49
1,014
30
45
IG
4
30
179
176
6(!
169
145
177
162
174
386
80
93
77
139
164
65
82
177
46
86
61
a
18
21
24
3
5
4
24
12
8
4
10
187
20
4
33
20 and over.
11
1,727
2
1
13
22
" 6
12
5
4
6
51
6
115
130
39
23
42
25
38
49
290
42
114
87
140
61
116
47
63
43
19
463
143
79
67
50
1,162
29
36
9
14
20
147
2-8
42
50
6
137
63
88
495
79
57
83
53
76
38
159'
36
40
29
12
13
25
3
9
4
14
10
1]
1
4
8
1
71
12
2
21
5
984
3
'" 1
2
u
39
" 2
8
3
4
8
65
5
4
4
3
5
]
20
3
21
All ages.
10
80
91
27
13
29
34
26
37
197
29
84
67
106
52
74
28
46
32
14
327
102
63
37
1,087
21
26
7
9
15
100
183
32
47
55
90
51
66
322
40
16
38
CO
42
46
23
103
25
29
21
a
fa
u
10
11
18
3
10
6
1
69
10
2
51 21
1901.
All ages.
4
1,089
2
2
1
2
11
2
6
3
2
5
51
3
3
3
2
3
1
13
3
12
62
28
11
25
21
25
10
1*4
39
71
14
54
22
56
13
58
22
13
191
64
57
43
26
810
12
28
4
3
15
13
11
2
f,
1
t
2
2
1
3
8
'30
8
2
14
1891,
3
691
I
2
ffl
7
110
15
24
1
36
1
40
3
61
5
42
1
63
3
194
23
40
3
32
1
63
2
22
31
3
42
1
E6
10
9
1
17
1
33
2
All ages.
U
28
25
8
2
&
4
8
32
46
8
86
11
12
8
36
6
6
3
5
104
19
15
27
13
607
4
9
i
1
9
42
87
4
5
12
30
9
11
127
15
12
5
54
3
7
8
s
15
21
3
2
352
"' 2
10
2
4
1
2
17
I
Cemas Report_ ]
340
8DB3IDIABT TABLES.
Chaptke
District ok State and
Natural Divislon.
TOTAL PBOVINCE
1. Ikdo-Ganuetic Plain West—
1.
Eissar
8.
Loharu-State
8.
Kohtak
i.
Dujana State
6.
Gurgaon
6.
Pataiidi State
1.
Delhi
8.
Karnal
9.
Jullnndur
10.
Kapurthala State
11.
Ludliiana
12.
Ualerkotla Statt
13
Fetozepore
U.
faridkot Stata
15.
Patiala Slat*
16.
Jind Sl'it*
17.
Nabha State
18
Lahore
19.
Aiiiritaar
20.
Gujraunala
Himalayan —
21.
Nahan State
22.
Simla
23.
Simla Hill States
24.
Kaiigra
25.
ilandi Slate
26.
Suket Stale
27.
Chantba State
3. Sob-Uiualayan —
28. Ambalii
29. Kalsia Slate
30. Hosliiarpur
31. Ourclaspnr
32. Bialkot
33. Gujrat
34. Jlielum
35. Rawalpindi
36. Attock
i, NoETH-WlST Dey Arka-
37.
Montgomery
38.
Sliahpur
39.
Mianwali
to.
Lyallpnr
41.
Jhsiig
42.
MiilUn
43.
Bahaualpur State
44.
Muzaffargarh
45.
Dera Ghazi Khan
SUBSIDIARY TABLE V.
Progress of Education since 1881.
NCMBER OK LITERATE PER MILLE.
All ages.
Males.
6S
63
46
26
49
41
42
53
92
41
63
66
85
79
60
6'
62
44
49
95
72
52
Females.
61
47
236
45
74
32
43
34
65
81
50
69
50
53
54
79
101
54
60
57
66
60
52
71
86
37
67
48
65
61
50
38
50
45
49
64
80
43
64
55
83
69
67
58
42
50
74
74
74
62'
67
61
222
36
84
47
40
38
75
68
73
51
52
61
82
44
21
51
35
48
68
82
48
63
54
67
52
63
51
56
46
68
69
63
63
191
43
70
62
24
43
SO
65J
62
65[
47i
52j
48'
59
92 81
69 69
69' 62
72| 66
67: ...
45 ...
97] 77
101 84
51 57
65' 68
67i 70
47
47 7
41
30
4'
47
42
57
43
39
51
39
48
36
42
34
52
39
54
5
64 51
59 51
2
I
2
1
2
2
13
2
6
5
9
6
5
1
4
2
3
25
48
40
16C
33
55
34
48
30
43
40
41
52
3S
37
32
40
55
54
49
48
67
70
40
57
46
4
131]
2
3
2
1
1
2 1
2
48
2
1
1
1
1
10
-15. I 15-
Males. Females
10
42
41
28
6
35
30
29
29
61
20
46
46
65
37
37
28
27
18
20
69
50
44
36
1 21
31 272
II
48
311
22
55
42
39
49
57
76
39
38
36
48
42
35
38
50
20
43
32
12
46
41
25
15
40
13
38
41
49
20
51
36
76
39
46
31
IP
25
31
48
55
58
37
24
213
18
48
21
14
16
56
4e
43
5ii
40
46
58
105
72
53
52
76
61
20
67
«1
32
4
61
20.
Males. Females.
13 14
9 5
10
2
2|
3
1
3
1
14
2
8
6
13
6
9
1
3
2
2
.=i0
12
9
6
6
4
6
177
154l
2
3
4
4
2
1
1
1
3
10
5
7
4
2
a
7
?
6
2
10
6
7
4
11
6
32
13
9
6
5
78
76
52
31
63
73
53
44
105
43
88
83
108
92
65
70
62
44
40
12
94
79
62
33
245
47
7
30
38
27
15
82
78
57
44
68
75
67
106
102
44
92
82
110
99
7
6
50
56
SO
101
92
105
66
44
232
35
8
46
39
35
16 17
12
14
87 90
82
41
!»,■)
63
75
85
116
137
82
6b
P2
1 07
66
97
113
42
84
G8
103
ti2
75
91
111
118
93
91
101
luO
5
131
131
74
93
104
5
215
3
5
2
2
3
13
10
4
10
8
11
9
14
35
11
10
20
5
8
10
9
3
5
3
6
1
2
2
10
10
4
2
11
10
10
20 and over.
Males. Females
18
8 6
2
153
4
4
3
16
9
14
6
2
11
6
1
4
4
19
95, 95
94 89
70
41
72
59
63
86
131
63
92
98
122
113
94}
110
971
69
77
135
107
76
71
262
64
no
50
63
S2
97
118
78
97
74
82
79
115
144
85
95
94
100
95
84
114
137
57
105
75
20
76
56
73
69
72
93
115
68
92
81
116
101
103
94
63
74
112
111
111
85
93
250
52
127
72
60
56
109
102
106
77
76
8
in-
135
105
107
109
101
71
152
1^3
79
10]
101
^<1TB.- Figures of Altock for 1881, lh91 and 1901 and of Mianwali and Ljallpnr for 1881 and 1891 are not available.
VIII.
341
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
[Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VI.
Education by Caste.
o
Caste,
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
Aggarwal ...
Ahir
Arain
Aror4 ...
BarwilA
Kawaria •■
Bharai
Biloch
Bribman
Chamar
Chhimba
Chuhri
Digi or Koli
Dhanak
Dhobi
Dogar
■Dumna
Faqir
Ghirath
Gajar
Hirni
Jat
Jhfnwar
Jogi-Kawal
Jnlabi
Kamboh
Kanet
Kashmiri
Khatri
Khoia .
Khokhar
Knmhir
Lab4Da
LobilT
M4ohbi
Mahtam
Mill
Malitlr
Mallah
Meo
Mirisi
MochJ
Mo^hal
Musalli
Nii
PakhiwirS
Pathan
Qaseib
Qureshi
Rajput
Saini
Sanai
Snyad
Sheikh
Snnrlr
Tarkhiln
3'
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57,
5^ Teli
>
nMBEB PBB
1,000.
Ndmeee
LlTEBiTB
PER 10,000
IN English.
Literate.
Illiterate.
Total,
Males.
Females.
m*
0}
CO
0
•
OD
■3
m'
"ca
<0
a
13
<D
B
o
H
a
3
"0
'3
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
212
381
13
788
619
987
117
209
9
8
14
• ..
992
986
1,000
6
10
• •>
11
19
1
989
981
999
15
27
1
210
367
28
790
633
972
123
225
3
13
25
1
987
975
999
10
18
...
7
12
1
993
988
999
1
2
4
6
996
994
1,000
1
1
,,,
4
7
...
996
993
1,000
1
1
8
13
1
992
987
999
5
9
...
113
195
12
887
805
988
114
198
10
i
7
996
993
1,000
1
• •*
28
48
3
972
952
997
8
14
*.*
1
2
999
998
1,000
1
1
...
3
5
1
••f
997
1,000
995
999
1,000
1,000
1
2
...
9
17
1
991
983
999
4
7
• • .
5
9
995
991
1,000
3
5
...
2
3
<**
898
997
1,000
1
1
• ••
36
60
2
964
940
998
6
10
...
11
21
989
979
1,000
6
12
...
7
12
993
988
1,000
4
7
...
3
5
...
997
995
1,000
<*•
...
17
28
2
983
972
998
10
20
• *•
11
19
1
989
981
999
6
12
...
24
46
1
976
954
999
13
27
...
8
14
992
986
1,000
4
7
16
27
2
984
973
998
12
21
"' 2
17
32
1
983
968
999
5
10
...
34
57
7
966
943
993
77
141
3
250
405
60
750
595
940
446
801
10
68
107
3
942
893
997
47
86
3
16
28
1
984
972
999
22
40
...
4
7
996
993
1,000
2
5
23
41
1
977
959
999
6
11
...
14
25
1
986
975
999
9
17
...
3
5
997
995
1,000
2
3
...
9
17
991
983
1,000
1
2
...
5
9
1
995
991
999
7
12
5
9
995
991
1,000
2
3
...
3
6
...
997
994
1,000
2
3
...
5
10
995
990
1,000
2
4
• ■■
11
2U
989
9S0
1,000
3
6
*••
4
7
996
993
1.000
2
3
...
49
82
8
951
918
992
88
160
2
1
1
• ••
999
999
1,000
...
...
...
13
23
1
987
977
999
6
12
...
3
4
1
997
996
999
...
...
53
86
8
947
914
992
89
154
3
7
14
1
993
986
999
4
8
...
77
136
10
923
864
S90
98
183
2
26
45
3
974
955
997
29
52
1
26
46
2
974
955
998
19
34
...
2
4
998
996
1,000
1
2
83
145
■■■ 12
917
855
988
lis
219
3
74
124
13
926
876
987
152
272
4
80
141
7
920
859
993
2
41
...
23
39
3
977
961
997
13
23
6
10
1
994
990
999
4
7
...
Note. — Figures of literacy by Caates are not available for 1901.
Census Report, ]
342
SOBSIDIAKY TABLES.
Chaptbb
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VII.
Number of Institutions and pupils according to the returns of the
Education Department.
Claes of lostitntion.
1911.
1901.
1891.
Number of
Nhmbkr of
NCMBEB OP
Institutions.
2
Scholars.
1
Institutions.
Scholars.
Institutions.
Scholar!.
1
3
4
5
6
7
TOTAL
7,278
346,910
7,479
259,164
9,640
245,713
Collegiate KducaA^^" ^°^^^^'^
"'"'• (.ProfeBeional Colleges
11
2,270
13
1,251
7
468
7
709
1
178
1
1J4
School £d«ca(.-on,( Secondary Schools
General. [ Primary Schools
357
92,445
406
68,067
283
46,424
3,920
190,255
2,682
117,420
2,025
92,261
8c«ooJ£d«ca«o«,(T'*'"'"S Schools
Special. ^ ^, jj^ijg^ Special Schools ...
12
437
6
322
5
342
38
3,502
15
2,167
7
782
_ . , I ^ .. C Advanced
Private Instttu- \
"■""*• C Elementary
166
3,914
378
6,541
794
9,408
2,769
53, -408
3,978
63,218
6,518
95,904
NOTK.— The figures are for 1910-11, 1900.01 and 1890-91 respectively and have be
Instruction, Punjab, vide No. 4097, dated 3rd August 1911.
en supplied by the Director of Public
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VIII
»
Main results of University Examin
ations.
Examination.
1911.
1901.
1891. 1
Candidates.
Passed.
Candidates.
Passed.
Candidates.
Pasted.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
TOTAL
5,818
2,809
3,851
1,840
1.136
479
Uatrioulation Examination (Arts and Science)...
4,037
2,068
2,785
1,418
909
343
F. A.
856
343
575
2i6
161
91
F. So.
191
82
19
9
...
...
B.A.
506
162
376
127
60
39
B. So.
31
17
...
...
...
• *•
M. A.
42
17
24
10
3
3
M, So.
7
5
...
...
• ••
...
Degree in Medicine ,„ •..
13
13
8
5
8
8
Degree in Law ...
138
93
64
25
...
...
B. T.
4
4
...
...
...
NoTB. — Fignres supplied by Director of Public Instruction with his No, 951, dated 15th February 1912.
vin.
343
SCBSIDIABY TABLES.
[ Punjab, 1911
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IX-
Number and circulation of newspapers, etc-
19U.
1901.
1891.
Language,
Class of newspaper (daily,
weekly, etc.).
E
a
o
'-3
■a
s
o
(D
a
a
.i
3
o
5
u
o
3
3
a
te
"3
o
u
'6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
GRAND TOTAL
229
183,518
166
149,017
74
24,258
TOTAL
177
142884
185
131,995
64
19,958
URDU
Daily
3
2,317
2
2,700
1
1,358
,,
Weekly
60
63,404
74
60,290
42
14,155
»» ••• ••• •"
Bi-weekly
...
1
1,500
2
600
»» •••
Fortnightly
22
10,600
18
5,130
11
2,245
j» •■* *'• ••'
Monthly
86
63,302
36
61,925
4
1,210
11
Tri-monthly
4
1,761
2
250
2
350
,, •.. ... ...
Qnarterly
2
1,500
1
150
...
i» ••• *•• '••
Not fixed
1
50
2
40
TOTAL
25
18,284
17
11,175
4
2,900
ENGLISH ...
Daily ...
1
1,358
...
1
900
», ■•» ••• •••
Bi-weekly
2
457
2
1,400
1
1,400
»t •••
Tri-weekly
1
2,424
1
1,700
ll
Weekly
4
1,870
5'
2,350
2
600
„ ... •••
Fortnightly
5
2,250
4
1,125
• 1.
*•.
), ••• ••• •.•
Monthly
11
9,675
4
3,850
..•
,, ,,, **> •••
Quarterly
1
250
...
...
>•■
,) ... ••• •••
Weekly
1
*750
...
...
ENGLISH AND URDU ... Weekly
...
1
750
...
. ••
TOTAL
17
16,700
5
2,672
1
200
GURMUKHI
Weekly
6
7,700
3
1,972
1
200
J, •*■ •>•
Fortnightly
3
2,400
1
400
• • t
...
»» ••• ••■
Monthly
8
6,600
1
300
TOTAL
9
4,650
7
2.025
3
800
HINDI
Weekly
1
1,000
.•*
1
400
,) ••■ ••!
Fortnightly
2
1,000
...
...
• •.
»> ••• '••
Monthly
6
2,650
7
2,025
2
400
URDU (NAGRI CHARACTER) ...\ Monthly
...
...
1
250
TOTAL
1
400
1
150
URDU AND GUEMUKHI
Weekly
• ••
...
• ».
...
1
150
»» ...
Monthly
1
400
ENGLISH, URDU AND PERSIAN
Monthly
1
1,000
...
...
...
■■■
Figures supplied by Assistant to D. I. G., Police (C. I. D.), in hia No. 190-8. B., dated
• The actual figures reported by D. I. G , Police, are " between 500 and 1,000.'
Note. — Only fignres for Indian-owned papers are given.
5th October 1911.
Census Report, ]
344
BDBSIDIABT TABLES.
Chapter VIII.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE X.
Number of books published in each language-
Lanocage.
NtJMBBK OF BOOKS PDBLISHBD
[N
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
Total of decade.
1901-10.
1891 to
1900.
1881 to
1890.
1
2
3
i
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
TOTAL
1,204
1,235
1,478
1,486
1,959
1,772
1,204
1,185
1,191
1.408
14,122
12,448
16,906
Arabic
19
27
32
35
37
27
13
19
35
17
261
376
852
BAlt!
...
...
1
...
1
1
1
4
...
...
Bilochi ...
6
...
...
,.
...
...
...
6
6
...
Brahai
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
1
...
1
1
English ...
69
73
120
105
158
127
90
84
86
80
992
768
724
Gajariti ...
1
...
...
...
...
...
...
1
...
Gurkhili ...
4
2
1
...
...
...
...
...
7
Hindi
94
66
108
90
107
125
66
72
75
82
885
791
1,615
Kashmiri...
1
1
...
...
8
21
11
2
14
4
62
23
31
Marhati ...
1
1
...
...
...
...
...
2
1
*••
Mirwiri ...
1
1
...
...
...
...
..
2
9
3
Maltini ...
...
...
...
...
...
1
1
...
6
Pahari ... ...
...
...
...
...
...
...
1
...
PanjAbi ...
315
350
397
455
514
523
328
342
299
458
3,981
2,479
3,470
Parikrit ...
...
...
...
.••
...
...
...
1
...
Paabto ...
9
14
17
6
11
10
1
2
11
2
83
101
132
Persian „. ...
29
23
28
48
47
35
25
8
22
12
277
400
787
i^anskrit ...
9
14
19
6
7
15
6
9
6
10
101
113
264
Sindhi
18
26
26
26
44
41
28
5
20
31
265
327
155
Tankri
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
1
1
Tibetan ... „.
...
1
...
...
...
...
1
2
...
...
Urdu
491
521
601
614
881
708
491
497
533
687
5,934
5,924
7,656
Rilingnal ...
119
103
113
89
126
121
129
125
84
107
1,116
979
1,023
Trilingnal
17
13
13
11
18
18
16
18
4
4
132
126
152
Polyglot ...
1
2
...
...
...
...
1
1
2
7
22
86
NoT«. — Figures supplied by the Reporter on Books in his No. 86, dated 2l8t February 1912,
CHAPTER IX.
Language.
GENERAL.
442, The statiatica concerning the languapjes spoken have been incorpo- Referenceto
rated in Imperial Table X. The units are tbe same as in Sir George Griersou's classifi- statistics,
cation in the Linguistic Surrey of India, but with greater detail, and they have been
arranged territorially — i.e., the Vernaculars of India beginning with those of the
Punjab, succeeded by the languages of other Asiatic countries, the Euro-
pean languages being given at the end. Details of the figures of each language
are given by districts and states. The entries in the Enumeration books
were, of course, very numerous (a complete list thereof is given in Appendix
C to the Administrative Volume) in spite of clear instructions, issued to
the Enumerators, and arrangements made -with the Census Officer of each unit to
determine beforehand what the main dialect of the district, state, etc., should be
called. The entries in the Sorter's tickets were, therefore, carefully examined and
the names representing tbe same dialect were jnarked, for being grouped under
that dialei;t. Doubts were cleared after local enquiry. The sub-division of the
figures into unnecessarily minute details was thus avoided. In Subsidiary Table
I, the statistics for the whole Province have been grouped according to hnguis-
tic families — i.e., in strict accordance with Sir George Grierson's scheme. The classi-
fication in the Imperial Table being more detailed than that laid down for guid-
ance, it was not found necessary to prepare a Subsidiary Table, classifying
the figures according to his scheme as distinguished from the arrangement
in the Census returns. The distribution of important languages (and dialects)
of the Province has been given by Natural Divisions, districts and states in Sub-
sidiary Table II, and Subsidiary Table III compares the strength of the tribes
supposed to be of aboriginal stock, with the number of persons speaking the tribal
dialect.
443. According to the instructions, the Enumeration books were to show. Accuracy of
for each person, the language or the dialect in which he talked at home. The Bnu- the returns,
merators were required to put down the dialect exactly as the person enumerated
described it, but, at the same time, they were instructed, in each unit, to call a par-
ticular dialect by the same name. Had it not been for the Urdu-Hindi-Panjabi con-
troversy, which has been going on for a considerable timein the Province, tbe figures
should, with the precautions taken, have been almost thoroughly reliable. Un-
fortunately, however, the leaders of different sections issued open or confidential
instructions to their adherents asking them to advocate the cause of their favoured
language or dialect ; and in the preparation of the Preliminary Record it was
noticed that party feeling was influencing the accuracy of the returns in respect
of the entries relating to the three dialects above mentioned. In the words of
the Deputy Commissioner, Simla : —
"The Punjab Muhammadana were in many cases anxioas to have Urdu recorded as
their language. The Aryas, whatever their hirth place, oftea wanted Hindi to be recorded
aa their language. The United Provinces Hindus wanted in many cases ' Hindi ' to be
recorded as their language."
Mistakes were corrected as far as possible, and it was explained to tbe
Enumerators and tue supervising staff at different centres that they should not
allow people's personal views to vitiate the statistics which would, if tampered
with, lose their scientific value and mislead them as much as others. But it was
considered inadvisable to issue any general orders on the subject, authorizing the
enumeration stuff to use their discretion in preference to the statements of the
persons enumerated, for fear of the idiosyncracy of Enumerators proving more
harmful in the end than that of the persons concerned. Tho agitation was, how-
ever, confined mainly to towns and the figures of the cities of Delhi and Lahore, where
it was at its worst, show that, although both Hindi and Urdu, gained in the
measure of the numerical strength of their supporters, at the expense of Hindus-
tani and Paujabi (the supporters of the former — mainly Arya Samaj is ts being far
more limited than those of Urdu, viz., the educated Muhammadans), yet the extent
of the error was iusignificant on the whole. The diffei'ence between Panjiibi on
Census Report, J
S46
LINQOISTIC DISTEIBCTION.
Chaptkb
Hindus
Sikhs
the one hand and Ui*du or Hindi on the otlier is very marked. As regards thnt
between Hindi and Urdu, the standard adopted was that where many Persian
worda ■were used — e,^., where the form of salutation -was Addb arz, Mizdj sharif,
Farmdie kyd hdl hai,elc., etc., the language was
Urdu ; but where there was a preponderance
of Sanskritic words as in the conversation of
the uneducated shopkeepers — e.g., Jai Rdrnji
Id, Prasann ho bhdi, dp ki kirpd, etc., etc., it
was Hindi. To take the city of Delhi as an
instance, the figures are as given iu the mnrgin.
The results appear to be very much in accordance with facts and Hindi
does not seem to have had an undue advantage even in this city which has a
large Hindu population. In 1901, the language of the whole population was
designated by the indefinite term Hindustani. In the Lahore District, however,
Urdu seems to have had a pull over Hindi in replacing Panjabi, as the figures
Hindustani. Urd^. Hi.di. PanjaU. i° ^^'^ margin wiU show. lu 1901, ouly 21,226
Muhanunadans
( Male
i Female
(Male
i Female
( Male
i Female
Hindi.
32,772
23,648
22
271
55
Urdu.
31,496
23,260
112
65
32,406
27,279
1901
1911
21,22ti
6,725
1,127,422
970,049
Hindu
Sikh
Binduetdni,
( Male ... 510
(. Female ... 174
( Male
I Female
Muham- ( Male
madan i Female
not appear to have
City Census Officer,
1,328
872
Hindi.
2,288
702
115
78
219
131
been
Urdu
Urdu. Panjahi.
5.561 40,091
3,427
292
192
14,474
9,401
very
was
21,794
8,600
3,500
59,232
39,859
persons were shown as speaking Hindustani
37,555 4,184 970,049 ^^ ^^^ wholc district and there were do entries
under Hindi or Urdu. The 6,725 men, shown as speaking Hindustani, are of
the bearer and khansaraa class, whose lingua, if properly analyzed, could be
{issigned partly to Urdu and partly to Hindi, according to the grammatical
structure. The present figures for the city of Lahore, which are also noted in the
margin, speak for themselves. The
fact, that the number of Hindu and
Sikh famales using Urdu is several
times larger than tliat speaking Hindi,
is significant, and the efforts of the
Arya Samaj on behalf of Hindi would
fruitful. In the opinion of Mr. Tapp, the
deliberately put down in some cases, where
the" persons concerned could talk nothing but Panjabi. The bulk of the popu-
lation has, however, been rightly registered as talking Panjabi and the exag-
geration, in favour of Hindi and Urdu, was, on the whole, extremely small. The
exertions in the interest of accuracy do not, therefore, appear to have gone
altogether unrewarded, for there is no reason to believe that the statistics, on
the whole, are very far from the actual facts.
LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION.
Classifica- 444. The linguistic distribution of the people, which is shown in Subsidiary
tioa- , Table I, takes count of only
such languages as were
spoken by more than 600
persons, at the recent Cen-
sus. The map in the mar-
gin indicates the languages
spoken by more than 50 per
cent, of the population in
each district or state. The
spoken languages of the
Punjab fall under two main
heads, viz., the Tibeto-
Chinese and the Indo-Euro-
pean, with a few unclasaed
languages. The languages of
the Tibeto-Chinese family
are spoken by about 42,000
persons or 2 per mille of the
population. The ludo-Euro-
pean family is the most im-
portant and practically the whole population (over 24 millions or 996 per mille)
speaks one or another language, belonging to this stock. The Eastern Groupof the
Eranian Branch — Aryan Sub-Family— is used only by 6 persons per mille, and the
iX.
S47
LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION,
[ Punjab, 1911.
Indian Branch by 990. The non-Saaskritic languages come up to less than 1 in a
ihousaud, the rest of the spoken languages being of the Sanskritic Sub-Branch.
Less than 1 per mille of the population speak the Qnclassed Languages of India,
while the foreign groups of ths Indo-European Family including Persian (Iranian)
and the European Languages are spoken by 38,376 persons ; English, which belongs
to the Teutonic Group, being the most important (with 35,800 persona). The aggre-
gate of the European Languages is more than 1 per mille. The languages of
the Dravidian, Semitic and Mongolian Families are spoken respectively by 459,
116 and 258 persons only, most of them being immigrants; and there was just
one man speaking the Malay Language of the Malayo- Polynesian Family. The most
important of the languages is Panjabi (Western Group, Sanskritic Sub-Branch of
Aryan Sub-Family) spoken by more than half the population of the Province, but
with Lahndi and Western
Pahari, which are akin to it
and also belong to the same
sub-branch, it is the mother
tongue of over |ths of the
inhabitants of the Punjab.
Western Hindi, which in-
cludes Urdu, Hindustani
and the dialects common in
the districts of the eastern
Punjab, is spoken by less
than ith and Rajasthani by
3 per cent, of the popula-
tion. The map, printed in
the margin, shows roughly
the localities in which
Tibetan, Western Pahari,
Western Hindi, Rajas-
thani, Panjabi, Lahndi,
Bfilochi, Sindhi and Pashto
are chiefly spoken.
Tibeto-Chinese Family.
445. The only languages belonging to the Tibeto-Chinese Family, which are Tibeto-
found in the Province, are the Tibeto-Himalayan and Assam-Burmese Branches Chinese
of the Tibeto-Burman Sub-Family. Under the I attei branch there are only 8 per- Family,
sons speaking Burmese while under the former fall Tibetan, Bhotia, Balfci, Ladtikhi
^ndLahuli* belonging to the Tibetan Group and Kanauri, Patni, Rangloi, Chamba
Language.
Tibetan Orov/p,
Tibetan
Bhotii (others) ...
B41ti
Ladikhi
L4huli
Actual
figures.
4,584
5,670
31
11
433
Total
10,737
Vronominalized
Himalayan Qroap.
Kanaari
22,538
Patni
4,797
Rangloi
725
Chamba Lihuli ...
1,173
Bucan or Gahri
l,2Gl
Malini or Kanishi
376
Total
30,870
4i46. Burmese is
Burmese.
.Ihelura ... 2 I Attock
Rawalpindi ... 2 I Lynllpur
447. Tibetan and
be pure Tibetan, are returned
Lahuli, Bunan or Gtihri and Malani or Kanasbi pertain-
ing to the Western Sub-group of the Pronominalized
Himalayan Group. The figures of each language are
given in the margin. It may be mentioned that
Bhotia was returned without any quahfication except
in the case of 34 Baltis and considering that the
mojority of the entries came from the Kangra District
and particularly from Spiti, where the language
spoken is pure archaic Tibetan of the Lhassa type,
it may be presumed that the figures entered against
Bhotia (others) signify nothing more or less
than pure Tibetan ; and according to Sir George
Grierson, Bhotia of Tibet is identical with Tibe-
tan,
not a local dialect. It is spoken by 8 Burman Burma group.
immigrants found in the places noted in the
3 margin.
Bhotia (otlier) which has been ascertained to Tibetan
mainly from Kangra, Simla, the Simla Hill^'""'''
States (mainly Bashahr) and Chamba. Spiti (Kangra) is the only tract
♦ Lahuli is ivlso called Lahuli lihotia in somn places, and includes 111 entries in Eangra relating to Lohari»
which on enqniry was found to be a dialect of Tibetan.
Census Report, J
348
LlNOniSTIC DISTRIBUTION.
Chapter
Tibetan and
Bhotid.
Pronomi-
nalized Hi-
malayan
Group.
Western anh
group.
Dra vidian
languages.
Bhotid.
Simla ... 1
Kangrfi ... 5,044
Chainba ... 631
5,676
Lahuli.
Kangra ...
Mandi
302
130
432
in wliich Tibetan is the main spoken language. The figures of Bhotia
probably include a certain number of Baltis who failed to specify the
Balti spoken by them. The-se and the Ladakhis speaking the Ladakh
variety of Bhotia are found scattered over Simla, Kangra and Chamba, -while Lahuli*
was returned in the Lahul tract of Kangra and the
Mandi State. The figures are given in the margin.
Pure Tibetan is spoken mainly by Budhists while
persons spsakicg Balti ' Bhotia ' are usually Muham-
madans, and those speaking Ladakhi are Muham-
madans or Budhists.
448. Kanauri is spoken mainly in the Bashahr State by Kanets and also
in parts of Kulu. Patni, Rangloi and Bunan or Gahri are confined to Lahul, while
Malari or Kanashi is spoken in Kulu Proper. Chamba Lahuli is located in the
part of Lahul which is included in the Chamba State. The persons speaking the
Tibetan languages belong more or less to the Budhist religion.
Dravidian Family.
449. Languages of the Dravidian Family are of no im-
portance in this Province, as they are spoken only by immi-
grants. The total figures are noted in the margin.
Tamil
... 300
Malayalam
... 3
Kanareae
... 4
TelugQ
... 153
Eraniau
Branch.
(a) Baloch or
Balocbi.
in
the
(h) Fashto.
Indo-Eupopean Family, Aryan Sub-Family.
450. The only Aryan languages of the Eranian Branch met with
Province are Balochi and Pashto, both belonging to the Eastern Group.
Balochi, the language of Baluchistan, is spoken in this Province only in
the Biloch (ra«s-Frontier, -which fringes the west of the Dera Gbazi Khan District.
It was returned generally as Balochi, but 53 Biloches, who happened to be in the
Jhelum District, called their language Mekrani, which is one of its dialects. Of a
total of 70,675 persons speaking Balochi, 68,921 were returned in Dera Ghazi
Khan and 1,444 in the ad-joining State of Bahawalpur. The rest of the entries
are scattered over the whole Pro-vince. Two in every fifteen Biloches of the
Province thus speak their traditional language, the others using the local dialect
of the tract in -which they reside. Even in the Dera Ghazi Khan District -which
is the stronghold of the language, the Biiochi-.speaking population represents only
1 in 3 of the total strength of the Biloches. The number of persons speaking the
language has increased from 64,607 (including 24,087 inhabitants of the Biloch
<?-ans-Frontier who were not reckoned in the figures of 1901) to 70,675, showing
an increase of about 9 per cent. This is obviously due to the increase of popula-
tion in the tract inhabited by Biloches. But the progress is not commensurate
with the increase in the total population of the tribe which has risen 14 per cent.
in the Province and 11 per cent, in the Dera Ghazi Khan District including the
Biloch fjYins-Frontier.
Pashto is spoken at the extreme north-west of the Attock District, in the
horn like projection of Bhangi Khel from the Mianwali District and at the
foot of the semi-circular Maidani range lying on its western boundary. The entries
of the Enumeration books included under Pashto are Afghani, Chhachhi and Pashto.
Afghani is another name for Pashto, but Chhachhi is a geographical term meaning
the language spoken in the Chhachh tract, which lies at the north-west end of
the Attock Di.^trict. A few Pathan inhabitants of the portion adjoining the
frontier speak Pashto, but the Chhachhi spoken in the rest of the tract is akin to
Pothwari. Only 142 persons, who returned their language as Chhachhi, were,
therefore, after local enquiry, classed under Pashto. Chhachhi proper will be
dealt -with under Lfihndi. Pashto is now spoken by 67,174 people compared -with
52,836 in 1901. The increase of 27 per cent, is not inconsistent, with the general
rise in population in the Attockt District to the extent of 12 or 13 per cent, and
the increase of 16 per cent, in the Pathans of Mianwali.
♦The followiiie entries which were included nnder Labnii, with reference to the first word of the slip entries,
■honld have been, properly spcnking, transferred to the pronominalized Himalayan Group under the following
beads bnt the figr.rea are in9igni6cant : —
Lihuli (Jiihri 3— Gihri or Bnnan. LAhnli Patni 115— Patni.
t Figures by caste are not available for the new Attock District for 1901.
849
IX. L1NGDI8TIC DISTRIBUTION. [ Punjab, 1911.
Indian Branch.
451. The genei'ally recognized theory about the origin of the Indian General
Branch of the Aryan Sub-family is that it was imported into India by the Aryan remarks,
immigrants. I do not propose to contest the theory in this book, but merely wisli
to offer a few remarks which may open up a different line of investigation.
The uncertainty of the immigrafion theory can be gauged from the way
in which it has been shifting ground. I cannot do better than quote from the
last Census Report of India* : —
" The original homo from which the populations, whom we now group together
under the name of Indo-EuropeanSj spread over Eorope and parts of Western and Southern
Asia, has been a subject of long discussion, extending over many years. We Englisli aro
probably most familiar with the cautious opinion expressed by the late Professor Max
Miiller, that it was " somewhere in Asia," although his oft-repeated waa-nino- that the
existence of a family of Indo-European languages does not necessarily postulate the exist-
ence of one Indo-European race, has too often been ignored by writers who should have
known better. The earliest enquirers based their conclusions in the main on Philology
and in former times it was, indeed, universally assumed that the original seat should ha
sought for either on the Caucasus or on the Hindukusb. Since then other sciences have
been made the handmaids of the enquiry. History, Anthropology, Geography aud Geology
have all been pressed into the service. Philology fell for a time into discredit, and more
recent opinion based in the main upon Anthropology, asserted with equal decision that
the locality must be looked for in North- West Europe. More recently, we have been led
back to the old theory, and have had Armenia and the country round the Oxus and
Jaxartes pointed out to us as the place of origin. The latest researches are those of Pro-
fessor Otto Schrader, who, after a review of all tho evidence available, considers that the
oldest probable domicile of the Indo-Europeaus is to be sought for on the common border-
land of Asia and of Europe in the steppe country of southern Russia. Here they were
pastoral people ; here some of their number gradually took to agricultural pursuits ; and
from here they wandered off to the east and to the west."
The disposition and affinity of the dialects found in different parts of
India have necessitated such eminent scholars and acknowledged authorities as
Sir George GriertJon, to alter their position with reference to the advent of the
Pisacha (non-Sanakritic) speaking people, who were 6rst alleged to have forced
themselves as a wedge into the earlier Sanskrit-speaking Aryan settlers and then
supposed to have gone round the latter on the outer skirts of the country inhabit-
ed by them, in order to reconcile tiie facts with the immigration theory. It has
also been found necessary for the same reason to put forward the somewhat
unique and improbable hypothesis of the Aryan invaders having brought their
women with them, so that their language had no occasion to be influenced by the
aborigines of another linguistic stock. It has also had to be assumed that one©
the Aryas had settled down, the current of migration stopped.f
The separation of the European from the Eranian and Indian Branches of
the Aryan Language (sub-classes of the Indo-Kuropean mother tongue) is supposed
to be based on the use of the allied terms of centum and satam. Shalam of Sans-
krit is said to be derived from the latter form. But the conversion of 8h into 8 \n
Persian is a well-known phenomenon and the transformation of Sanskrit Vipdsha
into Greek Uydaspes, of Chandr Gapta into Sandrocotus (Greek) and Sanskrit Jara-
tushtar, Eranian Zartusht into Zoroaster shows the tendency of the WesternBranch
to modify the Sh in actual Sanskritic words into a soft S. Then again we notice
the insertion of a nasal between 8 and T in the dialt^ctic development of San.skrit,,
e.g., 8at pnrush (good man) is used mostly as 8antpurush or Sant in the Sanskritic
dialects. Presuming that the parent stock of the Aryan languages was evolved
somewhere in the north-west of India where the eldest sister of the iamWj —viz.^
Sanskrit — retains some of the roots in their pristine purity, the change from Shatam
(Sanskrit) into CentumX (Latin) would be capable of explanation on the analogy of
the two above mentioned instances, and other similar plionetic changes.
It is also supposed that the Indo-Aryans immigrated over the-
Hindukush while the Branians settled in the country west of the Indus ; but
the discovery of some dialects west of the Indus, which are closely related to the
Indian (Sanskritic) Branch would perhaps be easier to explain on the assumption
• Cpiisus Keporl of India, 1901, para 4t>(j.
t The subject has been discussed at length in P. T. Sriniwas Iyengar's paper on the Myth of the Aryaa
Invasion of India published in the Journal of tho Royal Asiatic Society of 4rt3 for I9th July 1910, pp. 841-846.
J Tho Latin pronunciation of centum as kon turn would be in conformity with the Greek preference for a
hard ' k ' as in Sandrocotus,
CensQB Report, ]
350
LINQDISTIC DrSTEIBDTION.
Chaptee
Non'Sana-
kritic Suh-
Branch.
(a) Kash-
miri.
(b) Kohis-
tani.
Sajishritic
Stib-
Branch.
Sanskrit-
Lalmdi-
that the original stock of the Eranian Branch went forth from the land of the
five rivers across the Indus, and while the mass of the speakers modified their
speech into the Eranian type under climatic influence, small groups in isolated
places retained its original characteristics. The traces of Hindu influence in
the mounds of Mississipi (America)*, of the Hindu religion in Egyptfj the pre-
sence of Brahmans in Arabia, in the time of the Prophet, as evidenced by the
ballads collected by Mr. Russell StraceyJ would go to support the contention
that there was an immense emigration from India after the Mahabharata, which
would account for the spread of the influence of the Aryan Language to different
parts of the world, and obviate the necessity for discovering outside India an
imaginary home of the common stock from which the various branches of the
Aryan Language sprang up,
452. The languages of the Non-Sanskritic Sub-Branch called Pisacha in
Sir George Grierson's classiBed scheme are Kashmiri and Kohistani, both belong-
ing to the ShinaKhowar Group. Kashmiri is spoken by immigrants from Kashmir,
and some of them, who have been domiciled in the Province for several genera-
tions, still adhere to their mother tongue. The language, however, seems to
be losing ground, being returned now by only 7,190 people against 8,523 in 1901.
The largest figures are returned from Ludhiana, Lahore, and Amritsar, where
Kashmiris are found in large numbers, and Gurdaspur, Jhelum, Rawalpindi and
Chamba which adjoin the Kashmir State. I might mention here that the
existeace of certain identical words in Kashmiri and Pashto such as manz-=
middle (from Sanskrit Madhya) points to some afl&nity between the two
languages and perhaps to a Sanskritio origin.
Kohistani has been returned by only 26 persons, belonging to Kaghan who
declared their language to be Kaghani.
453. Sanskrit is not one of the spoken languages of this Province. Only
4 persons who were eminent Sanskrit Scholars belonging to Benares and usually
talked Sanskrit at home, supplied the 4 entries under this head. The only
notable feature is that one of the four persons recorded as speaking Sanskrit
was a female.
Northwestern Group.
454. The dialects spoken in the western Punjab and usually known as
Western Panjabi, have been grouped by Sir George Grierson as Lahnda, or Lahndi,
as he now prefers to call it. One never hears the language called by either of the
names. Lahnda means the west (literally the direction in which the Sun sets) and,
relatively to the central and eastern Punjab, the language spoken in the western
part of the Province is called Lahnde di boli (the language of the west). But
Lahndi is the most appropriate name, which can cover the numerous appellations,
geographical or tribal, by which it is known in different localities. It belongs to
the Sanskritic Sub-Branch but according to Sir George Grierson, has been influenced
considerably by the Pisacha language. He says " I trace the influence of the non-
Sanskritic languages right down the Indus through Western Panjabi (Lahnda)
and Sindhi, through western Gujrat into the Bhil languages of Vindya Hills and
possibly even further. Here the basis appears to be Sanskritic but the non-
Sanskritic influence appears to be very marked." He thinks it is not a dialect
of Standrad Panjabi but is a separate and distinct language. Altogether
4,253,566 persons or 176 per mille of the population have been returned as
speaking the dialects which fall under this head. The increase compared with
the figures of 1901 (see Subsidiary Table I) is not large considering that the
population in the western Punjab has generally increased. The line differen-
tiating Lahndi from Standard Panjabi of the central Punjab (see map
printed in the margin of paragraph 444) runs from the south-eastern boundary of
the Jhelum District almost due south, through the middle of the Phaha Talisil of
Gujrat, along the eastern boundary of Hafizabad and througli the middle of the
Khangah Dogran Tahsil, touching the north-west corner of Sharakpur (Gujran-
wak) and Ohunian (Lahore) Tahsils, through the Gngera and Dipalpur Ttihsils
of Montgomery, to the southern boundary of the Pakpattan Tahsil of the same
* See paper by Alexander Denmar " Did the Hindus discover America," in Indian Review, September J 912,
pp. 706—710.
t Modern Review, June 1910, pp. 530- 635.
t History of the Moijiyals, pp. xxviii, et. sej.
IX.
351
LINQUISTIO DISTRIBUTION.
[ Punjab, 1911.
district, where it turns west to the trijunction of the Montgomery and Multan
Districts with the Bahawalpur State. From this point it curves round to
the south, to within 15 miles of the Bikaaer boi'der, and then runs, almost parallel
to the boundary of that State with Bahawalpur, to the south-western end of the
Province. On the west, it is hemmed in by the Balochi speaking Biloch trans-
Frontier tract of Dera Ghazi Khan, and on the north-west, by the boundary of
the North-West Frontier Province, with the exception of the three small Pashto
speaking projections into the Mianwali and Attock Districts. The Pahari of the
Murree and Kahuta hills, which I have classed with "Western Pahari has been
included by Sir George Grierson in Lahndi.
The names by which Lahndi or Western Panjabi has been designated in Local distri-
Derewal.
Dhanni or Dhanauchi
Ghebi.
Hindko or Hindki.
Jatiili or Jatki,
Jhelumwali.
Kaohhi.
Khetrini.
KhusMbi.
Mult4ni.
Peshiwari.
batioQ.
Sorters'tickett.
pindochi. the Census returns, in different parts '
Pothwan. ej.1-t>'i -<■■,, ^
Thaiochari. ot tne runjab, are enumerated m the (j'' /"ff.'*'/ '^»
CwfecU margin. Khetrani, which is not a'""' ' '
Western* Panjibi. local dialect (it belongs to Khetran —
xhalchotiali — in Baluchistan), has been returned by six persons in Dera Ghazi
Khan and four in Jhelum and has been classed under Lahndi, with reference to
page 275 of the India Administrative Volume, 190L Six persons in Lyallpur were
found to speak Tinaoli, which is a dialect of western Hazara. Natives of
Peshawar found in different districts, at the time of enumeration, gave their
dialect as Peshawari, which is another name for the Hindki of Peshawar, All
the other terms are local. An interesting name of the dialect, which does not
appear in the Enumeration books, is Jagdali. The Biloches of Dera Ghazi Khan
designate the dialect of the Jagdal (Jats) of that locality by this term.
A glance at Imperial Table X will show that the bulk of the figures under
Lahndi come from the Kawalpindi and Multan Divisions and the Bahawalpur
State. Lahndi is spoken only in a small portion of Gujrat, but with regard to
the principal dialect of the district it has been treated as Standard Panjabi. The
dialect of Jhelum is distinctly Lahndi but owing to its proximity to the Panjabi
speaking tract, the language was named Panjabi. Similarly the language of
Montgomery, which is mainly Lahndi, was put down, in the Enumeration books, as
Standard Panjabi. In the Shahpur and Lyallpur Districts, the preponderance of
Panjabi in the returns is ascribable largely to tbe presence of colonists, etc., from
the central Punjab, but there is no doubt about a large number of the local
residents having also been returned (wrongly) as speaking Panjabi. On the whole,
the real strength of the persons speaking Lahndi has, therefore, been somewhat
underrated. But while the total 6gures of this language may be taken as fairly
accurate for all practical purposes, the names returned from each district by no
means indicate the correct distribution of the dialects. District Census Officers were
required to decide beforehand what name should be used for particular dialects in
each district or state. So the officer deciding the question, gave to tbe dialect of
the district whatever name he chose, out of the numerous terms by which it was
known. For instance, in Mianwali, the dialect of the Indus Valley is known as
Derewal or Multani ; that of the southern Thai, Thalochri; of the northern Thai,
Thali; of the trans-Salt range tract Awankari and so on ; but the term Multani
alone was used in the greater part of the district to designate the local dialects and
the name of Pothwari was used for the dialect of the Awankari tract. T have made
these remarks to prevent misundorstanding. It is, therefore, not possible to give
an accurate local distribution of the various dialects on the basis of the present
Censiis figures ; but with the information, now being supplied, and the volume of
Linguistic Survey relating to Lahndi, which is now in Sir George Grierson's hands,
it may be possible, at a future Census, to obtain statistics of the dialects in each
locality under the correct names.
Sir George has very kindly favoured us with a note on the subject. He
divides the dialects of Laiindi into three i<on according
groups : (1) the southern (standard dia- qhL^!"'^"
lect) ; (2) the north-eastern, i-e., Poth-
wari, etc.; and (3) the north-western. The
list of dialects falling within each group,
given by him, is reproduced in the margin.
Niswanihasnot been returned as a dialect
(b) Listrihu-
The southern
(Standard dialect).
Niswini.
Do4bl
Jatki.
J4ngli.
Kichhi.
Multani.
Bahawalpur i.
Hindki.
Derewil Hindki.
Chinawari.
Chinhawari.
Thali.
Tbalocbri.
Bar di Boli or
JatAdar di Boli
North-eastern.
Awinkari.
Ghebi.
Pothwari.
Pahiri.
Dhundi KairAli.
North-western.
Phanni.
Swain.
Hindki.
(c) My prO'
posals.
Census Report. ]
852
LINGUISTIC D1STBIB0T1ON,
Chapter
qhuhoT kawali
OHlBi
MACHHRI
CHINMAWARI
OtAEWAL NIHOKI
OR0UP4 eUB CROUP
DIALLCTIC BOUMnavr— —
OIBTRICT APROvrNCt) ^ _ _,
BOUNOHV f
fSOUTMCRH 37A«DAPd1 rT-T-,
( O.ALtCT r^=^
1 POTHWARl AC
fNOPTM WEBTtRNJ
OiALtCT
.|-i
anywhere in the Province, at this Census, nor was it returned in 1901. The Enu-
meration books do not show that Dhundi
KairaH is spoken anywhere. Local en-
quiries made from the Murree Tahsil have
not elicited a reply in the afiBrmative
either. Doabi is the name given to the
dialect spoken in the Shahpur District,
between the Jhelum and Chenab rivers,
but it is also known by other local
names such as Shahpuri, Bhirochi and
Janglior Jatki. The map printed in the
margin, shows the location of the various
dialects, as pointed out by Sir George
GriersoD. The list is exhaustive and so
far as my experience and the information
collected by me go, the general line of
the distribution is correct. Without goino"
into the detail of the distinguishing cha-
racteristics of each dialect, which it would
be useless for any one to attempt until the
results of Sir George Grierson's scientific
investigations have been published, I cannot hazard an opinion as to the absolute
accuracy of his distribution.
But I attach a separate map (see opposite page) showing the groups into
which the Lahndi dialects may be arranged according to popular notions, and the
localities in which they are knowo to be spoken. The arrangement differs but
slightly from that adopted by Sir George, and I present it merely with a view to
assist in his deliberations. Except at the south-western end where, on the west,
it is abruptly stopped by Balochi and the south, where Rajasthani presents a sudden
change, Lahndi varies gradually from one local dialect to another and merges al-
most imperceptibly fi'om Bnhawalpuri toSindhi, on the one hand, and from Jatki,
Jangli or Bar di Boli into Standard Panjabi on the other. Taking the dialect of
Multan and Muzaffargarh (Multani) as the nucleus, Derewal Hindki is not much
removed except in differences of accent and some influence of Balochi. Going north,
it loses some of its sweetness in the Thai, but the dialect of the Indus Valley in.
Bhakkar and Leiah remains pi'actically the same. The Kachhi dialect of Mianwali
and the Thali of the northern Thai bear traces of the characteristics of Awankari,
while the latter is a connecting link (with certain peculiarities of its own)
between the Kachhi and Dhanni dialects. Pothwtiri shows greater Sans-
kritic influence and would appear to have affected Ghebi and Awankari on the
one hand and Dhanni on the other. On the east Multani gets gradually assimi-
lated to Panjabi in the Jatki or Jangli or Bar di Boli, which as we go north merges
by degrees into Pothwari and Dhanni. The line of differentiation is, however,
marked at the southern limits of the Pabbi and Salt Ranges lying at the north of
the Khushab and south of the Piiid Dadan Khan Tahsils, respectively. Of the
LABNDi. northern dialects, Pothwari with
Pahari and Chhachhi stands out
somewhat prominently and in t he-
western group, Ghebi is closely
allied to Awankari and Swain to
Dhauni. On the south of the
differentiatiug line, Montgomery,
LyalJpnr and parts of Jhang
aud Shahpur, with portion of
Gujracwala and Gujrat form a
group more or less distinguishable
frcm Multani and the other dia-
lects. Lahndi may, therefore*, be
divided into northern and south-
ern, with the eastern and western group in each. In the margin I have classified
accordingly, the entries found in the Sorters' tickets.
MOETBIBN.
SOCTHKBN.
Eastern
group.
Western
group.
Eastern gronp.
Western group.
Pahari,
Pothwari,
Chhichhi,
fiindki of
Attock.
Dhanni,
Sw&in,
Aw&nkari,
tihebi.
Jatki of Mont-
gomery, Jingli
or B4r di Boli
of Lyallpar and
Montconifry,
Jatki of Jhang,
Bhirochi, Jatki
or Jingli of
Jbang, Chinhi-
wari.
Derewal, Hindki,
Kdchhi, Thali,
Thn 1 ooh ar i,
Jatki of Mnznf-
farenrb, Mul-
tani, Bahavral-
pnri, Hindki of
JsaKhel.Kach.
hri.
HIHDKI
MULTANI
Jatki, OANGUi OR Bar Group---|
poTHWARi Group 1
Dhanni Group (
Lahndi Boundary
D;auectic do
Province 8r District Boundary-
Northern and Southern "1,
Lahndi Boundary -j
N.K.P.L.
I
IX.
353
LINGUISTIC DISTEIBDTION.
[ Punjab, 1911.
I give below a few characteristics of each of the groups.* (D) Charae-
The genitive case ending da, or dd instead of the Panjabi rd is common to eacMr'^i
all dialects of Lahndi except Pothwari, where rd fnih a hard r is used under
the influence of Pahari, e.g., inhdrd (our), tuhdrd (your). In the southern group
■we have mdidd^ but in the northern, a nasal is inserted making it mdindd. In
the third person singular the d is soft in the former group ; in the latter the
formation is the same as in the eastern branch but nd is substituted for dd in the
western. The absence of the suffix ne in the Instrumental case is also a common
feature, but in the southern group we have unkitd and in the northern group uskitd
instead of the Panjabi ms ne Icitd. The hard d, the ablative suflBx Icamm, the
dative witli kiin, the nominative plural assdn instead of assi, the pronominal
suffix of verbs, e.g., hitum (I did), mareom (I hit) and the passive participle, e.g.,
marindd (being bit) are peculiar to the southern Lahndi. The dialect of the
Thai is coarser. The I (dental) is often pronounced as I (lingual) and the accent
is generally rough. The oblique ending in e such as ghare dd or ghare nd, the
dative with hi as in milci, tuki, the interrogative he instead of che or hyd in Multani
and hi in Panjabi, and katthe, kutthe for kitthe of Panjabi are some characteristics
of the northern group, while there are certain words peculiar to each,
e.g., achh (come), gachh (go) in Pothwari and Savjh (saddle), Bar (stack), gaddcn
(donkey), Taddt (mat), Pdbi {cucumis utiltsimus), Ichir (milk) in Multani. The well-
known distinction between the southern Lahndi of Multan (Multani) and that of
Dera Ghazi Khan (Derewal") is that the former has a soft r (dental), while in the
latter it is pronounced as r (lingual). The Multanis are often twitted by the
Derewals by being asked to recite Qhiri pharki, ghori larhi, larakdd lanhdd
ghori khare te mupn charhdn (the sparrow fluttered, the mai-e shied, I hung on and
would get on if the mai'e stopped), with a succession of Vs which is a stumbling
block for the Multanis. The equivalent, in each dialect of a few simple expressions,
is noted below : —
English.
Multani.
Jingli.
Bhirochi
Dbanni.
Pothwiri.
Awankari.
Yoars
taidi
tainda
tairS ...
tahnda
tohiri
tohndA.
What ia hia name
ke nan his ..
ke nan su
ke nin haiye
ke nans
ki nins
ke nins.
We shall go
assin vaisun
asi vaisoon ...
asi jassin
am wassan ...
asi gachh san..
asi wasslin.
I ycked the pair
jora jutiam ...
main jora jntti
main jori jntta
main jora joys
main jore ki
main jora joya
of bullocks.
4hi.
ihi.
abii.
jotarja.
ubia.
Have yon got water
panrin bivre
p4nrin hinne
panrin haiye
panrin ahne...
PAnrin haiya,
pAnfin ahne.
From me
main kanun...
maithoon
maire kolun...
mahnde koHn
mhare pssun
mahnde koliin.
To me
mai kiin
mainun
mainun
mainun ormanh
miki
minh.
Sit down
baih thee
baitko
baho
baih wanj ...
Bahi j4
ajh wanj.
The dialectic differences of accent, idiom and vocabulary are too great
to admit of a close examination hero. The peculiarities of each dialect will, no
doubt, be explained by Sir George Grierson in his Linguistic Survey.
A theory was started sometime ago about the foreign origin of the Janglis <^) ■^'•,a*»>
of the Chenab bdr, and the presence of a certain number of Arabic words in the bZ% ToU.
Jaiki of that tract also cslled hdr di boli was made much of. Such words as
ahkal, faham, Idnat, matldb, khds, are not the exclusively possessions of bdr di
boli, but are used throughout the western Punjab, where the Muhammadan influence
has been strong, and to some extent throughout the Province. Ahkal, matlab
and hhds are very common in Panjabi and ahkal na ahaur is a favourite
expression for an idiot. Of the words with an Arabic origin, I have only heard
one, viz., Bdr, which is said to be derived from Barr meaning land (particularly
barren land). On the other hand, we have in the Indian vernaculars
Bdr (fence), Bdn (garden), Bdrd (enclosure) an*? Bir (forest) all connected with
forest growth, ordinarily derived from Sanskrit Vri to cover ; and Bdr meaning
stack. The Arabic derivation is therefore doubtful. The term which seems to
be really derived from Arabic Barr is bdrri of Multani which means an inhabitant
of the wilderness uncivilized.
455. Sindhi, as a local dialect, is confined to the south-western end of the Sindhi.
Babawalpur State, which adjoins Sindh, but numbers of Sindhis are found
• For particulars of southern Lahndi, see Kli>89ary of Multani uouth-wosUrn Panjabi^ by the late K. U'JtJrien,
I.C.S., revised by 11 r. (now Sir James) Wilson and myself. Sir Jame» Wilson's book on Western Panjibi deals
■with some of the dialects of northern Lalmdi.
Census Report, ]
354
LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION.
Chapter
Ceyloni
Dakhni
Daraori
Goanese
Eanksci
Marathi
Thakati
(Singhalese) 1
349
12
104
1
346
2
Total
815
Assamese.
Western
Hindi.
in Ibe Dera Ghazi Khan, Multan and Lahore Districts, where the figures are large
enough to deserve notice. It may be mentioned that Kacbhi, which is returned
as a dialect of Lahndi, ia a local name for the knguage of the Kachhi tract in
the Miauwali District, lying between the Indus and the uplands, i.e., the Salt
Eange and the Thai, and is probably different to the Kachhi, which is said to be
a dialect of Sindhi.
Southern Group.
Marathi. 456. The entries classed under Marathi are named in the margin. Of the
349 Uakhni speaking persons, 224 were enumerated in
Ambala and the rest were scattered over the larger towns.
Most of these men being Maratlias, the term was inter-
preted to be Marathi. Most of the Maratiii entries came
from Delhi, where several Marathas had come in connec-
tion with the Delhi Durbar works. But Marathi speakers
were found in Ambala and Amritsar as well.
Eastern Group.
Oriya. 457. Only three Oriya speaking men were enumerated in the Province,
one in Karnal, another in Patiala and the third in Jind,
Bengali. Bengali or Bangla is spoken by 2,214 persons in the Province. Bengalis
Delia 634 are scattered all over the Province ; but the largest figures have
Ambala ... 125 ^gen returned from the districts noted in tlie margin. '1 he
L^re'.'.'. '." 475 total Strength of the persons speaking the language is very
Eawalpindi ... 302 nearly the same as in 1901.
Only 5 persons speaking Assamese were enumerated.
Western Croup.
458. The languages falling: under the Western Group are Weslern Hindi,
Rajasthani, Gujarati, Panjabi and Western Paliari. I will deal with each of them
separately. Western Hindi is the name given in the Linguistic Survey to the group
of dialects spoken in the eastern part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain West (see map
in paragraph 444). Western Hindi consists of 3 main dialects — viz., Hindustani,
Urdu and Other Hindi. On the whole, it embraces 158 per mille of the total
population. The number of persons speaking One form or another of the
language bas decreased from 4,207,731 to 3,326,407, evidently owing to the
general decrease of population in the tract where it is mainly spoken. Hindustani
has diminished to less than one-half ; Urdu has increased more than 50 per cent, and
Other Hindi has nearly trebled itself. The cause is that a number of the dialects
spoken in the eastern Punjab were indiscriminately returned as Hindustani in
1901, and that the efforts made to ascertain the local names of dialects have re-
sulted in a contraction under that head. In order to understand the exact signifi-
cance of the figures, it is necessary to explain the sense in which each term has
been used. Hindustani is the name by which the dialect of the Delhi,
Karnal and Ambala Districts has been generally called, as also that spoken by
immigraiita from the United Provinces. Urdu is the somewhat polished Lingua
Franca of the towns and of the stronger villages in the ea^t, which is largely im-
pregnated with Persian, while the dialects spoken in the rural tracts of the other
eastern districts Lave teen classed under Other Hindi.
Hindustani. 459. Hindustani is a very indefinite term applied in the western and central
Punjab to the language spoken by all persons belonging to the east. The Delhi,
Karnal and Ambala Districts, as noted above, form the only tract in which this
name is given to the spoken language of the masses. The decrease in the
strength of this dialect has occurred mainly in Rohtak where over 70,000 persons,
mainly towns-people, have now subscribed to Urdu instead of Hindustani. In
Gurgaon, the bulk of the rural population talk, what they call, Jatu, and there
Ahirwati, Jatu and Hindi (also known as Deswali Hindi) have replaced Hindus-
tani. In Delhi, the figure of Hindi has gone down about one-half, Urdu
(161,427) and Deswali and Other Hindi (150,538) taking the place of Hindustani,
which was the name applied lo the spoken language of practically the whole
of that district in 1901.
Urdu, 460. Urdu has been returned from every unit except the Ba.«hahr and Bilas-
pur Hill States. It is spoken in almost every town in varying degrees, the strongesfi
centres being Delhi, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Lahore, Dujana, Pataudi and Karnal.
IX.
355
LINGUISTIC DISTEIBOTION-
[ Punjab. 1911-
DecreaeeB.
<3urgaon
202,791
JuUimdur
5,067
Rawalpindi
2,105
Nahan
10.719
Bilaspur
59
Nalagarh
17
Urdu is Hindi Persiauised under Muhamraadan influence and being by its
nature elastic is dow taking a large supply of English words. Urdu-epeaking
clerks are often heard talking such slang as :- —
Eamdre office men koi vacancy nahin hai, Hamdre office hd time ten to four hai.
Office kd time abhl change nahin hud.
Certain English terras which have become naturalised in Urdu ai'e used
freely by educated Indians of all classes — e. (j., taren (train), tihat (ticket), hot
(coat), kiimpartment (compartment), reserve, landau, station; and I havo heard
Indian speakers addressing the audience in such language as : —
Sdhibdn ! jnain dpkd time waste nahin karrni chdhtd, lekin main apni duty Ue
fulfil karne men qdsir rahungd agar main dpko yeh na jatldun ke apke is meeting men
jamd karne kdkhds reason yeh thd ki dp is chavitahle kdm men apni mashahiir geneTosity
se subscription den. Main sdhab President ke lie vote of thanks propose kartd hun.
Umid hai ki sab hdzarin usko acclamation ke sdth support karenge.
The figures for the Delhi District, which contains the principal Urdu-speak-
Hindustdni. Urdu. other^B^wU. ,-„□, q[^j gj.g compared in the margin with those of
1911 !."! 329,835 161,427 150^538 1901 . Urdu has gained Considerably in this district.
That the registration of Urdu was fairly accurate can be judged from the fact that
in the city of Delhi 117,289 people were found to speak Urdu at home against 25,492
talking Hindi. The question is discussed further in paragraph 487. The increase in
entries under Urdu has been more or less general. The excep-
tions are noted in the margin. Ln 1901, the whole popu-
lation of Gurgaon was returned as speaking Hindustani or
Urdu, while the present figures show about 52,000 (mainly
in towns) speaking Urdu, 6,521 Hindustani, 263 Panjabi,
100,247 Ahirwati, 84,489 Jatn, 84 Purbi, 21 Brij Bhasha
and 191,191 Deswali and Other Hindi, which is probably not very far from
<;orrect. In Jullundur the decrease is accounted for partly by the entry of 380
persons under Hindustani, 327 under Puibi and 888 under Hindi; but the
main cause is the general decrease in population. The decline in Rawalpindi
appears to be due, as in the case of Panjabi, to the transfer of three tahsils to
Attock. The existence of 14,346 Urdu-speaking people in the hill state of
Nahan in 1901 was probably a bit of exaggeration. The loss of Urdu
appears as a gain to Hindi, which seems to be the correct designation for the
Lingua of the Bania class and the natives of the adjoining parts of the
Ambala District, who form the bulk of the foreigners in Nahan territory. The
important increases under Urdu are stated in the
margin. The increases in Rohtak, Delhi and Karnal are
due to the proper classification of the dialects which were
thrown m 1901 under Hindustani. Lahoi*e shows a de-
crease of 14,501 under Hindustani, but even supposing that
all these persons should have appeared undfer Urdu in 1901
there is an increase of 23,000. There has probably been
a small increase in the Urdu-speaking population of the
district, but this large increase, in the face of a heavy
decrease in Panjabi, would admit of a certain amount of exaggeration in favour
of Urdu, as remarked by Mr. 'J'app, the Census Officer of the Lahore City. In
Dujana and Pataudi, the name Urdu has merely been substituted for Hindustani.
The other increases of under 10,000 call for no remarks.
461. The entries thrown under Other Hindi are given in the margin
554,988 with their strength. Jatu has been returned mostly
in the rural tracts of Rohtak and Gurgaon, and is
the dialect mainly of the Rohtak Jats. Deswali,
which has been returned solely in the rural tracts
of Hissar, apparently includes a certain number of
persons talking Hariani. Deswali Hindi is a name
by which Jats of the Delhi District (523,277)
call their dialect. The entries of Hindi came
mainly from Gurgaon, Delhi (chiefly the towns),
Nabha, Kalsia and Nahnn. Smaller figures are
contributed by almost every district. Most of
entries are found in Jind (121,225)
Rohtak ...
.. 7r,75i
Delhi ...
.. 101,427
Karnal ...
... 18,S'79
Ferozepore
fi,421
Lahore . . .
... 37,555
Amritsar
6,281
Sialkot ...
7.154
I.yallpur
5,101
Dujana ..
.. 23,902
Pataudi ...
... 14,563
Patiala ...
9,383
Nabha ...
7,326
Other Hindi.
Jitu and Jatu Hindi ...
Deswali and Beswuli
Hindi
Hindi including Nilgri
Bangri or Bingru
Ahirwiti or Ahirwali and
Ahirwii
JIariani
PurDi
Bhiishiand Hindi Bhishi
Brij and Biij Bhishi ...
AryiiBhaeha
Bundhelkhandi
Khadri
De» Bliash4
4.52,516
419,056
146,041
106,727
72,594
26,294
360
250
51
5
3
1
1,778,870
the Biingiai
Censns Report. ]
356
LINGDISTIC DISTKIBUTION.
Chapter
Bigri
Mewiti
467,744
209,072
Marwiri
45,65S
Jaipuri
Bik4neri
1,139
850
Sheikh4wati
727
Mewari
335
Marechi
135
Hij4wai and Rajiwati
Jbarshihi
54
49
Jodhpari
Bishnoi ■
35
15
Bithi
15
B4jaath4ni and Rajputi
Dhnndiri
ni 13
S
Alwarwiti
3
Dadri
I
and smaller numbers in Karnal (21,*{04) and Ferozepore (1,821). Ahirwati was
returned in the rural tract of Gurgaon (100,247) and also in Jind (5,374). The
same dialect was put down as Hirwai in Ferozepore (897) and Faridkot (8). The
entries of Hariani are confined mainly to Jind (72,497) and only 79 persons have
returned it in Ferozepore ; but a large number of the inhabitants of Hariana in Hissar
speak the same dialect, which has in that district been named Deswali. Purbi is
returned from almost every district and state except the Simla Hill States,
and represent, the dialect spoken by the menial immigrants of the bearer, syce
and kahar class, from the United Provinces. The other dialects are unimportant.
The gain of Other Hindi, as noticed above, is merely duo to a proper classi-
fication of Hindustani, which is quite an indefinite term and does not signify
either any dialectic peculiarities or locality.
Rijaithini. 4G2. Rajasthani is the dialect of Rajputana which, as shown in the map
in paragraph 444, fringes the southern boundary of the Province from Bahawalpur
in the west, right up to Gurgaon in the east. Its strength has increased from
580,368 to 725,850, and the persons speaking it now represent 3 per cent, of
the total population. The mcrease is due mainly to the
immigration of Bagri labourers. The entries found in
the sorters' tickets have been classified as shown in the
margin. The spoken language of Loharu, which lies on
the skirts of Rajputana, is almost entirely Bagri, but it
is also used largely in the Ferozepore (67,385) and
Hissar (190,632) Districts and the Patiala (158,301) and
Jind (22,586) States adjoining Bikaner, as also in the
State of Bahawalpur (2,867). It is also returned from
other districts like Lyallpur (2,392), and Multan (1,397),
where Bagri labourers are found in large numbers.
Mewati is confined mainly to the Mewat trect of the
Meos in Gurgaon. Marwari is really the dialect of
the trading classes of Marwar, but tlie term is also sometimes applied indiscrimi-
nately to the language of Bagris. The entries are scattered all over the Prnvince,
the largest figures having been registered in Bahawalpur (21,184) andDelhi(7,324).
Jaipuri and Jharshahi are considered identical and have been returned mainly from
Hissar and the Canal works in Giijranwala. The largest entries of Bikaneri are
found in the Jhelum (^lony and Multan. The other figures of the names returned
under Rajasthani are too small to need comment.
GajaraM. 463. Gujarati isnot an indigenous language of the Province. The 1,964 per-
sons, who have returned it, are scattered over the Province,
the majority of them being found in the districts named in the
margin. The entries which have been included under this
head are Gujarati (1,931), Katbiawari (6), Kathri or Khafcri
(21) andParsi (6).
P'njibi. 464. Panjabi is the dialect of the Central Punjab, bounded on the west
by Lahndi, on the east by Western Hindi and north-east by Western Pahari. Sir
George Grierson divides this into Standard Panjabi and Dogri and holds that the
latter though spoken in the hills, is a dialect of Panjabi and not of Western Pahari.
Variations. The Strength of the language is compared in the margin with the
figures of 1901. Against 15J millions speak-
ing the language in 1901, the recent Census
has shown only 14^^ millions — a decrease of
over 7 per cent. This has been caused partly
by a real decrease in the Panjabi-speaking
population and partly to a difference in
classification, consequent on an attempt to
distinguish the dialects of Lahndi and Western Hindi. Panjabi being the most
important dialect of the Province, spoken by more than half the population
(584 per mille), it appears worth while to examine the variations in detail To
Delhi
... 269
Lahore
... 278
Sialkot ...
... 231
Kawalpindi
... 156
Maltan
... 332
Variations.
1911
1901
Total.
14,111,215
16,272,322
Panjlbi
Standard.
13,353,840
15,250,162
Dogri.
757,375
22,160
begin with, it may be mentioned that the correct fij^ures of Panjiibi should be
somewhat leas than they appear to be, for a considerable portion of those
returned under Panjabi in Gujrat and Shahpur, really belong to Lahndi, while
the dialect of Montgomery and Jhelum, which has been returned as Panjabi, is
I
IX.
357
LINGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION.
[ Punjab, 1911-
almost entirely Lahndi, The largest
Decrease
Dietrict.
ID
Panjibi.
Canses.
Ambala
90,707
General decrease in population ;
Increase in Urdu 2,568.
Hoshiarpur
56,171
General decrease in population.
JalluBdur ...
111,227
Ditto.
Ludbiaoa ...
153,370
General decrease in population ;
Increase in Urdu 2,133.
Lahore
157,373
Transfer of Sharakpur ; decrease
in population and increase of
37,555 in Urdu.
Amritsar
141,625
General decrease in population ;
Increase in Urdu 6,281.
Gurdaspur
104,714
Ditto.
Sialkot
107,355
General decrease in population ;
IncrKase in Urdu 7,154.
Jhelum
85,258
Transfer of Talisil Talagang.
Bawalpindi
219,547
Formation of Attock District.
Hianwali ... ••■
117,575
Correct rBgistiution of Lahndi
instead of Panjabi as in 1901
and transfer of Leiah.
Lyallpar ...
98,021
Correct classification as Lahndi.
Jhang
348,489
Oitto.
Multan
81,942
Ditto.
Patiala
215,515
General decrease in population.
Nabha
52,317
Due to increase of 68,819 in
Hindi.
where an increase would be reasonable on
Jhelum Canal but the figures have probably been exaggerated at the
decreases have occurred in the districts
noted in the margin where abrief
explanation of the causes has
also been given. It will be seen
that the falling off in Panjabi
is due largely to loss of popula-
tion and to the classification
under Lahndi of some of the
population in the western
Punjab which was returned in
1901, as Panjabi speaking. In
the Nabha State, alone, a por-
tion of the population, in the
southern tract, has been return-
ed as speaking Hindi. Against
these decreases have to be set
off the noticeable increase, of
585,513 in Kangra, where a
good deal of what was formerly
treated as Pahari, has now
been considered as Dogri and
consequently included in -Pan-
jabi ; of 138,478 in Shah pur,
account of the colonization of the
expense of
Lahndi ; of 65,951 in Montgomery where similar causes appear to have been at
work ; of 91,066 in Bilaspur, owing to the treatment of Kahluri as Panjabi, under
the instructions of Sir George Grierson ; and of 38,064 in Bahawalpur where
colonization operations in the eastern Nizdmats (districts) have attracted a large
number of Panjabis. The
above facts will show that,
on the whole, Panjabi has
not suffered much from
either misclassification or
mistakes at Enumeration.
The local distribu-
tion of Panjabi (including
Dogri) is indicated in
the marginal map. The
strength in each unit haa
been shown according to
the Census returns, without
any attempt at smoothing
the errors, between that
language and Lahndi. For
the more accurate bound-
aries of Panjabi, a reference
should be made to the map
in paragraph 444.
465. The marginally noted entries found in tlie Enumeration books have standard
been classed under Standard Panjabi. Kahluri and Bilaspuri PanJ^bi.
signify one and the same thing ; the dialect is spoken in the
greater part of the State and is clas.sed by Sir George Grierson
with Panjabi. The language of Kapiirthala and Jullundur —
i.e., the tract lying between the Sutlej and Beas, is known as
Doabi but that name has been returned by immigrants from
this tract into Ljallpur. Malwai has been returned by some of
the Feroz^'pore Jats, also, m Lyallpur, and the language of
some natives of the central Punjab, found in the Eohtak Dis-
trict han been designated as Jangli. Gurmukhi is a script and
13,353,840 not a dialect. Three persons speaking Bhatiani were found
Panjibi
.. 13,218,474
Kahluri
94,697
Bil4spuri
141
Doabi
38,245
Malwai
2,113
Jangli
112
Jhangwili
22
Gurmukhi
15
M^jhi
6
Lihori
5
N414garhi .
5
Bhati!4ni
a
Gurdispuri
1
JuUunduri .
1
358
CensTiB Report, ]
UNGUISTIC DISTRIBUTION.
Chapter
DogrL
Kingri
.. 599,455
Dogri
.. 157,531
JammuAIi
299
Kandeali
76
Katcchi
13
Bliatiiili
1
Western
Pahiri.
in Ludhiana. Six peraons in Lyallpur were noted as speaking Majhi, which, is the
dialect of Majba in Lahore and Amritsar, where people have put themselves down
simply as speaking Panjabi. Panjabi has numerous sub-dialects with slight
variations or peculiarities of accent, vocabulary, etc., mostly bearing geographical
name.' such as Kalari (spoken in the Kalar tract of Sharakpur and in Gujrauwa-
la), Lahori (of Lahore), Amritsari (of Amritsar), Batali (of Batala), etc., and the
introduction of a hmited vocabulary of trade argots, sometimes gives the dialect
a trilial or professional name, e.g., Suniari, Sarafi, Bazazi. No attempt has been
made to ascertain these details, which are not of sufficient importance to justify
the immense amount of labour which such a course would have involved.
466. Dogri is confined to the Kangra hills and is also spoken in theadjoin-
ing tracts of Gurdaspur, and in the Sialkot District, which is
adjacent to Jammu. The names under which the dialect has
been returned are enumerated in the margin. Kangri is the
dialect of Kangra, but a few Katoch Eajputs of the District
have subscribed themselves to Katochi. The Dognis, found
757,375 away from their native land, have generally given their language
as Jammuali or Dogri and so have the Dogras of Gurdaspur. Kaudeali has also
been retui-ned from the latter District. Only one person, probably belonging to
Chamba bat enumerated in Kangra, returned his language as Bbatiaii.
467. Western Pahari is the name given by Sir George Grierson to the
gi'Oup of dialects spoken in Simla and the Simla Hill States, Chamba and a portion
of the Kangra hills. The locality of the language as a whole is shown on the map
printed in paragraph 444. Altogether 993,363 persons or 41 per mille of the
total population speak this language. The corresponding figure of 1901 was
1,57d,885 ; but it has to be remembered that, in that year, the dialect spoken ia
the whole of Kangi'a District outside Kulu was treated as Pahari, while that dialect
which is called Kangri or Dogri has now been treated as a branch of Panjabi. In
the Kangra District, only 27,314 persons were then shown as speaking Panjabi,
while the number now returned is 612,826, of which close on 600,000 persons are
put down under Dogri. Adding this figure to the present total for Western Pahari,
it is clear that, compared witb 1901, the strength of the language has increased
and not decreased. At the request of Sir George Grierson arrangements were
made to carefully specify the dialects and sub-dialects of this language and the
results which are embodied iu the following paragraphs go to establish the mar-
vellous accuracy of his classification and local distribution.
ided the language into 4 groups, viz., (a) Simla
Group, (^) Kulu Group, (c) Mandi Group, {d)
Chamba Group. The dialects included in each,
group are noted in the margin. On the op-
posite page is printed a map of the Simla
Hill dialects, of which the original was very
kindly prepared by Sir George. I have
ventured to make a few unimportant altera-
tions as the outcome of my own enquiries on
the subject ; viz., I have divided Mandeali
into Chhotii Bangbali, Mandeali Suketi and
Mandi Siraji, which is in accordance with the
classification contained in his note, circulated
with Census Commissioner's letter No. 1624, dated the 12ih December 1910 and
facts ascertained locally. On his original map, Chbota Bangbali had not been
differentiated fi'om Mandeali proper, and Mandi Siiaji has in my map taken the
place of Mandeali Pahari, marked by him. Besides extending throughout the eastern
extremity of the Mandi and Suket States, it covers a laigearea in the S'luth-east of
the former. Moreover Mandi Siraji seems to be a more appropriate name of the
dialect which is found next door to Kulu Siraji. The divisions of Cbameali
proper into Pungwali, Churahi and Cbameali and that of Kulu Siiaji into Sainji,
Inner Siraji and Outer Siraji, was marked on the map by Sir George Grierson
himself, but the details of iJie latter have not been actually returned at the
Enumeration, the entries for the whole of Kulu Siraji Laving been made under
that name without differentiating between Sainji, Outer Siraji and Inner Siraji.
Classification,
Sir George Grierson has di
(a). — Simla Groitp.
1.
Jaunsari.
2.
Sirmr.uri < including Dharthi, Giripari and
Bishshau).
3
Bagh4ti.
4.
Kiuthali (including Handuri, Kiulhali,
Simla Siraji, Barari, EarachaU and
Kochi).
(b). — Kulu Group.
1.
Kuluhi. 3. Sadhochi.
a.
Kulu Siraji.
(,c). — Mandi Oroup.
1.
Mandeili. [ 3. Mandi Siraji.
2.
Cbhota BangU&U. 1 4. Suketi.
{'Ij, — Chamba Group.
1.
Chameili. | 2. Gadi.
GURDA8PUR
MAP
SHOWING
THE DISTRIBUTION OF SIMLA HILL DIALECTS
Scale 1 ln=24 Miles
24 0 24 48 Miles
I
ISOLATED PLOTS
1 SIMLA DISTRICT
2 SIMLA HILL STATES
3 PATIALA
4 KALSIA
REFERENCE
Sijb-dialer.tR
Simla Group
Kuilu "
Mandi
Chamba '•
1 1
• 1 1
1 1
1 1
Note:- Limits and names of dialects.sub'
dialects and administrative units
are printed In the same colour
Res. No. vk E. 'ti.H.850.
IX.
859
LINQDI8TIC DISTEIBUTION.
[ Punjab, 1911.
I have coloured the map according to groups. The figures for the
dialects and sub-dialects falling under each group are given iu thousands in
Subsidiary Table I. Some of the Pahari entries were, however, found in the
Murree and Kabuta hills and my enquiries showed that the dialects spoken in
this tract differed very much from that of the Simla hills. I therefore added a
fifth group for the Murree-Kahuta Pahari* and the entries of Pahari, returned
in the plains without specification of the dialects to which they belonged, as it
■was impossible to assign them to any particular dialect with reference to locality.
Gujari which according to Sir George Grierson had to be included in Western
Pahari was, also thrown into this group.
468. The Simla Group is the most important sub-division of the langu- 1- Simla
age. The dialects falling within it are spoken by 405,008 persons. Grotip.
Jaunsari is spoken by some 6,000 persons in the peninsular projection of i. Jaunsari.
the Simla Hill States east of Nahan, i.e.^ in Tarocli and part of Jubbal. It is
sub-divided into (1) Jaunsari proper and (2) Kirni.
(a) Jaunsari. — Jaunsari proper has been returned from these two states
under the following names : —
Jaunsdri ... ... ... ... ... ... 596
Palidri Jaunsari ... ... ... ... ... ... 99
Tarochi 2,953
Total ... 3,648
(6) Kirni. — Kirni is confined to a small tract, north of Jubbal and has
been entered as Kirni (2,368), and Jaunsari Kirni {6), (total 2,374).
Sirmauri is spoken in the Sirmaur State commonly known as Nahan and
also in the greater part of the adjoining Jubbal State. Its total strength is
130,807 persons.
(a) Dhdrthi. — In Nahan, the dialect is called Sirmauri, but it has two
distinct sub-dialects, viz., Dharthi and Giripari. The former is spoken in the
south-western portion of the state and has been returned as such by 31,602 ; as
Pachhmi by 2,721, and merely as Sirmauri by 4,027 (total 38,350) of the inhabi-
tants of the tract in question.
(li) Giripari. — The dialect of the trans-Giri part of the state is known
as Giripari (literally across the Giri) and is spoken by 79,275 persons.
Bishshati. — The name of the sub-dialect peculiar to Jubbal, is Bishshau.
Most (18,531) of the entries were made under that name but 58 called it Jubbali
and 593 Pahari Jubbali. The aggregate of persons, using the sub-dialect, is 19,182.
Baghati, with a total strength of 24,027, is spoken in Baghat, and the
adjoining Minor Simla Hill States, as also in bits of the Simla District. Six
persons called it Kumharseni and one Mahlogi.
Kiuthali is the main dialect of the Simla Group with as many as 238,152
persons classed under it. It covers the central belt extending from Nalagarh on
the west to Bashahr on the east.
At the extreme west, the form known as Handdri is spoken at the upper
end of Nalagarh (Nalagarhi, the dialect used in the rest of that state being
a species of Panjabi and quite different from Western Pahari) and a part of the
Baghal State. The sorters' tickets show 22,792 entries under Handuri and 5,868
under Baghali or Baghliani (total 24,027.)
Kiuthali proper which may be called the standard sub-dialect of tho tract
is that peculiar to Keonthal, part of Baghat, the Simla District that part of the
Patiala State which lies in the Simla Hills and the Minor Simla Hill States sur-
rounded by them. Its total strength is 105,782 and the entries classed under tho
sub-dialect include Bhnjiiili (71) and Dhamiani (4,247), peculiar to the Bhajji and
Dhami States respectively.
Simla Siraji, also called Eastern Kiuthali is found mainly iu the States
east of Sinnla, which lie nearest the Siraj tract. It has been retui'ued under both
the names with an aggregate of 27,598, the former claiming 12,491 and the
latter 15,107 speakers.
Barari is spoken further east in the Bardr portion of Jubbal, by 2,758
persons.
* A note on Lahndi received subsequently from Sir George Gnorson shows that he has class'lied this typo
of Pahari with that langaage.
2, Sirmauri.
3, Baghati.
4. Kiuthali.
a. Mandilri.
b. Kiuthali
proper.
c. Simla Sir'
dji or Eastern
Kiuthali,
d, Bardr i.
360
Census Report, ] linguistic distkibuhon. Chaptzk
e. Sardchaii. The Ungua of Rawain, a feudatory of Jubbal is called Sarachali and has
been put down for 5,545 persons.
/, Kochii. The sub-dialect spoken in the greater part of Bashahr (except the eastern
end where Kanauri and other varieties of Tibetan are in vogue) is termed Kochi,
and shows a strength of 67,814. Natives of tliis State, enumerated in other
places and numbering j,480, bave shown their language as Bashahri.
11. Evlu 469. The Kulu Group, extending from the western portion of the Kulu
Group. Tahsil right down to the Simla District, hke a wedge driven into the Kiuthali-
speaking tract, comprises Kuluhi and the dialects marked on the map as forming
part of the Sutlej Group. The latter sub-group includes Knlu Siraji and Sadbochi.
1. Knlnhi. Kuluhi is the main dialect of the low-lying parts of Kulu and has 55,619
entries to its credit. Most of them appeared as Kuluhi, Koli or Kuluwali, only
three persons subscribing themselves to Koli Gahri.
2. KninSira- The Enumeration books show no entry of Sainji marked on the map, nor
^- are the figures of Inner and Outer Siraji available separately. The dialect of the
whole of the Siraj tract of Kulu has been returned as Kulu Siraji (51,224).
s. Sadhochi. The dialect spoken in the neighbourhood of the Kotgarh Tahsil of Simla
(by 16,127 persons) and known as Sadhochi possesses the pecuHaritiea of Kulu
Siraji and has been classed by Sir George Grierson in the Kulu group. Four per-
sons in the Kangra District have described it as Kot Garhi.
HI. Mandi 470. The Mandi group consists of the dialects spoken in the Mandfand
Group. Suket States and embraces a population of 237,377 persons,
o.Madeili. Mandeali proper is spoken in the central and western tract, of the Mandi
State and has been returned by 106,794 people.
h. ChhoU "The dialect of the north-western corner of the state covering the Harabagh.
Banghiij. Tahsil is slightly different from the parent Mandeali and is called Chhota
Banghali. It is spoken by 26,881 people, the figures including 76 entries of
Banghali vrithout any quahfication.
e. Mandi Sir- Mandi Siraji has been returned from the tahsils of the Mandi State,
'^'' throughout the length of its eastern boundary, spreading out towards the south,
and also from the eastern portion of the Suket State. The persons returning it
number 50,298.
d. Soketi. Suketi is the form of Mandeali spoken in the Suket State, excluding the
eastern portion covered by Mandi Siraji.
TV. CJiarr.la 471. In the Chamba Group are included the dialects of the Chamba State,
Group. except Chamba Lahuli, spoken in the north-east portion thereof, and show a total
strength of 136,138.
G4dior Gadi, spcken in the Bharmaur tract of the State and also in the adjoining
Bharmauri. portion of Ka-.igi'a, has 42,429 entries. It was returned under the one or the
other name, but one person in the Kangra District called his language Gadi-
Harni and this has also been thrown into Gadi.
h. Chame«ii. The dialect of the rest of the Chamba State is collectively called Chameali,
but Chametili proper is really indigenous to the town of Chamba and the surround-
ing country, with a strength of 65,611. In the State, it is termed, Chameali
or Charabeiili, but 239 natives of Chamba, found in Gurdaspur, were more
particular about specifying their dialect and called it Pahari Chameali.
c. Chnrihi. Churahi is the branch of Chameali spoken north of Chamba. The number
of persons returned as speaking this dialect is 23,194.
d. Pangwiii. The inhabitants of the higher hills at the extreme north of Chamba, adjoin-
ing Chamba Lahul, speak a variety of Chameali, known as Pangwali, but the tract
is apiirsely populated and the speakers of this sub-dialect number only 4,783.
e. Bha6ar. Undor this group has also been included Biiadarwahi, which is really a
dialect of Kashmir, but is allied to Chameali. Only 121 persons, speaking this
dialect, were enumerated in the Province, some of them in Chamba and others in
the Kangra and Gurdaspur Districts. It might be noted here that the dialect
of the north-western part of Cliamba, adjoining the Jammu Provinca of the
Kashmir Statf, is Dogri, i.e., a bi-anch of Panjabi. Bhateali spoken in the south-
western part of Chamba has been included in Dogri (Panjabi), to which dialect it
belongs according to Sir George Grierson's classiBcation.
F. Others. 472. I lie Pahari dialects outside the Simla hill groups have a total
strength of 91,870.
a.
Kangra
6.771
Hoshiarpur
4,012
Gurdaspur
893
Rawalpindi
3,442
Simla Hill States ..
. 164
Chamba
. 1,236
Other districts
8
361
IX. * LiNQDisTic DisTEiBUTtoN. [ Punjab, l9ll-
Grujari, ■whicli according to Sir George Grierson's instructions has to be"- Gnjari.
classed in Western PaMri, is spoken by 1.6,526 persons,
enumerated in the districts named m the margin. It is a
tribal dialect spoken only by the Gujars of the liills.
The Pahari spoken in the Murree and Kahnta hills, ^- Mnrree-
with a total strength uf 73,981 was treated by me as a part ° ^'
of Western Pahari, in preparing the language tables, but on
Total ... is,526 geeing Sir George Grierson's map of Lahndi, I now find that
it forms part of that language and there is no doubt but that it is closely allied to
the Pothwari of Rawalpindi.
In spite of the eiiorts to ascertain the particulars in each case, where c Unspecifi-
Pahari was entered as a spoken language,* solitary entries which remained un-®''"
specified in each ot the plain districts or states, have worked up to a total of
1,363 for the whole Province; which, however, is not unsatisfactory, considering
that the figure represents ouly 1 per 10,000 of the total population speaking
the language.
The peculiarities of the various dialects of Western Pahari have been dis-
cussed by Sir George Qrierson in one of tbe volumes of his Linguistic Survey,
which is expected to be published shortly.
NORTHERN GROUP.
473. The main dialect of the Central Pahari found in this P rovince is central
Garhwali ((,418 persons) and has been returned from the Pahari.
districts named in the margin. It is spoken chiefly by Brah-
man, Kahar and other immigrants from the United Prov-"'
inces, of the servant class, and by a few clerks and persons
following other respectable professions.
But 19 persons gave their dialect as Kamaoni and ^- Kamioni
2 as Nainitaii, in the Simla Hill States. ''"^ ^^'"'''"•
474. Eastern Pahari is the spoken language of the Gurkhas who are prin- Eastern
cipally the inhabitants of Nepal, but are also domiciled in large numbers in this Pahari.
Province. It has been returned under the names of Gurkhai, Gorkhali, Gorkhiya Naipali.
and Naipali. The largest figures come from the Kangra District, where there is
a Gurkha settlement, connected with the Gurkha battalion permanently stationed
at Dharamsala. Next in importance is the Gurdaspur District, where the Dalhousie
Cantonment accounts for the presence of a large number of
Gurkhas. The presence of a detachment of Gurkhas in Simla
has furnished a fair number of entries in that district. Of
the Native States, Chamba has the largfest number,' because
numerous Gurkhas have settled there as farmers, most of
them having raai'ried Kanawari and other hill women of the
State. Nahan has also a fairly large number of Naipali-speak-
ing Gurkhas The figures are enumerated in the margin.
Unspecified Gipsy languages.
475. ' Gipsy dialect ' is a term which has come to be used generally for General
such of the languages spoken by nomadic tribes as have not been clearly identified Remarks,
with one or the othei" of the accepted Linguistic families. It was applied originally
to the language of the Gipsies of Europe. The volume of the Linguistic Survey
dealing with this group of languages has not been published yet. I will, therefore,
venture to offer a few remarks on the subject. The question of the origin of the
Gipsy language is one requiring extensive research, which it is not possible to
undertake in connection with duties like those of a Census Superintendent. My
remarks are, therefore, offered merely for what they are worth, without any
pretension to scientific value.
* Aa the result of local enquiries the followinfj entries of unspecified Pahari have been duly classified : —
Delhi
.. 150
Simla
.. 667
Nahan
.. 169
Simla Hill States .
.. 280
Mandi
. 13
Suket
. 15
Patiala
. 69
Kangra
. 48
other Districts
7
Kane:ra
4,321
Gurdaspur
2,575
Simla
235
Rawalpindi
72
Other Districts ..
153
Chamba
592
Nahan
318
Simla Hill States .,
. 174
Patiala
129
Mandi
76
other States
8
District.
Number.
Group under whicJ
Ambala
... 3,044,
A. Simla group.
Simla
35
Ditto.
Kangra
38
D. Chamba group.
Kangra
US
C. Mandi group.
Gurdaspur
118
D. Chamba group.
Nahau State
68
A. Simla group.
Simla Hill States ..
139
Ditto.
Chamba
2
D, Chamba group.
Census Eeport. ]
362
LINGUISTIC DISTEIBUTION.
Chaptbk
The name Gipsy is a corruption of Bfjyptian, because the Gipsies who first
arrived in Europe described themselves as pilgrims from Egypt or little Egypt.
Zegunner, one of the names given to the Gipsies, is supposed to be an equivalent
of Kanjar, a nomadic tribe found in the eastern Punjab.* The existence, in the
unclassed dialects of India, of some of the Gipsy -words and grammatical forma-
tions has led to their being styled the Gipsy dialects, on the analogy of the similar
language of Europe, wliose origin was untraceable for a considerable time. But
the theory that the Gipsy dialects of ludia may have a foreign origin, common
with that of tlie language of the European Gipsies, has been exploded. Com-
pai'ative philology has proved that the Gipsies are of Indian nationality and that
their language — Romani — belongs to the noi'th-west of India. t
Some of the Gipsy words, quoted in the margin, are practically identical
with those used in
the Punjab dialects,
others are clearly of
Bagri ; Manukkh,
Kalo = Black.
llanush = {Manush,
Panjabi) man.
Yek = (Hik or hek, Lahnda^ one.
Dui=(Do, Panjabi ; Doen, T.ahnda) two.
Trin = (Trac, Lahnda ; Tinn Panjabi;
three.
Vast = (Hatth, Panjabi) hand.
Vhnv = ( Jihoen Lahnda) earth.
Thov=(Dho, Lahnda) wash.
Khas = (G;irts, Hindi) grass.
Drakh = (.Diaih, Landa) grapes.
Usht = (Hoth, Panjabi) lip.
Phral = (Bhra, Panjabi; Bhira, Lahnda)
brother.
Thuv=(Dhunwan, Panjabi; Dhnn,
Lahnda) smoke.
Kher = (Ghar, Panjabi, Lahnda) house.
Ja = (Ja, Pnnjabi) logo.
Chal = (Chal, Panjabi) to go or walk.
Pi = (Pi, Panjabi) to drink.
Jin = (.Tan. „ ) to know.
Chor=(Chor, Panjabi) to steal.
Chum= (Chumrti, Panjabi) to kiss.
Dar = (Dar Panjabi) to fear.
Dik=(Uekh. „ ) to see.
Kel=(Khel, Hindi) to play.
Eer=(Kar, Panjabi) to do.
La = (Lae,
Da=(,De,
Mar = (Mar,
Mar = (Mar,
Sik=(Sikh,
Shun = (Sun,
) to take.
) to give.
) to beat.
) to die,
) to learn.
) to hear.
Sanskrit origm, e.g.,
gadsio=s t r a n g e r
(from gachh=to go),
mahilo = fiiend, (from
mil=to meet), latchi
= good (from swachh
=g cod, Panjabi,
achchhi or hachchi).
Some of the names
used are clearly Indian. Barnn is a river at Benares, Berlcca is derived from
briksha=tree, Bihari is an Indian name, Racz=,Rakshas, Gunia probalily equival-
ent to ^awnii (music), Ranjicier= Ranjit. In the female name Zinha, we see
traces of Jdmhi. Panna is a pet name still used for females here.
Languages of the gipsy type found in this Province which have not
been properly classified yet are named in the margin. One
person speaking the Bhili language has also been thrown
under this diss instead of being shown separately in Table X.
These are tribal dialects, Bawaiia being spoken by Bawarias,
Changari by Changars, Gandhila (or Gandhili) by Gandhilas
Giddarki by Gedsris, Labtini or Labanki by Lcibanas, Odki
by Ods and Sansia by Sansis. But most members of
these castes ordinarily speak Panjabi or the dialect
of the tract in which they are domiciled. Subsidiary Table III will
show that only a small percentage of each
tribe or caste has owned the tribal dialect.
The figures are reproduced in the margin. Thft
rerison is that the tribal lingua is used mainly
for mutual conversation of a confidential nature.
I have tried to collect specimens of some of these
dialects, but I do not consider it safe to haz-ird
any opinions as regards their origin on the in-
sufficient data in my hands and will, therefore^
contett myself Avith giving the information collect-
ed,, with a view to assist in their classification.
There are several other argots used by wandering
tribes such as Bazigars and other PaJchhvas
(nomad) gangs, which are not important enough
The Census
4/(3. Li
anguE
figures.
Biwari
4,455
Changari
434
Oandhili
60
Giddarki
21
Labini, Labinki or
Banjiri
1,566
Odki
5,337
Sansia
2o2
BhiU
1
12,136
Percentage
Language.
Caste by
which spoken.
of persons
speaking the
language.
Biwari
Bawaria ...
11
Bhili
Bhil
Changari ...
ChanKar ...
"i
Gandhili ...
Gandhili ...
8
Giddarki ...
Gcdri
7
Lab4ni, La-
bdnki or
Sanjari ...
L^ban^ ...
3
Odki
Od
17
Sansia
Sansi
1
to need investigation.
Labani.
Bawari.
477.
Labani, also known as Labanki and Banjari, is a separate dialect well
Labanki or known in this Province.
478. A specimen of the Bawari language is given below with a literal
translation of the Bentences : —
• Darmsworth s History of the World, Volume IV, pp. 3i04, et aeq.
t Ibid p. 3106.
363
IX. LiNQOisTic DisTEiBDTioN. [ Punjab, 1911.
Ek mdnhha he char chhidn sen.
Men to mdrijo lakrdn hroti bandhe.
Tdo hdbd yam kaho, jayondeo.
Ekhta khdrdn do na tutd.
Ek ek lakron torido tuti Jan.
Tarn chdro chin so-ekjd rehjo.
Khulro khubero i^hdtjo man nahia,
Raji khdh khak pawen.
Bd7idrd bandrd hhati jaso dukh pdwso.
A man had four sons.
I ain dying. Make a bundle of sticks.
Then father said, put these down.
Break the lot as it is. It did not break.
Break the sticks one by one. They will break.
You four brothers live in harmony.
Don't quarrel and get disunited.
If you live in harmony no body wilitrouble you.
If you are disunited you will suffer.
The Structure appears to be a combination of Western Hindi and Lahndi.
For instance, tlie future in the 2nd person phiral has the Lahndi suffix ' so ' as
in ' Jdso, Paso' and in the peculiar passive construction ' Marijo.' On the other
hand, the vocabulary is largely Hindi — e.g., ek, Tee, men, to, dukh, bandh and it
appears to have the trick of adding the suffix ' o ' hke ISindhi or Bagri as torido,
haho, rehjo, so\ etc., but it has certain peculiar words of its own sucli as ch]ii=sou,
Jroi=:bundle, but some of them would appear to be mere corruptions, such as,
Bandra of Niara, Mankhd, of Manush, or Manuhhh, Khubero of Bahhera. On the
whole, the dialect would appear to be a mixture of Western Hindi, Lahndi and
Rajasthani or an offshoot of one of them.
479. Changari is a peculiar dialect of which a specimen is given below : — Changari,
Ekwa chhudo ice chaug deemre hogdesi. Dnhdn chaug deevvndn nbed
One old man of four sons were. Those four sons among them
kheble rohgoge. Kewd chhudo nikhrdn lago apne deemrian un luhhaia U.
unharmouious lived. When old man to die began his sons to called and
iulkaia apne kol. Main taithi ko siri daggi dasun. Loochri runkani sair
made sit him beside. I you to good things tell. Thin bundle of sticks was
kandro. Chhudo khowdred deemro chdns runkani. Dihlian kolod chansi na
brought. Old man said 0 Sons break bundle of sticks. Sons by broken not
gai, Chhudo khoicdrei runkani chur-wdro cha. Ekwd ekwdkarke seericha
was. Old man said, bundle of sticks untie up. One one doing a piece
Tcardro. Unhdn aiwen daggi karrichd jhabelu unhdn chaslai. Deemre kheble
break. They so thing did easily (instantly) they broke up. Sons surprised
hogoge. Jared ki dnggi haoo. Chhudo dkhid jadon kathicensi udon siri
were. Father O, how things happened. Old man said when together was then strong
si, Awd ekwd ekiod hogd siri chansi hogogi, Jai ekwd thdn rahogoge
was. When each each were easily {instantly) broken were. If one place you will live
toathe koi daggi na chanwenge. Seere rahogoge. Jaikar thawin khalaroge
to you any one thing not say will. Happily you live will. If you quarrel will
ditr ekwd ekwd hogoge jiwen lichkiri chasgo tiicen ekwd ekwd nikhargo.
and bne one be will as thin sticks bi'oken so one one will weak be.
It has a peculiar structure but bears traces of Panjabi in such words as
* apne,' 'mm,' ' tf,' ' kol,' * nagai' ' karke,' unhdn,' ' anven,' ' dkhm,' 'jadon*
' udon,' ' je,' ' jekar,' etc. We find a parallel of c/iaM(7=four, in the Panjabi
chdoga meaning an animal who has cut four teeth. The future 2Dd person plural
seems to be identical with the Panjabi with a superfluous insertion of ' go ' as
raJtogoge and hogoge instead of rahoge and hoge, as also the suffix ' o ' like
that in Bawaria which points to a Hindi or Rajasthani origin. But the stock
of original words is fairly largo such as, chhudo, deemra, runkani, kheble, chansi,
lichrkai. The use of Jiwen and tiwen is similar to Lahnda.
480. A specimen of Giddarki obtained from the Mnltan District is repro- Giddarki.
duced below : —
Ek thuwd bandd ke chog nikre, par dp sari men hirtd the, Jab oh
One old mau to four sons, but among them iuharmony was, when he
logrdgogrd tuwd thd, im apne nikre huldike dhari bichhdilie or kuhd
on tieiith bed waF, he his sons having called beside c;-iused them sit and said
ek bharatid pntli likriydn lipi do. Un beg becf ko kahd tdo kini torid. nd. Phir
one bundle thin sticks bring. He each to told break anyor.e broke not. Then
chhodd jand kahd ab bharatid khailo beg beg j ana ek ek Idkri toai to, jab un ibd
oldman said now bundle untie one one man one one stick break, when they so
kar diud untaoli sdri tddal dina. Nikre ne kahd bdptd kid kuktd, phir un kah
did thi^y easily all broke. Sons said, father what reason, then he said
ghangidn likridn thin chhun-chhd thin tere se koi toian na jab, ek ek likridn
so many Hticks were strong were yon of any broke not, when one one sticks
ki to titi ffiaiydn. Beta agar turn sampli rahgare to sukh
done then l)roke. Sons, if you harmoniously will live, then happineSB
paoge. Jo lum largori ek ek lakri jun turn bhi toijdo.
will get. If you quarrel, one one stick like you also will break.
Census Report. ]
364
LINGUISTIC DISTEIBDTION.
Chapter
OdM.
hulti.
was.
Hek hudlia
An old
Jissehele
When
baiide
man
0 maran
he death
Here the Hindi element seems to be strong as in ek, he, par, ap, nen,
birle, the, apnen, bulnike, aur, knlia likargan = la1i:aryan, do, un, toria, phir,
jana, ah, lakrt, jag, hardina, thini, tere se hoi iorian na 'jab, tuti gaidn, beta, agar,
turn, sukh, pdoge. The word c/i/ioda= old seems to be derived fx'om the same root
as chhudo in Changari, and c/4oy = four is the same as chaug in Changari. The
word Bandd = va&n is found in Panjabi and Lahndi.
4til. The following is a specimen of Odki also obtained from the Multan
District : —
he char pzit hutte, bdqi apdt-men sulldh kainan
four sons had, but among them harmony none
pathdri icpar pallold onrhen dpren pi'ttdn [nhim)
bod on was, he his sons to
godhon bisdnrld le hek gdnthri pdtU chhamka
beside, caused to sit and a bundle thin sticks
hek hek nhun bhdnren (che) waste kehle, hdqi winnhun
of having obtained them each to break to told, but it
kahuL bhdn sakla, obele os hu^he bande kehla, himmdn yes gd^tfiri {nhun)
no body break could, then the old man said, now the bundle
chhord chiti ate tavimanhun hek hek algi algi hek hek chhamak bhand, jissebele
and of you each one apiece each stick break, when
kille, wdn sighldn {7ihun) sankhe bhdn sakle chhoren ekan
all to easily break could, the hoys thereat
swab puchhla, osbela onrhen kehle jissebela adid
the reason asked, then he said when so
hxdtid we dddhid takrid huttid te. chhewaste tammiri
were they very strong were and so you
sakle, jissehele we hikkenere kan nikhartegeble we sankhe
could, when they each other from were separated they easily
hakdrtikela wdnnhun dpreri
having called them him
chi mangdtite wdnnhun
untie
they so did,
haryan huthi bd
wondering, the
sdrid Idkarid
many sticks together
wdnhun na bhdn
them not break
they
kdn
father
hhelin
tote tote
to pieces
kde na
no body
jhagras
quarrel
jdwas.
be.
bhdlegele, yan
were broken, in
aukhd karrhi
trouble will
te
and
nikhartegele
are disunited
chekar je tammin sullah
like manner if you harmony in
ate tammin Mnish [Idre) basas
and you happiness in will live
tammin hek hek hekli Idkri. (chi)
you each separate stick
tare rihas tammdnhun
will live you
bdqi
but
kdr
like
je tammin
if you, ^
har,ren hoti-
weak will
Here again there seems to be mixture of Hindi and Rajasthani in the
construction with a sprinkling of Panjabi words such as apren, nhun, bhanren,
chhamak, jissebele, dadhia, takria.
Crandhili. 482. It has not been possible to obtain specimens of GandhiU and Sansia.
Gandhilas are nomads and go about in small batches, and wherever a member
of the caste has been found, he has professed to know nothing about the dialect.
Sansia. 483. Sansis are a criminal tribe with a great prejudice against disclosing
their gibberish which they keep secret. I had a gang of Sansis up and kept them
the whole day long without being able to persuade them to give me a complete
translation of a short passage.
Language 4S4. As stated before, it is not within my province to trace the origin of
of European the language of European gipsies, but I will note certain facts connected therewith,
gipsies. in order to see whether there is any affinity between those languages and the
unclassed dialect of the Punjab. The more important theories as to tlie locality
from which the gipsy language of Europe orginated are those known as the (1) Jat,
theory, (2) Dard theory, (3) Dom tlieory and (4) Indian gipsy or Sansi theory.
In a very able paper recently read by him in the Punjab Historical Society, which
will probably be printed in the next volume of the Journal of that Association, Mr.
A. C. Wdulner has discussed the compai'ative merits of these theories, at length, t
need hardly enter into the details. He has rejected the first two theories and seems
to be inclined to favour the l.ust two. To my mind none of the four theories seems
to be incompatible with the others, pi-ovided that it is recognized that at the emi-
gration of gipsies the word Jat did not signify a particular tribe oE which the
present Jats of this Province are the true representatives. I have discussed this
question in the glossary given at the end of Chapter XI, but may mention briefly
that whether the terra Jurat found in the Mahabharata got transformed into the
present Jat, or tl)6 caste developed out of a vast group of mixed Jatis, the pro-
babilities are that the emigrants who were known in the foreign countries on
their way to Europe by the name of Zutt or Zott were composed o£ the lower
IX.
365
LINGDISTIC DISTRIBUTION.
C Punjab, 1911.
strata of Indian society — mainly nomadic minstrels, still called Doms in this
country — and in spite of owning the wider designation of Jati, Zat orZat,* Jattf
or Jatt,{ retained their functional caste- name of Dom which got converted into
Kom. The coincidence of a gipsy woman being called Romani and the abstract
noun Romapen like the terms Dom, Domani, Dompan is too strong to be neg-
lected. The fact that to this day there are tracts in the Punjab where the term
Jat is equivalent to a subordinate status, irrespective of caste, strengthens the belief
that at the time of emigration, the Doms wore known as Jats. The similarity of
the word Goth to Jats might in that case imply that there was a double emigra"
tion (1) of the Jats of a higher status who belonged to the fighting class and (2)
of the lower ranks of the Jat group. The affinity of the Dard languages, which
are called Paisacha by Sir George Grierson, to the Gipsy language of Europe
■would not preclude the likelihood of the emigrants being Doms or a class of Jats.
It is true that no people now living in or about Kafiristan seem to be allied to the
gipsies, but the country was under Hindu rule till the beginning of the present
millennium and we ?till find Doms scattered all over the western frontier of tha
Province. With reference to the fourth theoiy the presence of several Panjabi
and Sanskntic words in Romani would justify the infei'ence that the European
gipsies may, before emigration from the Punjab, have held a position in society
simihir to that of tlie local nomadic tribes. The material is too meagre to form
the basis of any generalization but the specimens given above would appear to
show that the unclassed dialects of this Province, though influenced considerably
by the forms of language prevalent further east, have nevertheless been associated
for a long time witli those spoken in this Province. Perhaps the gipsies were
scattered over the upper part of Rajputana, the western end of the United
Provitices and the whole of the Punjab before their emigration, and the
language of whicli the present European Romani is a development was
formed when they had centralized mainly at the north-western and western
end of this Province, where they acted principally as minstrels and were called
Doms, but nevertheless considered themselves to belong to a Jati (caste) or
included themselves among the Jats. In spite of the evidences regarding the
emigration of particular bands of Doms or Zatts, it is impossible to say yet when
the earliest outflow of the class of people began. The subject is attracting
considerable attention, and it is possible that the linguistic comparison which ia
now in progress and the anthropological researches which are being carried oa
may lead to more definite conclusions as to the relationship existing between the
gipsy languages and the dialects of this Province. It has been suggested that
a collection of specimens of gipsy music and their collation with that patronized
by the nomadic tribes of this Province would throw much light on the question.
Other Languages.
485. I give in the margin a list of the Asiatic Languages of countries other Asiatic,
than India, which have been registered at the Enumeration. Five
persons, who gave their language as Bukhari and 17 as Yarkandi,
have been clnssed under Persian which, on the whole, shows a
decrea>e of 703 persons. All the other languages were classed
UTider the liead Others in 1901, so no comparison is possible. It
mny be noted that one man included under Arabic gave his language
as Suez, which was interpreted to mean the vernacular of Suez, Persons stating
their l.-iiiguage as Jewish were classed under Hebrew and the entries classed
under Osmanii appeared ns Turkistani. On the whole, the persons speaking other
Asiatic JMiigiiatios hnve decreased by 1,278,
486. English is by far the most important European language spoken in European
1911. 1901. the Province and the persons speaking it, in their homes,
have increased by more than 26 per cent, during the past ten
years. They now represent about 1 per mille of the total
population. The strength of the people speaking other
Ki;rnpean languages is insignificant, but every one of them
hah gained more or less during the decade. The figures
are yiven in the margin and compared with those of 1901.
I'ersian .
2,371
Chinese .
. 229
Aiabic
. 103
Armenian.
1
Hebrew .
. 13
Mai y .
1
Osmanli .
. 27
Portnguese ... 87
German ... 5)
OlheiH 69
Detail of others.
Frencli... 271 'li-h
DutcU 3| Italian
FlemiBh 13 Fia-sian
Greek .. a SwetU-h
Hungarian 2
58
45
57
■1
. U
2
• In the eastern Pimjib I at is pronounced Zat.
t Pir.j.ibi.
^ Curuelraan i!i the Wftniern tniijab.
366
Census Report, ] miscellaneous. Chaptke
MISCELLANEOUS.
TTrou-Hmdi- 487. Some timo ago, the vernaculpr papers carried on a long controversy,
Panjabi ^^g ^ whether Urdu, Hindi or Panjabi was the spoken language of the Province and
controversy |.j^g question of the language, which should form the medium of Primary
education comes on the tapis from time to time. It has been explained above in
paragraphs 443 and 458—461 that, in spite of the agitation in favour of Hindi and
Urdu, the statistics obtained at the recent Census are fairly accurate for all practical
purposes. The comparative strength of the three languages is noted in the mar-
paYi'abi 14111215 g'°- Even allowing for a slight exaggeration, pure Urdu is
Urdu "'. '4941290 spokeu by rather less than -^00,000 persons — ne,, by 20 per
Hindi ... 1,778,876 jjjiQg. Hindi, including that of the rural tracts, is the spokcQ
language of 74 persona in a 1,000, while Panjabi by itself accounts for 584 persons
per mill«>. Taking the Bgures as they stand, the following giMuping should be
made, with a view to compare the importance of each dialect. Lahndi, which is
akin to Panjabi and Western Pahari, which also resembles it in grammatical struc-
ture and vocabulary, more than either of the other two, should be added to Panjabi,
while Hindustani, which ia the connecting link between Urdu and Hindi, might
be readilv classed with Urdu. The figures for each group would thus be: —
Urdu Group .. ... ... 2,047,591
Hindi „ ... ... ... 1,778,876
Panjabi „ ... ... ... 19,358,144
or 85, 73 and 800 per mille. In other words, 8 out of every 10 of the inhabitants
of this Province, speak some dialect, which could be classed under Panjabi, as a
vernacular, while Urdu, Hindi and other languages are shared by tiie other two.
The question of script is quite different. It has been noticed in paragraph 431
(Chapter VIII) that the Arya Samaj and some classes of Hindus are doing a great
deal in'the direction of imparting Primary education in the Nagri character,
particularly to girls, while the Sikhs have been making rapid strides in the adop-
tion of the Gurmukhi character for the transliteration of Panjabi. Muhammadans,
as a rule, prefer the Persian character, which has also the advantage of being
the language of the courts, except in the highest judicial tribunal, and the principal
vernacular in Primary and Secondary schools. But, the Persian, Nagri and
Gurmukhi scripts are used by only 72, 6 and 1 per cent, of the persons speaking
dialects which belong to the Urdu, Hindi and Panjabi groups respectively.
Lande or Mahajani and Tankri are incapable of being used as a standard script,
as they are often indecipherable even to those familiar with them, owing to the
absence of vowel signs. The peculiarity of the former is described in the saying
Dil Dola hil-Jc (meaning that Dd = clod and Dola = jug are one according to the
script). And it is quite true for D and L put together may be interpreted as
Dil, Dal, Dul, Dola, Dila, Data, Doli, etc. etc. Instances of double interpretation of
sentences, depending on the contextual meaning alone are not rare. The story
of Ldldji Ajmer gae (Master has gene to Ajmer) being read Ldldji dj
mar gae (Master has died to-day) to the utter discomfiture of the relatioua,
is often quoted. There is, therefore, plenty of scope for the advocates of
a common written vernacular. The question of the adoption of Roman characters
as an universal script, for all the vernaculars of the Province, has been raised
more than once, and Sir James Wilson, late of the Indian Civil Service, once con-
templated to evolve a form tif Panjabi, which could be understood more or less
in all parts of the Province and become a practical lingua franca, and coupled
with the Roman script and the accents and intonations set forth in his book on
Western Panjabi and his revised edition of O'Brien's Glossary of Multiini could
easily meet the requirements of the masses as a whole. No practical steps have,
however, been taken yet in tbis direction, as far as I am aware.
Displace- 488. No Non-Aryan Languages being indigenous to this Province, the
mentof ========= phenomenon of their replacement by Aryan langu-
langnages. LaBguage. 1911. 1901.* ages is not noticeable here. But it may be noted
that the Gipsy languages which have not been
classi6ed yet have lost ground,t as the marginal
figure will show, and are being replaced by the
Provincial vernaculars.
* Figures or Oaiigiri, Qa ndhili, Giddarki are not available for 1901. t Except Odlci.
LaBguage.
1911.
1901.*
BAwari ..
Lab.'ini Labinki or Banjari
Sinsia
4,455
1,566
262
4,952
2,165
391
IX.
367
MISCELLANEOUS.
[ Puniab, 1911.
Fester >i
Eindi.
English.
Panjali.
Multani.
Urdu.
Other Hindi.
Mother
JUn.
Man.
M4n
Ma.
Son
Beta.
P6t.
Pnttar.
Potar.
Water
Pani.
Pani.
Panrin.
Panrin.
Go thore ...
Ddhar ja.
Udhar jl
Uddhar ja.
Utthe vanj.
Call him ...
Usko baUo.
Usko bulao.
Unlnin bala
(sadd).
Dn ko sadd.
489. Although at first the vernacular of the eastern Punjab is Greek to Mutual in-
a Lahndi-speaking inhabitant of the western Punjab, yet there is a large stock of telligibility
vocabulary, expressions and of the ver-
forms common to all the provin- naculars.
cial dialects and consequently
with a little attention, it is
possible for the native of one
part of the Province to express
himself and be understood in
another. A few words and
phrases common to several dia-
lects are cited in the margin by way of example, and it was on the basis of similar
common features that the idea of a common vernacular for the Province was started.
As between the various dialects of each language — i.e., Hindi, Panjabiand Lahndi,
the differences are less marked, and although the accent and peculiarities of speech
at once mark out the particular dialect used, yet the meaning is sufficiently
understood. A native of Maltan, for instance, has not much difficulty in making
himself understood at Jhelum, nor the Dogra of the Kangra hills, at Lahore.
There seems to be no correlation between dialect and caste. Locality and
status appear to be the chief factors influencing speech, and it is on these bases
that a man can be identified by his speech.
The spoken language of the fair sex is always somewhat more polished and
contains less slang and harshly pronounced words than the lingua of the male
members.
490. Urdu is the most popular medium of publication of vernacular books Literary ac-
and newspapers. Panjabi and Hindi are coming more and more in use. The subject tivity.
has been noticed in paragraph 425 of Chapter VIIL The vernaculars in which
■ education is largely imparted are Urdu and Hindij but neither of them is easily
intelligible to the Panjabi-speaking masses.
OensTis Report, ]
368
SUBSIDIAEY TABLES.
Chapteb
SUBSIDIARY TABLE I.
Distribution of total population by language-- According to Census.
Language (mth main heads given in Sir George Griersons classified
scheme).
Langaage.
TOTAL PROVINCE
I.-TIBETO-CHINESE FAMILY
Tibeto-Burman Sub-Family
TibetoHimalayan Branch ...
(a) Tibetan Group
1. TibetaQ
2.
Bhotia (others)
3.
Others
(5) Pronominalized Kima
layan
Group.
Wes
erii Sub-Group
...
1.
Kanauri
...
2.
Patni
3.
Rangloi
...
4.
Chamba Lahuli
...
5.
Bunan or Gahri
II —INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY
Aryan Sub-Family
(i) Eranian Branch
(Eastern Grfay)
1. Balooh
2. Paahto
(ii) Indian Branch
Non-Sanskkitic Sub-Bbanch ...
Shina Khowar Group
Kashmiri ,,,
Sanskbitio Sub-Branch
(a) North-Western Group
1. Lahndi or Western
Panjdbi.
2. Sindlii ■
(b) Southern Group (Marathi)
(c) Eastern Group (Bengili)..,
(d) Western Group
1. Western Hindi
XKalect.
Sub-Dialect.
Total number of
speakers (OOO's
omitted).
.— . ea o
1911.
1901.
PART I.-INDIAN
4 I, 5
24,188 24,725'
LANGUAGES
42
11
5
31
23
5
1
1
1
24,095
138
71
67
23,950
4,27S
4,251
2. BBJastbini
8. GajarAti
4. Panjabi
(T) FindnstSni
(2) Urdu
(3)Other Hindi
(1) Bagri .„
(2) Marwari...
(3) Mewdti ...
14) Others ...
(1) Standard..
(2) Dogri
61
39
32
7
22
20
24,623
117
tG4
53
Where chiefly spoken.
23,957 24,506
9
24.497
2,857
2,829
24
1
2
19,659
3,827
1.551
494
1,779
726
468
4B
209
3
2
14,111
13,354
757
28
21,637
4,208
3,220
316
672
580
281
190
103
6
15,272
996
6
Simla, Kangra, Bashahr, Keon-
thai, Simla Minor Hill States
and Fatiala.
Kangra and Chamba,
Bashahr,
Kangra.
Uo.
Chamba.
Kangra.
Dera Ghazi Khan and Bahawal-
3
990
1
170
813
158
64
20
74
30
584
15,250
552
22 32
pur.
Attock and Miannali.
Kangra, Ladhiana, Lahore,
Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Jhelum,
Kawalpindi and Chamba.
Shahpur, Eawalpindi, Attock,
Mianwali, Lyallpur, Jhang,
Multar, Muzaflargarh, Dera
U hazi Khan and Bahawalpnr.
Lahore, Moltau atid BahawalpuT
Delhi and Ambala.
Delhi, Simla, Lahore and
Kawalpindi.
Delhi Division, Ferozepore,
Lahore, Kawalpindi, Dujana,
Patandi, Kalsia.Nahan, Fatiala
Jind and Nabha.
Delhi, Karnal and Ambala.
Kohtak, Gnrgaon, Delhi, Karn.-»1
Lahore, Rawalpindi, Dujana
and Pataudi,
Hissar, Rohtak, Gnrgaon, Delhi,
Karnal, Kalsia, Nafaan, Jind
and Nabha.
Elissar, Gurgaon, Ferozepore,
Lahore, Fatiala, Jind and
Bahawalpnr.
Hiasar, Ferozepore, Loharu,
Fatiala and Jind,
Bahawalpur.
Gurgaon.
Delhi, Lahore, Sialkot and Multan.
Ilissar, Ambala, Jnllundur and
Lahore Divisions, (iujrat, Shah-
pur, Jbelnm, Montgomwry,
Lyallpur, Kalsia, Bilaupur,
Nabigarh, Kiipurthala, Maler-
kotla, Faridkot, Phulkiaii
States and Bahawalpur.
Hiflsar, Ambala, Jnllundur and
Lahore Divisions except Kangra
Gujrat, Bhahpnr, Jhelnm,
Montgomery, Lyallpur, Kalsia,
Bila9pur,Nalagarh, Kapaithalft,
Malerkotia, Faiidkot, Phulkian
States and Baliawalpur.
Kangra, Unrdaspur, Sialkot and
Chamba.
• E:[clude8 29.71!' persons spnaking the nnspecieed languages. „.„,„. j ;„ loni
t Includes 24,087 p%.rBon8 of Biloch Trons-Frontier whose language was not returned in 1801,
369
IX
EUBSIDIAEY TABLES.
i Punjab, 19tl.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE I.
■
Distribution of total population by language— According to CensvLS-— concluded.
Language (loitli main heads given in Sir Oeorge Oiierson's classified
scheme).
Total number of i
speakers (OOO's
omitted). \
r mille of
ilation of
'ince.
Where chiefly spoken.
LaDgaage.
Dialect.
Sub-Dialect.
1911.
1901.
iz;
J
2
3
4 1 5
6
7
( TOTAL
...
993 *1,577
41
Simla, Kangra, Rawalpindi,
1
Nahan, Simla Hill States, JJandi,
'
Suket, Chamba and Patiala.
(a) Simla Group ...
...
405 107
17
Simla, Nahan, Simla Hiil States
and Patiala.
I Jaans&ri
(1) Jaunsari
(2) Kirni
G
i
2
...
II Sirmauri
'1) Sirmauri
Dbarthi.
(2) Sirmauri
Giripiri.
(3) Bishshau
137
39
79
19
...
6
■>
3
I
III Bagbati
IV Kinlhali
Bagbati
24
238
:;•
1
10
_;
(1) Handuri
29
1
Si
(2) Kintbali pro-
106
5
X
per.
A-
(3) Eastern Kiu-
27
1
>5
thali or Simla
as -
Siraji.
i
(4) Barari
3
H
S
(5) Sarachali
5
(6) Kochi
68
3 '"
irt
(b) Kulu Group ...
...
123
...
5
Kangra and Simla Minor Hill
States.
I Kulahi
Kuluhi
56
2
If Kaluhi Siraji...
Knluhi Siriji
51
2
Ill Sadhochi ...
Sadhochi
16
1
(c) Mandi Group ...
...
...
237
9
Mandi and Suket.
I Mande^li
Mande^li
107
4
II ChhotABanchili
Chhoti Bangbili...
27
1
III Mandi SirAji...
Slandi Siraji
50
2
IV Suketi
Suketi
53
2
(<J) Chamlio Group
• ••
136
"lOC
6
Kangra and Chamba.
I Gadi
G4di
42
2
11 Chameali
(1) Charaebi
(2) Churahi
(3) Pungw41i ..
94
66
23
5
" '
4
3
1
(e) Others
...
92
'" 23
4
Kangra, Hoshiarpur, Gurdaspur,
L
Kawalpindi and Chamba.
(e) Northern Group
...
10
1. Central Pahiri
...
...
1
...
...
Delhi, Simla, Nahan, Keonthal
2. Eastern Pahiri or Nepali
...
...
9
...
...
and Simla Minor Hill States.
Kangra and Gurdaspur.
III.-UNCLASSED LAN-
12
10
I
GUAGES.
1. Hi waria
2. Labani. Labinki or
;::
...
4
2
5
2
...
Forozepore and Faridkot.
Kangra.
Banjiri.
3. Odki
5
3
I
Mulian, Muzaffargarh and Dera
Ghazi Khan.
4. OtherH
...
1
...
...
r
PART II.- OTHER LANGUAGES.
INDO EUROPEAN FAMI-
...
39
3t
t
I-Y- ,„ .
(a) Eranian Group (Pereiau)
...
...
3
3
...
Ludhiana, Lahore and Rawal-
(6) Teutonic Group (English)
...
36
28
1
pindi.
Oellii, Ambala, Simla, Jullundur,
Ferozepore, Lahore, Sialkot,
Hawalplndi and Multan. 1
* Includes 1,346,869 persona shown under Fahari in Table X, Part I of 1901
CensuB Eeport, ]
370
SUBSIDIABY TABLES.
Chaptee IX.
SUBSIDIAEY TABLE II-
Distribution by language of the population of each district.
District or State and
Natoual Division.
TOTAL PROVINCE
1. InDO-GaNOETIO VtAIN
West —
1. Hissar
2. Loharu State
3. Rohtak
i. Dujana State
5. Gurgaon
6. Pataudi State
7. Delhi
8. Kamal
9. Jullundnr
10. Kapurthala State ...
11. Ludhiana
12. Maler Kotla State ...
13. Ferozepore
14. Faridkot State
15. Patiala State
16. Jind State
17. Nabha State
18. Lahore
19. Amrilsar
20. Gujranwala
2. Himalayan —
21. Nahan State
22. Simla
23. Simla Bill States ...
2i. Kangra
25. ilandi State ...
26. Suket State
27. Chamba State
3. Sub-Himalayan —
28. Arnbnla
29. Ealsia State
30. Hoshiarpur ...
31. Gordaspur
32. Sialkot
33. Gnjrat
34. Jhelnm
35. Rawalpindi ...
36. Attock
t. North-West DetArea-
37 Montgomevy
38. Shahpur
39. Miauwali
40. Lyallpur
41. Jhang
42. Multan
43. Bahaiealpvr State ..
44. Miizatfargarh
45. Dora Ghazi Khan ..
NOMBEB PER 10,000 OP POPDLATION SPEAKING.
a
d
Pi
5,834
6,349
2,405
7
14
69
153
9,907
9,944
9,902
9,744
8,963
9,304
8,468
1,740
6,897
9,362
9,889
9,903
4,5X5
940
1,645
3,175
7,955
95
138
1,133
7,401
3,401
3,802
9,941
9,906
9,886
9,938
9,910
1,458
88
3,614
9,ts21
9,583
72
7,237
546
890
2,079
59
82
3
1,759
Western Hindi.
1,476
6,C21
4
1,582
2,956
5,178
186
9,980
10,000
6,755
9,997
9,760
9,83l
70
46
70
238
267
235
105
7,402
3,063
468
76
69
139
1,013
1,948
21
16
2
3
7
881
6,445
6,192
11
26
76
24
37
313
n
9,5u8
16
6,031
56
6
95
294
67
9,461
8
2,622
80
9,423
9
S.368
114
7.2*4
53
9,890
10
8,508
3
642
993
101
"5,016
9,284
5
' 16
'" 71
9
9
22
3
65
3
12
7
3
8
10
1
3
4
762
6,3i"i6
967
2
4
1
6
6
21
33
26
6
6
4
66
17
8
I
-a
u a
.am
■.A
o
204
396
94
186
1,307
9,400
808
9,997
2,455
237
50
46
41
237
88
154
67
21
294
363
71
17
65
262
1,761
6
4
1
54
37
60
8
20
73
15
24
300
7
26
54
20
2
64
4
37
22
2
2
736
1,564
5,071
'8,672
600
5,S46
'2,289
310
15
"* 13
1
108
7-^
29
7,359
2,766
40
2
40
67
751
184
102
5,165
1
2
13
9
b
21
10
1
11
14
•3
a
.a
411
I
87
n
286
2
1
2
i-l
5,022
7,991
5,007
6,144
1,778
9,881
9,848
8,626
149
48
5
44
19
1
1,409
1
300
626
2,412
9,807'
4
3,237
■■'ll5
13
1
1
3
13
732
152
1,134
843
36
22
U
12
2
16
12
1
1
62
31
6
7
34
7
49
309
15
10
29
11
»
12
125
18
7 1,304
IS
' 5
6
4
2
I
1
1
47
3
50
6
1
3
9
34
20
28
422
53
41
42
445
18
14
19
7
14
85
15
11
2
2
1
18
1
16
1
3
2
23
" 3
5
""57
7
1
20
2
792
30
88
23
1
6
134
13
5
2
3
3
2
""25
2
SUBSIDIARY TABLE III.
Comparison of caste and language tables-
is
42
13
21
2
1
2
21
306
38
13
301
38
582
654
247
21
11
229
12
40
53
1
4
4
2
1
35
288
12
6(1
Tribe.
Bawaria ,
Bhil
Changar .
Gandhila
Strength of
Tiibe (Table
XIII).
Nnmber speak
iQg Tribal
Language
(Table X).
Tribe.
Strength of
Tribe (Table
XIII).
Number speak-
ing Tribal
Language
(Table X).
2
32,868
234
40,407
779
3
4,455
1
434
GO
Gedri .
Labana
Od
Sansi
300
57,805
32,246
26,990
21
1,566
5,337
262
CHAPTER X.
i
Infirmities.
GENERAL.
491. The infirmities registered at the Census were : — Insanity, Deaf- Referoao©
mutism, Blindness and Leprosy. Dual infirmities were recorded, and persons to StatU-
afflicted with two or noore were counted under each of the infirmities in Imperial tici.
Table XII, but only one (principal) infirmity was taken into account for the pur-
poses of Imperial Table XIIA. In the former table, the distribution of infirmities
is given by districts and states together with iho age dislribution of persons aflBicted,
in the whole Province, the British Territory and the Native States. The extent
to which the infirmities are met with in each of the important castes, tribes and
races has been shown in the latter.
Subsidiary Table I compares tbe proportion of males and females
afflicted with each infirmity, ascertained at each of the last four Censuses. A
similar comparison of the age distribution of the infirm has been made in Sub-
sidiary Table II, while Subsidiary Table III gives, for the recent Census, the age
distribution of the infirm per 100,000 of the total population and the proportion of
males to females, afflicted with each infirmity. The extent to which the different
castes are afflicted is indicated separately in Subsidiary Table IV.
492. The instructions issued to the Enumerators, for the registration of Scope of
infirmities were practically identical with those of 1901. Persons thoroughly of figure*,
unsound mind were to be put down as insane, and those born deaf and dumb as
deaf-mutes. A person was not to be recorded as blind unless he was blind of both
eyes and a leper was defined as one afflicted with corrosive leprosy, and not one
suffering from leucoderma or syphilis.
493. The information supplied by the head of the family was scrutinized Accuracy
in the light of the personal knowledge of the Enumerators and Supervisors who of flgnrea-
were in most cases local men ; and the infirmities recorded being such as are
difficult to conceal from local residents, the probabilities are that few intentional
mistakes were made. In respect of insanity and leprosy, however, the temptation
to conceal the ailment in the earlier ages is considerable. In both cases it is
often believed that the diseases, at all events, in the primary stages, are amenable
to treatment, medical or spiritual, and the parents are loath to give a bad name to
their infirm children unle?s the disease assumes a virulent tjpe. This conceal-
ment may have affected the statistics in the case of people of a higher status, but
the numerical strength of persons afflicted in those classes being insignificant,
the errors, if any, can have had no practical effect. Instances in which the
infirmity had not fully established itself may also have been omitted, bat such
oases would at best be doubtful ones and should in any case have been excluded.
Blindness admits of no doubt. But as regards deaf-mutism, it was discovered iu
the course of sorting the infirmity slips, that in spite of clear instructions on
the subject, the Enumerators had, in some cases, entered as deaf-mutes, persons
who were either deaf or mute and sometimes those who were not born deaf or
mute- Wherever the slips relating to deaf-mutes appeared to be numerous, the
entries made in the Enumeration books were verified by local enquiries. The
figures contained in the Imperial Tables are based on the record corrected in the
above manner. The chances of error under this infirmity are, therefore, also small.
The only possible mistakes which may have remained undetected are tfiose of very
young children whom their parents may have been unwilling to recognize as deaf-
mutes, but no blame can attach to this, seeing that defective hearing and speech in
young children often disappear as they grow up.
In view of the rarity of entries relating to infirmities, they were copied
from the Enumeration books on separate slips, instead of being noted on the sort-
mg slips containing ell the other particulars. This was done by special
copyists and the possibility of the omission of infirm persons in Abstraction and
Tabulation was thus minimised. On the whole, therefore, the statistics of infir-
mities are fairly accurate.
li
CeiiBH8 Report, ]
372
INSANITY.
Chapteb
CompariBon
with the
prerioTis
Cenenses.
Variation.
Infirmity.
1911.
1901.
1891.
1881.
Total
377
439
604
714
Insane
26
35
29
48
Deaf-mates
84
80
9H
122
Blind
254
305
351
529
Lepers
13
19
26
45
495. The
494. The proportion of persons {tfflicted -with each infirmity to every
100,000 of the population is compared with the
figures of the previous Censuses, in the marginal
table. With the exception of deaf-mutism, which
would appear to have increased during the past
decade, every infirmity has shown a decline, the
decrease being most marked in leprosy. Deaf-
mutes have increased not only relatively but also
in actual numbers, the figure being 20,243 now
against 19,684 in 1901, although the Censuses of 1901 and 1891 had shown a
steady improvement. Contrary to tlie result of 1891, a startling increase in insanity
was discovered in 1901. The present figures again show a more than corresponding
decrease. The improvement in blindness and leprosy has been continuous ever
since 1881. On the whole, the number of persocs aflBicted with infirmities out
of every 100,000 of the total population fell from 744 in 1881 to 504 in
1891, 439 in 1901 and 377 in 191].* Tlie causes of variation are discussed
in the following paragraphs under each infirmity, but generally speaking, a part of
the decrease in the number of infirm persons is, doubtless, due to the high mortality
of the past ten years, persons aflBicted with one or the other infirmity being more
liable to suffer from epidemics.
INSANITY.
marginal figures will show the actual number of persons of
unsound mind registered at each Census. The large
deci'ease in 1891 was unexpected, but the increase in 1901
was equally startling. Mr. Rose saw no reason to believe
that his figures were anything but accurate.! The de-
crease now ascertained is due in some degree to a loss in
the total population, bat the proportional strength of insane
persons has also decreased from 35 to 26 per 100,000. It
is curious that the present figures should be almost identical
with those of 1891, and there seem to be no tangible causes to account for
the variation in opposite directions, in the two decades. It would, therefore, be
difficult to say that the improvement shown by the present figures is due to a
better state of general health and not mainly to more accurate registration. Tlie
extent of insanity in this Province is very small compared with European
countries. The proportion per 100,000 ascertained at the recent (1911) Census of
England and Wales being 364 against 26 here. The
diagram in the margin compares the nnmber of
persons aflBicted at each Census, per 100,000 of
each decennial age-period. Insanity appears to
have always affected the male population more
than the female, and the vaiiat ion from 1891 to
1901 appears to have been confined to males. The
prevalence of insanity is very small in the first ten
yenrs of life, but the infirmity begins to develop in
the next ten years and the cUmax appears to be
w
a
o
o
u
s
a
1881
9,914
6,496
3,418
1891
6,636
4,450
2,186
1901
8,600
5,689
2,911
1911
6,300
4,111
2,189
MAI
t*LE
BOWKF
50-60
n-so
30-40
20-30
lO-EO
0-10
^^^
r^rr-r-r:
^~^":r-^^
40
es
0
85
40
E6
0
60
40
es
0
BB
40
es
e%
.40
es
40
et
0
es
8
3
^^^
-
~ __—
^=^^-^
^^^^
-
^^TT
-
— ________^
- —
_
^^^
-
.
^"^^■^^"=r-::
---____
i
1
I i
i l
readied between the ages of 30 and 40. In 1881
alone, was the proportion highest in old people of
over 60 years, but that being the first regular Census,
the registration probably was not accurate. The
divergence between the male and female curves is
not large up to 10 years, but the male figures go up
much more rapidly than those of females, till the
age of 40 is reached, after which the male
sufferers die faster than the females.
Judging from the figures of the present Census, it may be said that the
proportion of born lunatics is small, that in several cases the question whether a
* The 6gnrea given by Mr. Rose on page 293 of the Pnnjab Ceaeos Report, 1901, were for the old Pa>-
Tince of Punjab including the N.-W. Frontier Province,
t Panjab Cenaas Report, Chapter VII, para. 1, p. 293.
373
INSANITY.
[ Punjab, 1911-
■
Variation (actual figures).
ai
s
"3
a
at
Ph
<5
b
Lyallpnr
+ 16
- 1
+17
Muzaffargarh
+58
+ 13
+ 4b
Patiala
+80
+54
+26
Jind
+ 16
+la
+ *
00
a
s
m
a
ai
§
fa
Ambala
199
138
61
Kangra
Eoshiarpur ...
Amritsar
453
185
104
281
102
86
173
83
18
Gardaspur ...
Sialkot
85
116
65
81
20
35
Gujrat
139
77
62
Bhahpar
Jhelum
131
145
96
87
35
88
Kawalpindi ...
Maltan
213
161
143
120
70
41
person of doubtful intelligence is or is not of unsound mind remains undetermined
till after ten years of age, that a large number of persons develop insanity be-
tween the a^ei of 20 and 40, and that lunatics who become short-lived owing
partly to neglect and partly to mental derangement begin to drop off after
the Hge of 40.
The decrease in the number of insane persons is not, however, general.
The districts and state.s showing noticeable increases
are mentioned in the margin. The increase in
Lyallpur is due to migration. In Muzaffargarh, the
number of insane persons is considerable owing
to the excessive use of intoxicating drugs, but
the principal cause of increase is that tbe present
figures include insane persons of the Leiah Tahsil
which was transferred to the district from Mianwali
after the Census of 1901, while for want of details
by tahsils, it has not been possible to adjust the statistics of 1901. The increase
in Patiala and Jind is somewhat startling and has occurred mainly among males.
The local officers have been unable to assign any
cause except that the tracts are sandy and hot.
The probal)le reason, however, seems to be the
growing use of liquor and other intoxicants. In
the case of Patiala, immigration may also have
played some part. The districts which have regis-
tered the largest decreases during the past ten years
are noted in the margin. The decreases have been
very marked throughout the Sub-Himalayan Natural
Division and in the Kangra District of the Himalayan '
Division, which points to the inference that the
variation may be due to some difference in the
standard by which the persons of unsound mind were
judged in 1901 and 1911.
496. The proportion of the insane to the total population of each district ^"''^^ ^^'
and state is indicated on the man printed in the margin. With the exception of tribution.
Mianwali which is a particu-
larly healthy district, the west-
ern Punjab, including Mont-
gomery, has a high percentage
of insanes. The Muzaffar-
garh District appears to be the
worst for insanity. The whole
of this tract suffers from the
evil of an excessive use of
bhang (cannabis sativa) and
other intoxicating drugs, but
tho shrines of the Mnzaffar-
garh and IVIultan Districts
attract large numbers of
lunatics partly in the hope of a
cure by the blessings of the
saints and partly owing to
the facility with which their
requirements of food and
clothing can be met. The Lyallpur, Shahpur and Gujranwala Districts are,
owing to heavy immigration, on the same footing as the districts of the eastern and
southern Punjab. Ambala, Nahan and Chamba are isolated areas with a high
percentage of insanity ; while Mandi, Suket and the Simla Hill States have the
smallest proportion of insane persons. The proportion in Lahore shown on the
map is exclusive of inmates of the Lunatic Asylum, belonging to other districts.
497. Examining the figures by castes, the largest number of insane persons lusanity by-
is found among the Jats (1,045) and Rajputs (405), but the total population of castes,
these castes being large, the proportion of lunatics amongst them is only 21 and 25
1 i o S 2
PROPORTION OF INSANE
, PER IDDODQ OF
POPUUVTIDN
Census Report, ]
874
niSANITT.
Chaptbe
Canses-
Arains ...
Aroras ...
Biloches...
Jolahas ...
Persona.
253
252
206
187
Males.
160
172
130
109
Females.
93
80
7G
78
Provortion of insane to every 100,000
of population.
respectively per 100,000. Of tb.e castes having more than 30 insane persons per
100,000, the Arains, Aroras, Biloches and Julahas
show the most numerous figures (see margin).
The largest number of insane Arains are found in
Jullundar (36), Ferozepore (23), Lyallpur (23), and
Multan (24), In the Muzaffargarh District which
has a small Arain population of about 8,000,
as many as 13 of them, i.e., 1G8 to every
100,000 are insane. Most of the afflicted Aroras live in Multan (47), Muzaffargarh
(35), Jhang (29) and Montgomery (22). Insanity among the Biloches is naturally
most common in the Biloch tracts of Dera Gha7,i Khan (81) and Muzaffargarh {4Z).
Among the Julahas, insanity seems to be more or less general, the worst districts
being, Jhang (26) and Muzaffargarh (18). The Arains may be predisposed
to insanity owing to constant work with manure. The Julahas are supposed to
have a very limited supply of intelligence and are considered to be very poor
specimens of humanity. It is said that the weaver's intellect does not reach
higher than his ankles. The fanaticism of the Biloches might be an excuse for
mental excitement leading to aberration, but the only cause which can be ascribed
in the case of Aroras is the effect of the climate of the south-west Punjab, or the
use of intoxicants.
498. In the Census Report for India, 1901, the causf's of insanity were
classed under 3 heads, viz., locality, social practices and race. The prevalence of the
infirmity among the Biloches might create the impression that race has something
to do with it, but the equally high percentage among the Aroras who are of pure
Aryan extraction, and abound in the same locality, and of the Arains and Julahas,
makes it impossible to support the theory from the statistics of this Province.
Obviously the causes at work here are (1) local usages, (2) local conditions,
(3) mental strain, and (4) the use of intoxicants.
Insanity is at its highest in the N.-W. Diy Area
as the marginal figures will show. The population of
this tract consists very largely of Muhammadans and
unlike the eastern Punjab, cousin marriage is quite
unrestricted amongst them. Sheikh Asghar Ali, I.C.S.,
Deputy Commissioner, Gujranwala, writes ss follows
about the effects of consanguinous marriages on
" deaf -mutism : —
" Not long ago Muslim converts from HiDdaism kept up the tradition of not; marry-
ing within the sub-caste or got. But latterly they have begun to fall in with general
Islamic rules, on the subject, with the result that a marriage between first cousins is now
an ordinary thing. Such inter-marriages in two or three generations produce deaf-mutes."
His observations apply more appropriately to insanity, according to the
views of Dr. Cowan,* who says : —
" And yet I do not advise the inter-marriages of relations. Again, although it may
in exceptional cases, appear that such consanguinous unions are free from other than
perfect results, it does not follow that the conditions exist for its practical every-day
demonstration. Far from it. Men and women vdll have to live a more correct, pure,
abstemious and holy life, before they can attain to a standard of health and strength that
will enable them to marry cousins with impunity. As Jong as mankind continue in this
wrong course of life, and intermarry under these false conditions, so long we have among
us the blind, the deaf, the dumb, the lame, the deformed, feeble-minded, idiotic, lunatic, etc.
Tlierefore, I counsel you not to marry your cousin, or any other woman closely or distantly
related to you, unless there happens to be not one other marriageable woman within one
thousand miles of you, and even then I would not advise yon other than to remain single
until the arrival of some emigrant train, when a choice could be secured."
Even cousin mariiage cannot, however, be the sole cause as the Aroras
(Hindus) cannot possibly contract for such alliances. Local climate has probably a
great deal to do with the infirmity. But the dry heat of Dera Ghazi Khan and
Multan and the sandy tract of Patiala are as favourable to mental aberration as the
wet and steamy heat of the Alipur Tahsil of Muzaffargarh which has the highest
percentage of all tahsils in the Province. It is therefore diflBcnlt to connect
any particular kind of climate with insanity. The brain, when worked up to a
high degiee of excitement, owing to the helpless condition in which a person may
• Cowan's Science of a New Life, Edition I8a7, p. 57.
N.-W. Dry Area .
Indo-Gangetic-PIain
Sab-Himalayan .
Himalayan
Males.
41
31
24
21
Females.
30
17
17
16
X
375
DKAF-MOTISM.
[ Punjab, 1911.
i
have been placed by his own mistake or by the intrigue of others, often gets derang-
ed and the guilty conscience of persons who have committed some serious crime also
sometimes has the same effect. Such cases are not unknown, but their proportion
is small. Notwithstanding tlie findinof of rhe Hemp Drugs Commission against
any connection between the use of hemp drugs and insanity, the facts seem to
drive one towards the old theory. The western Punjab which stands out so
prominently in the figures of insanity, accounted for the consumption of 45,16<>
sers of bhang (cannabis sativa) out of a total of 87,936 sers in the whole Province
(British Territory) for the year 1910. In other words, more than half the quan-
tity spent in the Province was used in this tract. In the three districts of
Multan, Muzaffargarh, and Dera Ghazi Khan alone 29,858 sera of hhang, or more
than one-third of the total, was consumed. And in these three districts, the per-
centage of insane persons is high, Muzaffargarh being facile princeps. Again the
liberal consumption of liquor in Patiala is accompanied by an increase in the
number of lunatics, while the consumption of gdvjd and cocaine in the town of
Delhi has resulted in raising the number in that tahsil to 107. All these facts
seem to point to the conclusion that in this Province the use of intoxicants
when carried to excess usually predisposes people to insanity more than any
other cause. This view seems to be more or less in accordance with the con-
clusion of the English Commission on Lunacy, quoted below.
"Besides insane heredity, two other factors stand out prominently in respect to their
frequency in the history of insane persons. Tlipse are the toxic agent alcohol and the more
obscure but no less real factor of mental stress."
Conditions producing mental stress are not so common in this Province,
although it is by no means a negligible factor.
499. Theie is but one Lunatic Asylum in the Province situated at Lahore The Lunatic
and intended mainly for the custody and treatment of Asylum,
criminal lunatics. But the more dangerous types of
insane persons other than criminals are also sent there.
The institution is growing in popularity, as will appear
from the marginal figures, and several patients return
home cured temporarily or permanently. It draws
patients mostly from the adjoining districts and 70
per cent, of them are between the ages of 20 and 40.*
The analysis of the history of cases given in the
Departmental Report of 1911, is interesting. Of 841
cases treated during the year, the causes of insanity
were known in 417. Only 47 or 11 '3 per cent, of
these were due to moral causes, such as grief, etc., and
370 to physical ones. The use cf bhang (Indian hemp),
opium, charas and gdnjd accounted for 153 cases, while
the use of spirits alone was responsible for 28 cases. ♦
Intoxicants were thus the cause of insanity in 176 cases out of 417. In other words,
42 per cent, of the cases of insanity could be traced to this source. Inhere were 23
cases of congenital insanity, and in 15 cases, the infirmity was found to be heredi-
tary. The number of persons sufi^ering from insanity on account of other physical
causes such as, fever, epilepsy, exposure to heat, overstudy, syphilis, etc., was 156.
The number of lunatics cured at the Asylum during the year 1911 was
106 and the figures in the margin will show the pro-
portion of persons cured to the total number of per-
sons whose insanity was traced to one cause or an-
other of physical origin. Fifty-nine out of the 424
persons in whose case no cause could be assigned were
also cured during the year, the percentage of recovery
being 14 as compared with 11 in the case of the
Total number of lunatics male
and female, on the 1st January of
each year from 1901 to 1911.
g
Year.
m
"3
13
a
in
■a
1901
379
103
482
1902
378
101
479
1903
404
99
503
1904
424
113
537
1905
461
115
576
1906
474
122
596
1907
468
131
599
1908
494
116
610
1909
512
126
638
1910
513
123
C36
1911
494
121
615
Percentage
cured.
1.
Intoxicants including
liquor
... 18
2.
Only liquor ...
... 22
3.
Congenital ...
4.
Hereditary ...
... 13
5.
Moral causes
... 2
6.
other causes
... 7
patients in whose case the causes were traceable.
DEAFMUTISM.
500. The number of deaf-routes would appear to have increased from
19,684 to 20,243 within the last decade. In other words, there are now 84 con-
Variation.
■ The proportion ia baaed on figures of 1909-11 given in the Lunatic Aayluin Eeport for 1911,
-
Local dis-
tribution.
Census Beport J
376
DEAF-MUTISM.
Chapter
genital deaf-mutes to every 100,000 of the population. The proportion had
fallen continuously from 122 in 1881 to 98 in 1891 and 80 in 1901. The
rise shown by the present figures would, therefore, be an abnormal feature,
provided that the system of registration at the two Enumerations was
identical. I am, however, inclined to think that the enquiry at the
recent Census was more searching particularly with reference to earlier
ages when the chances of concealment or ignoring the infirmity are highest.
The most noticeable increases have occurred
in the districts named in the margin. The
three districts showing the largest excesses lie
in the sub-montane tract, where local conditions
would not preclude an actual development of
the infirmity. Lahore, Delhi and Patiala ofi^er extraordinary attraction to.
deaf-mutes who hve mostly on charity. The districts of Jhelum and Gujrat
lin lie within the iSub-Himalayan Division, while Gujtanwala, which
Ambala
320
Ferozepore ..
163
Gurdaspui- ...
272
Jhelum
162
Sialkot
215
Gujrat
145
Lahore
2U4
Patiala
105
Gujranwala
19S
Delhi
103
Muzaffargarh
]GT
aga
MALE-
FEMALE
30VDVB1
50-fiO
*0-50
50-40
80-50
10-20
OHO
-- ---
k
es7
aoo
140
7B
eo
IS*
ES
ea
1ST
60
ea
IZ8
71
EO
l-M
71
EO
fTE
91
20
lOO
CO
S
"" —
— T
r:r.r^
r-^
— J— —
i
1
3 5 B :
0 go 3 5
PRDPDRTION OF DEAFMUTE
PER lODDDO OF
POPULATION
has also probably received some deaf-mutes
by immigration, Muzaffargarh and a part of
the Ferozepore District are highly irrigated
and fairly damp.
The diagram in the margin illustrates, by
decennial age-periods, the variation from one
Census to another in the proportion of males and
females per 100,000 persons afflicted with this
infirmity. The difference in females is small and
may be left out of account. Among the males,
the relative increase has been highest (over 14 per
cent.), during the past ten years, in the age-period
0 — 10 ; there is a drop of 16 per cent, in deaf-mutes
over 60 years of age, while there has been no
variation between the ages of 40 — 50. Small
increases have been registered in all the other
decennial age-periods.
501. The local distri-
bution of the infirmity is
indicated on themarginal map,
'I he proportion of deaf -mutism
is highest in the Himalayan
Natural Division, where 28b
mriles and 226 females out
of eveiy 100,000 persons
are afflicted. In this tract
the Maudi and Suket States
are the only units which have
comparatively few deaf-
mutes, the former having less
than 50 and the latter less
than a hundred sufferers for
every 100,000 of the popula-
The Sub-Himalayan
comes next with 115
and 83 females per
proportion of 100 to
tiou.
tract
males
have
100,000. All the districts in this Divisiou liave a
150 except Gurdaspur, Sialkot and Gujrat which are removed from the higher
Himalayas and adjoin only the loAver hills of Kangra, Jammu and Kash-
mir. The proportion is lowest in the Indo-Gangetic Plain, 68 males and
38 females per 100,000 and the North-West Dry Area occupies an inter-
mediate position with the corresponding figures of 94 and 66 respectively.
The only district in the North-West Dry Irea which shows a proportion
of over 100, is Multan (102). But Muzaffargarh runs it close with a
proportion of 99. Broadly speaking, the infirmity is most common in the
Himalayan Hills and the conditions in the adjoining Sub-Himalayan tracts
X.
377
DEAF-MOTISM,
[ Punjab, 1911.
No. of
District.
Tahsil.
afflicted
persons.
Ambala
Jaofadhari ...
245
Naraingarh ...
164
Hoshiarpar ...
Una
430
Dasuya
222
Gnrdaspur ...
Pathaokot ...
343
Batala
209
Sialkot
Sialkot
197
Zatfarwal ...
153
Gnjrat
Kharian
253
Gujrat
195
Jhelam
Jhelum
25S
Kawalpiadi ...
Kuwalpindi ...
269
Kahata
199
are also rather tinfavoarable. In the plains, the
area served by the five rivers of the Punjab is
affected to a higher degree than tliat botween
the Sutlej and the Jamna. The proportion
of the persons afflicted, increases towards the
confluence of the rivers. Examining the figures
by tahsils, which are given in the margin,
it Hppears that the Sub-Himalayan districts
show the highest figures in the tahsils which
lie close to the hills or abound in moisture.
Tlie worst affected portion of Jagadhari is
the Kiiadar or the part lying on the Jamna
River and subject to excessive inundation during
the rainy season.
The bad districts in the plains, barring Lahore and Delhi, are Multan (102),
Muzaffargarh (99), Shahpur (92), Montgomery
(91), Jhang (91), Dera Ghazi Khan (86) and
Mianwali (83). The figures of the worst tahsils
of these districts are noted in the margin. Here
again all the tahsils are fairly well irrignted.
except Dera Ghazi Khan and Mianwali. The
former has had the disadvantage of sub-soil per-
colation for a long time, owing to the set of the
river, and the infirmity is confined, in the Mian-
wali Tahsil, to the sub-Salt Range and the
banks of the Indus.
Deaf-mutism is most prevalent amongst the low castes, specially in Deafmu-
or about tism by
Number
District.
Tahsil.
of persons
afflicted.
Maltan
Multan
257
Kabirwala ...
209
Muzaffargarh...
Muzaffargarh
156
Alipur
167
Shahpnr
Bhera
283
Montgomery...
Di]M,lpur
184
Jhang
Chiniot
261
D. G. Khan ...
D. G. Khan ...
153
Mianwali
Mianwali
120
502.
U
u
CD
P.
Caite.
Locality.
Caste.
IS
S.8'
Locality.
(i<
&<
Chang
1,396
Gnrdaipur, S a p nr-
thala.
Rehar
279
Simla, Keonthal, Simla
Minor Hill States,
Chamba.
Bihti
1,259
Nahan.
DagiandKoli
278
Gurgaon, Delhi, Simla,
Thakkar ...
744
Gnrdaspur.
Kangra, Nahan, Simla
Bhanjra ...
712
Hosbiarpur, JnUnndor.
Hill States, Maudi,
Sepi
648
Chamba.
Suket, Patiala.
Abdil
642
Kangra, Hoshiarpur,
Chamba.
Nat
248
Lahore, Shahpur, Mont-
gomery, Patiala.
Gagra
602
Lahore, Gujranwala,
Sialkot.
Kanjar ...
241
Delhi, Patiala, Baha-
walpur.
Dhaugri ...
439
Kangra, Mandi.
Bahrupia ...
238
Gujrat.
Dosili
436
Kangra, Hoshiarpar.
Sud
218
Kangra, Jullnndur,
Sarera
429
Kangra, Hoshiarpur,
Patiala.
Uurdaspur.
Sansi
211
Lahore Division, Kar-
Ohirimar ...
393
Gurgaon, Karnal, Am-
nal, Patiala.
bala, Lahore.
Khanzida...
192
Gurgaon.
Eesi
390
Rohtak, Kangra, Na-
Rathi
183
Kangra, Chamba.
hnn, Bilaspar and
Kiinet
182
Simla, Kangra, Nahan,
Mnndi.
Simla Hill States,
Maniar
366
Delhi Division, Patiala,
Mandi, Suket.
Nabha.
Sat.ti
181
Rawalpindi.
Beldar
364
Hissar, Lahore, Gur-
duapnr.
Niaria
176
Lahore, Gnjranwala,
Gujrat.
Hali
356
Kangra, Chamba.
Chanal ...
176
Nahan, Simla Hill
Patwa
352
Bahawalpur, Gurgaon,
States.
Karnal and Ambala
Oadi
172
Karnal.
Ghai
320
Knngra, Bahawalpar.
Dumna
168
Kangra, Gurdaspur,
Ghjrath ...
297
(
Kangra, Hoshiarpur.
Sialkot, Mandi, Nahan.
the hills, as Caste,
will appear
from the
statem e n t
given in the
margin.
The only ex-
ceptions are
the Thak-
kars, who
are degrad-
ed Rajputs,
engaged
mainly in
agricult u re
and the
Suds, who
aie a trading
class par-
tic u 1 a r 1 y
known for
their close
fistedn ess.
So far as
the asHocia-
ti'in of the
infirmity with castes is concerned, the only inference that can poa-ibly be drawn
is that bad and insufficient food and a tainted water-supply in a hill climate are
predisposing causes.
503. The prevalence or increase of the infirmity has been ascribed by the Causes-
local officers to various causes. Some are of opinion that the re^iistraiion has
been more accurate, others think ihat the after-effects of plague on patients that
have survived its attacks has been to produce deaf and dumb children, According
Census Report, 1
378
BLINDNESS.
Chapteb
to some, bad and insufficient food and the scarcity of milk and ghi which have so
far been the mainstay of the rural population, account for the spread of this
infirmity. Others combine insufficient food with alcohol or intoxicating drugs
to account for tbe larger number of deaf-mutes. The injurious effects of bad
water and of damp climate have also been referred to. A Tahsildar in tbe
Sialkot District reports the belief that the abnormal fever of 1 908 affected the
vitality of persons in the productive ages, causing an increase in the birth
of deaf-mutes. The Deputy Commissioner of Gujranwala (Sheikh Asghar
Ali, I.C.S.) thinks that an increase in cotisanguinous marriages is the chief cause
of increased deaf-mutism amongst the Muhammadans. So far as the figures
above discussed go, several of these causes appear to be at work. Primarily
there is something in the Himalayan hills which predisposes the people to
it, ftnd very probably it is excessive moisture coupled with the prevahmce
of some peculiar salts which impregnate the water. The theory propounded
in paragraph 247 of tbe Census Report of India, 1901, namely, that the
water of the CLenab has particularly injurious properties does not appear to be
borne out by facts. The infirmity is found along all the five rivers of the
Punjab in varying proportions and is perhaps higher along the Indus than on the
other rivers ; and it is higher still on the skirts of the Himalayan
Division, which tracts, as in Ambala, are not served by any of these rivers.
Damp chmate seems to go a long way to foster the infirmity, for in the
Jagadhari Tahsil on the Jamna, that seems to be the main cause.* Similiarly
the Alipur Tahsil of the Muzaffargarh District which lies at the junction of the
five rivers of the Punjab with the Indus and shows a high proportion of the
infirmity, is well irrigated from canals from both sides and has a considerable
portion of it under flood water during the hot weather. The causes which
lead to denf-mutism seem to bo more or less identical with those which
produce goitre and there seems to be an established connection between the
infirmity and the disease. At Kalabagh in the Mianwali District, for instance,
goitre is very common and is said to be due to the close proximity of the
residential quarters to the river water which is saturated with salt washed out
of the salt rocks along which the Indus flows immediately above. This is the
only water which the inhabitants of the town use for drinking and other purposes.
The figures of persons treated for goitre at tbe hospitals during the ten
CO
s
9
of
goitre
during
ade.
S
p
Of
goitre
during
ade.
District.
^- e
s-s-ss
District.
^ 6
S'S'S «
J3 . i!r3
O' mI<
S ° S-TS
■s «
Num
cases
trea
the
•2 «3
Num
cases
trea
the
Kangra
a.801
114,326
Lahor
632
3,123
Hoshiarpur
9g6
32,997
Shahpur
630
4,785
Multan
833
11,439
Gujrat
609
4,931
Gurdaspur
803
30,524
Attock
695
521
Kawalpindi
741
23,139
Gujranwala ...
5t,3
1,976
Ambala
731
11,695
Muzaflargarh,
562
285
Bialkot
638
12,344
Montgomery ...
488
7.215
Jhelum
636
1,558
Jhang
470
24,515
ing from the disease are born deaf-mutes.
years 1901-10 given in the
margin, although not an index
of the total number of sufferers
yet indicate that wherever
deaf-mutism is high, goitre is
very common. This fact is also
supported by locsil reports.
Sufferers from goitre are not
always deaf and dumb, but
the disease leads directly to
dumbness and it has been
ascertaind in many cases that
the children of parents suffer.
BLINDNESS.
Variation, ^^'*- ^^^ number of totally blind persons now ascertained is 61,521 in the
whole Province, compared with 75,593 in 1901, which means that there has been a
decrease of about 19 per cent, within the last 10 years in the number of persons
afflicted.
Blindness appears to have been on the decline ever since 1881, the
actual figures of 1881 and 1891 being 109,819 and 80,200 respectively.
The improvement which was very rapid in the decade ending 1891 became some-
what less marked in the next 10 years, but the rate of progress appears to have
been accelerated again during the past decade.
* The Karnal District lying on the same river and copiou.sly irrigated from the canal derived from that river,
however, shows the lowest proportion of deaf-mutism and forms an exception.
379
X BLINDNESS. [ Punjab. 1911.
The extensive resort to vaccination and the consequent prevention of
small-pox which is one of the important causes of bhndness, the better hygienic
conditions prevailing in the residential quarters and the facility of treatment of
ophthalmic diseases have been mainly instrumental in checking and reducing the
infirmity. Cataract, which in most cases terminates in blindness, is being handled
by surgeons with ever-increasing success. The number of persons successfully
operated upon for cataract, during the past three decades is noted in the margin.
1881—1890 14 233 ^^^ iucrease in successful cataract operations during the past ten
1891— i&oo 42,942 years, namely, 20,026, should alone more than account for the
1901-1910 62,968 ^ecrease of 14,072 in the total number of blind persons, but the
.proper treatment of eye diseases in their earlier stages, which no doubt prevents
their development into blindness in the course of time, and the other favourable
causes must also have had their effect. While however the facilities for combating
the affections of the eye and for preventing the loss of eyesight are greater, the
predisposing causes have also giown- The spread of education resulting in the
extensive use of printed books in place of the beautifully written manuscripts, the
growing popularity of small type in English books and papers and the necessity
of reading for long hours, often in defective or indifferent light, puts a very heavy
strain on the eyes of the educated young men, and had it not been for the pro-
gressive improvements in ophthalmic surgery and the unrestricted use of spectacles,
the percentage of blind persons should have been much higher particularly among
the educated classes.
The proportion of females suffering from blindness is slightly in excess of
that of males, but the infirmity has decreased somewhat more rapidly amongst
the females than amongst the males, as is shown by the figures in the margin.
From 928 blind females per 1,000 blind males, the proportion has
femaies'to" fallen within the last 30 years to 857, which is not much higher than
1,000 males. ^]^q ggx proportiou in the total population (viz., 817 females to 1,000
1891 '.'.". 896 males). The females are, perhaps, handicapped by exposure to smoke
1901 ... 900 connected with cooking, but they have far less strain on their eyes,
even including the small amount of needle-work which they have
to do, compared with the males who have either to read and write or to go about
in the dusty atmosphere of the Punjab, in the glare of the summer sun ; and conse-
quently it is only natural that with equal facilities for treatment of eye diseases,
they should benefit more than the males. The establishment of female dispensaries
and the gradual disappearance of the objection to attendance at General
Hospitals are placing the advantages of medical and surgical aid within easy reach
of the females.
The largest decreases compared with the figures of 1901, have occurred in
the districts and states noted in the margin. The improvement is
Amritsar ... 1^752 uot confined to districts where blindenss is most common and
Boshiarpur ... J, 704 ^\^q variations in the rate of decrease can only be ascribed to the
Ambala ... i,'i23 degree of efiiciency of the surgeons in dealing with diseases' of
Juiiundur ... 1,12] ^^^q gyg^ "jhe presence of Lt. -Colonel Smith, I.M.S., who is so
Siaikot ... 925 Well knowu for his success in cataract operations, at Juiiundur
Kamai ... 840 f^j, ^^j^g gj,gt g^^i ^^ Amritsar during the last half of the decade,
JhSum^''"'^ '..'■ 665 probably accounts for the large decreases in blindness in the
shahpur ... 614 JuUundur, Ludhiana and Amritsar Districts. The Kawals,
who are oculists by tradition, have settlements in the
Juiiundur and Hoshiarpur Districts and treat a very large number of eye
cases. Ambala has also had the advantage of some of the best doctors,
and Laliore, which of course has for a long time had the best surgeons,
attached to the I\layo Hospital, shows a fair contraction in the number of
blind persons, in spite of the fact that it attracts all kinds of beggars
including the blind.
But the decrease is not general throughout the Province. The
sandy tracts of the plains, which are somewhat removed from
the best centres of optical treatment, have a larger number of
the blind than they had ten years ago. The districts
and states showing increases of over 100 each are named
in the margin. Patiala, Muzaffargarh and Hissar are parti-
Patiala
... 883
Muzaffargarh
... 678
Hissar
...-517
Lyallpur
... 480
Jhang
... 151
Iilultan
... 1*0
D. G. Khan
... 133
Jind
... 133
Census Report, ]
380
BLINDNISS.
Chaptke
Tariation
kyage.
Local dis"
tribution.
onlarly sandy. The large increase in Lyallpur, which is abundantly irrigated
by canals, is naainly due to immigration.
505. The marginal diagram illustrates the prevalence of blindness by
decennial age-periods, with reference to the figures
of the present Census. The number of blind chil-
dren under the age of ten is small, but the propor-
tion rises gradually up to 40, when the effects of
strain on and neglect of the eyes begin to manifest
themselves in the form of cataract and other
types of blindness. The curve rises at
zaee
eooo
REFTRENCES
MALE
FEMALE
increasing rate to
tion of blindness
household
of the latter and
that of males.
due
an
60 years, and the propor-
in ages above 60 is very
much higher. It is not strange that blindness,
which is to a great extent an acquired infirmity
should grow with age. Up to the age of
30, the males are more exposed to this
infirmity than females, but the cares of the
to mourning begin to tell upon tlie eyesight
proportion
MALE-
FEMALE
amongst
The
them, after 40,
higher than
SOOWER
50-eo
fO-50
S0-40
eo-60
n-eo
IS-IO
161
100
I
100
ee
0
147
100
18
0
75
60
88'
80
s
ee
16
4
1-0
B
e
1
— — -
^
_
- - r^~r^
- - Tt^
--'"
i
I8SI
1801
s
506.
No.
of blind
per
100,000
of
popula-
tion.
CnrgaOD
... 438
Hissar
... 3!»5
PatHudi
... 394
Jallundur
... 3«J
Dnjana
... 377
Fero/.epore
... 34C
LudhiAna
... 299
variation of the infirmity per 10,000
persons, from one Census to another, in each
decennium of life is illustrated on the dia«
gram printed in the margin. All the age-
periods appear to have shared in the decrease
which, however, appears to be more marked
in the ages of 20 to 40 years. The improve-
ment is, of course, not half so great now
as in the two previous decades, but while
in 1881 to 1891 the earlier ages had scored
and in the next ten years the ages above 30
showed the most favourable lesults, the varia-
tion has now become general. Taking all ages
collectively, the extent of blindness has been re-
duced to less than half during the past 30
years, the proportion being : — Males, 506 in 1881
and 249 in 1911 ; females 556 in 1881 and 261
in 1911 per 100,000 of each sex.
On the whole one in every 400 persons in the Province is blind, but
the proportion varies from place to place.
Freedom from dust and the abundance
of verdure in the Himalayan Natural Divi-
sion, coupled probably with the backward
state of education accounts for the compara-
tively few sufferers from blindness in
that tract as exhibited in the margin.
All the three plains Divisions have a
high proportion of sufferers from this
infirmity, altliough the sub-montane tract
is the best off, owing obviously to its
rainfall and the less oppressive dust and
blind persons to every ]00,"00 in the
ludo-Gangetic Plain is 296. That
has more blind persons than the
Dry Area, is due to the high per-
in the districts and states noted.
PersODB
affected
Persona affected
Natural Division.
per
100,000
of popa-
lation.
per 100,000 of
each sei.
Male8.
FemaleB.
Indo-Gangelic PJaia
296
288
306
N. W. Dry Area ...
237
22S
247
Sab-Uimalajan
228
227
229
Himalayaa
135
128
\i\
proximity to the hills, a larger
glare. But compared with 135
hills, the figure in the
the Indo-Gangetic Plain
drier and hotter N
centage of blind
W.
persons
in the margin. "With the exception of Jnliundur and Ludhi-
ana, all the units are fairly hot and sandv. The districts
showing high figures in the N. W. Dry Areaaiv, Dera Ghazi
Khan (33G), Muzaffargarh (3141, Montgomery (299), Multan
(250), Shahpnr (221), and Jhang (213). ^ ^ \ h
381
LEPBOSY.
[ Punjab, 191L
The marginal map shows the prevalence of blindness in each district and
state. The Mandi State in the
Himalayan Division shows few-
est blind persons (53 per
100,000) and the highest pro-
portion is found in Gurgaon
(438). The districts lying on
the north-east of Rajputana
have three to four blind persons
to every thousand of population
and this zone of comparatively
high proportion of blindness
runs round the Faridkot and
Patiala territory to Feroze-
pore and JuUundur. On the
extreme west, Dera Ghazi Khan
and Muzaffargarh fall in tlie
same class and in the rest of the
Province, one tc three persons
in every thousand are blind,
507. A glance at Subsidiary Table IV will show that blindness is peculiar Blindness
to the lower ca&tes. The highest percentage is found amongst Bahtis (chiefly of ^y cS'Ste.
Nahan) who have as many as two blind persons out of every hundred. Kanjars
found in Delhi, Bahawalpur and Patiala have about one and so have Changs. The
higher castes have a comparatively low proportion, the Khanzadas of Gurgaon
being the worst of them, with about 1 in every 300. The Kakezais, Kureshis,
Arains, Awans, Pathans, Dogars, Khokhars, Khatris and Rajputs appear to suffer
least from the infirmity, and the Changars who have only two blind persons
in IjCOO are a notable exception among the low castes. The caste figures do not
point to any preference for locality and the menial professions seem to act as a
cause independently of the climatic and atmospheric conditions which affect
certain tracts.
508. The diagram given in the margin of paragraph 505 shows that ^*"^®'*
congenital blindness is very rare. The main causes are (1) small-pox, (2) the
atmospheric dust in the hot and sandy tracts, which results in ophthalmia, (3) ex-
posure to smoke or the strain of working or reading in bad light which appears
in the form of cataract in advanced age and (4) the custom of prolonged mourning
which necessitates weeping for several hours everyday. In many of the District
Reports, the favourite explanation of want of greasy nutrition in the form of
milk and ghi has also been added as a predisposing cause of blindness in so far as
it produces general dryness in the system. The popular belief is that the optic
nerve must be fed on oily substances, and the inference is obviously drawn from
the fact that verdure due to moisture is the delight of the eye, while dry heat
oppresses it. The spread of vaccination is minimising the chances of loss of
eye-sight from small-pox. The atmospheric conditions cannot be helped, but
canal irrigation is instrumental in laying the dust in some of the most dry and
dusty tracts. The sjstem of mourning is also being largely abandoned or
reformed and the supply of light is impioving. Against these improvements has
to be set the comparatively heavy strain which the spread of education and the
reading of hadly typed and lithographed popular publications is putting on the
sense of vision.
LEPROSY.
509. The number of lepers has decreased steadily during the past 30 years, Variation.
as the figures noted in the margin will show.
The proportion of lepers to total population fell
from 45 per 100,000 in 1881 to 26 in 1891,
and 19 in 1901, and the figure has sunk further
to 13 now. In the Census Report of 1901*
Mr. Rose expressed a hope that the next ten years
would show a considerfible decrease, and his ex-
♦ Punjab Ceosas Report, 1901, p. 295, paragraph 6.
Proportion of
No. Of
females to
Lepers.
1.000 male
lepers.
18HI
H,390
282
1891
6,995
307
1901
4,742
358
1911
3,091
384
Census Report. ]
382
LKPB03Y.
Chapteb
Local dis-
tribution.
65 K
i
60
\ REFERENCES
50
\ MALX
40
\^
SO
^^^
10
""--,
"^^
c
1881
1881
1801
i
M
r F
FEMALE - - -
aauMO
^^-^
^-"-^
BOOO
IEE9
0
ISB5
1000
5S7
7?2
SOO
505
585°
ITS
2°Be
EOO
loe
E°S3
88
0
154
100
45
I 0
§
^----
so-eo
M-SO
30-40
EO-60
10 -EO
0-10
^
^^'"^
— 1
■~~-
"^^^"^^-=
:^^:-=^r^
^=-=r
■^'^=-^
~'
= ^
r~:r
^^
i
c
0
g
1891
ISOJ
pectation has been realized. But it is curious that
with tlje general decrease in the infirmity, the pro-
portion of females to males has risen slowly but
steadily. It must not, however, be inferred from
this that there has been no decrease in the number of
female lepers. Their number has fallen from 2,065 in
1881 to 858 in 1911, and both male and female lepers
have decreased daring the past decade by about one-
third, although owing to the smallness of numbers,
the proportionate decHno with reference to the total
population of each sex appears larger amongst the
males, as illustrated on the marginal diagram.
Born lepers are by no means numerous,
nnd there is now only one leper under 10 years
of age to every 100,000 of population. Accord-
ing to the present figures, the number of lepers
from 50 to 60 years old is as high as 50 to
every 100,000. The marginal diagram illus-
trates the variation, at each of the Censuses,
in the proportion of lepers, within each decen-
nium of life. Up to 1901, the proportion of
males was generally higher than that of females,
except in the 30 to 40 years period of 1881,
but the sudden rise of leprosy in that age-period
in 1891 shows that the results of the previous
Census were based on a mis-statement of ages.
The only abnormal feature of 1901 was the
comparatively large increase in female lepers
under the age of )0, but it brought the pro-
portion of male and female lepers to the same level and during the last decade
the decrease has been uniform in both sexes. In the other age-periods, the
variation has been fairly regular throughout the last thirty years. There is, there-
fore, no reason to believe that the improvement in general health in this respect
is anything but real.
The decrease has been general all over the Province, with the exception of
Karnal, Ludhiana and Kapurthala, which have shown slight increases. The
noticeable decreases are from 732 to 567 in Kangra, owing, obviously, to the treat-
ment of lepers at the Leper Asylum; from 21 5 to 92 in Hoshiarpur, which may be
ascribed partly to plague and partly to migration ; from 239 to 133 in Rawalpindi,
where there is also a Leper Asylum and from 248 to 144 in Patiala, where the
epidemics causing a general decrease of population probably account for it.
510. But the proportion of lepers is not uniform throughout the Province.
The Himalayan Natural Divi-
sion has as many as 86 lepers
per 100,000 and the figure
suddenly drops to 11 in the
Sub-Himalayan tract. The
Indo-Gangetic Plain fares still
better with a proportion of 8
and the N. W. Dry Area has not
more than 3 lepers to every
100,000. The map given in
the margin indicates the pro-
portion of lepers in each dis-
trict and state. In the Hima-
layan tract, the Nahan and
Chamba States have 161 and
146 lepers respectively in
every 100,000, against the
average of 86, while Mandi
has only 38. In the plains,
PROPORTION DF LEPERS
' ^PER lOODOD OF
POPULATION
X.
383
LEPROSY
[ Punjab, 1911.
^-
ti
Caste.
umber
cted pc
00,000.
Caste.
if
umber
icted p(
00,000.
-s
■^B-^
a
'*«'-'
cd
HaU ...
21,067
228
Bahti ...
4,212
142
Eesi
1,795
222
Ghai ...
2,498
120
Rehar ...
1,438
209
Kanet ...
403,815
115
Bagi and
Rathi ...
97,798
111
Koli ...
175,014
144
Sepi
1,851
108
Proportion
1,000 males.
losane 532
Deat-mntea 597
of females to
the Rawalpindi District and the Kapurtbala State have 16 and the Jhelum
and Ludhiana Districts 15 each. AH the other noita have a proportion of
10 or less. The small States of Loham, Pataudi and Maler Kotla have no
lepers at all, and the Jhang and Lyallpur Districts have only 1 leper to every
100,000 persons. Leprosy would appear to be mainly confined to the hills and
the variation of their proportion from one district to another seems to be affected
in no small degree by migration of the sufferers from this infirmity, who live
largely on charity. It must be noted that the proportions in the marginal map
have been worked out after excluding from the districts which have Leper
Asylums, the number of the afflicted, who belong to other districts. The latter
have been shown in the statistics of the districts from which they came.
•511. Being confined mainly to the hills, leprosy is found most among the Infirmity
low castes of the Himalayas. A few by caste,
of them are mentioned in the margin
by way of example. All these castes
are pecuhar to the Kangra and Simla
hills. A large number of castes show-
ing smaller but substantial proportions
are also located in the Himalayan
tract.
612. According to popular belief, the infirmity is due mainly to syphilis Causes,
and the prevalence of the latter in the hills, would appear to support the theory.
In any case, the type of leprosy prevailing in this Province is closely connected
with syphilitic conditions. It is also said that pntrified and deleterious food leads
to leprosy and the eating of carrion and carnivorous animals such as dogs, jackals,
etc., is cited as an instance. There is a great prejudice against taking fish and
milk together, for the combination is said to develop the infirmity. This is also
mentioned as a cause in Sushrut Samhita.* Of all infirmities, the proportion of
females to males is lowest in leprosy, as shown in the
margin. The cause of females being less prone to leprosy
is believed by the people to be that they discharge poisonous
impurities of the blood during the menstrual period.
513. The Lepers Act, III of 1898, is not in force in the Punjab and Leper Asy-
consequently the lepers cannot be compulsorily segregated, but there are Leperlams.
Asylums at Sabathu (Simla), Ambala, Dharmsala (Kangra), Rawalpindi, Bawa
Lakhan (Sialkot), Tarn
Taran (Amritsar) and
Chamba. The number of
lepers enumerated at each
of these asylums is given
in the margin and the fol-
lowing brief account will
give an idea of the work
done by each of these
institutions.
514. The Sabathu Asylum was established in the early forties of the last fu^'fgUn^'^'
century, by the officers and men of the British regiments stationed at Sabathu, District),
beyond the further barracks below the Kasauli road, and was removed to its
present site about 1864. It was then supported by donations from the Sabathu
and Kasauli regiments ; but it now receives help from Government as well as from
the " Society for Lepers in India and East." From 1901 to 30th June 1910,
the Asylum was in receipt of a grant-in-aid of Rs. 600 per annum from Govern-
ment, but the grant has since been raised to Rs. 7,200 per annum. Besides
Rs. 9,300 paid by Government in the form of grant-in-aid during the decade
(1901 to 1910), a special grant of Rs. 500 was made to enable the Asylum to
tide over the difficulty caused by high prices in 1908-09, and one of Rs. 15,283
for new buildings. The Asylum always has a fair number of inmates, ranging
from 50 to 90, who are generally Indians, although a cottage separate from the
Indian quarters is set apart for European lepers. The Asylum being situated
in a part of the Province, where the infirmity is at its worst, its utility is
• Sushrut Samhita, fart 11, Adliaya V, L
Blind
Lepers
857
384
Number of
patients
enumerated.
Leper Asylumi at
Number of
patients
enumerated.
Lepeb Abylcms at
m
a
o
QJ
6
15
12
2
26
a
o
a
u
©
25
148
17
to
a;
s
18
92
6
to
S
(S
Sabathu (Simla)
Ambala
DhariQsala (Kangra)
Eawalpindi
53
23
15
58
38
11
13
32
Bawa Lakhan (Sialkot)
Tarn Taran
(Amritsar)
Chamba
7
56
11
364
Censns Report, ] lepeost. Chaptkb
beyond doabt. Besides leprosy, large numbers of hillmen are treated free of
charge for varioua other diseases.
AmbalaAsy- 515. The Ambala Asylum is located at the headquarters of the district
^'™- and is managed by the American Missionary Society. It was founded in 1858
and in 1892 a new ward for men, containing a dispensary as well, was added.
Any leper who presents himself at the Asylum is enrolled at once, unless
he comes from any of the other three asylums managed by the Mission,
in which case be is required to show a discharge certificate. Failing that or
on an intimation being received that he left the Asylum without permission,
he is admitted on paying a fine of Rs. 4, which is realized by short deductions
from his allovrance. The object is to stop aimless wandering of these people
from place to place. Each adult leper receives 12 annas per week (8 annas
in food stuff and 4 annas in cash), during his stay at the Asylum. In addition to
this, each of them receives 8 sers of dry wood for cooking, and soap enough to
wash his clothes. The more feeble patients are given half a ser of milk a day. Once
a year, each leper is given a set of clothes and a blanket. "Whenever there is
a doctor available, he or Ae is in attendance twice a week at the dispensary
attached to the institution. The total number of lepers admitted during the
decade was 297. The average admission per annum is 29 and the number of
lepers on roll at the close of 1910 was 31.* The Asylum receives grants from
Government, the District Board of Ambala, and the Municipalities of Ambala,
Jagadhari and Rupar. The income from these sources amounts to Rs. 1,624
per annum. The total expenditure for the decade 1901 — 1911 works up to
Rs. 24,136 against an income of Rs. 24,645 to which no less than Rs. 8,224
were contributed by the Mission, Voluntaiy subscriptions amounted to Rs. 395.
The average annual cost of maintenance of the institution, per head, is between
Rs. 44 and 68.
Dharmsala 516. The Dharmsala Asylum was established in 1857 by Colonel Lake,
^? Dktrkn"' ^'^'^ is supported on the interest of a fund raised by that officer, assisted by the Dis-
trict Funds. Lepers are admitted at their own request and patients who are driven
away from their homes come to the institution for shelter. Although the number
of persons admitted into the Asylum during the decade was only 46, the number
of inmates on the 1st day of each year has been between 9 and 28. No specific
treatment is administered, but patients are treated symptomatically. Each
leper receives an allowance of Rs. 3 per mensem, Rs. 2 from Government and Re. 1
from the District Board. No fixed grant-in-aid is made by Government or the Dis-
trict Board. The amount contributed by the latter during the decade was Rs. 5,723
and Rs. 985 for maintenance and buildings, respectively. The average cost per
head per annum has varied from Rs. 67 in 1905 to Rs. 112 in 1906. In the latter
year the number of inmates was abnormally low.
Bawalpindi 517. The Rawalpindi Asylum stands near the town. The institution is
^^'™' controlled by the " Mission to Lepers in India and the East," and an American
Missionary acts as Superintendent in charge. About three years ago, the Asylum
was entirely rebuilt and it now contains 5 large barracks with accommodation
for 120 inmates. A hospital consisting of a general dispensary, a ward and
store-room and also a separate dispensary and ward for women, with residential
quarters for servants, etc., has been constructed. The establishment consists of
one Hospital Assistant, 2 dressers, 2 chaukidars, a cook, a dai, 2 sweepers and 2
bhisldis. Besides the medical aid available on the premises, the Civil Surgeon
attends to the important cases requiring surgical skill. The inmates are not de-
tained in the Asylum by compulsion but are admitted of their own free will and
permitted to remain there, so long as they observe the rules of the institu-
tion. Endeavour is, however, made to control the vagrant lepers by levying fines
when they leave the institution without permission, for the purpose of begging.
Rs. 35,000 have been spent on buildings during the decade, of which Rs. 26,000
were provided by Government. The total expenditure on maintenance charges
was Rs. 47,000 to which Rs. 40,800 were contributed by the Provincial, Municipal
and District funds, the deficit being met by the Leper Mission and from voluntary
contributions. The cost per head per annum was Rs. 48 in 1908, which rose to
Rs. 88 in 1908, when prices ruled high.
* A more recent report received from the Mission shows that the Asylum has 65 inmates now.
885
X. LEPEOaTT. [ Punjab, 1911.
Religious instruction is also given regularly in tlie Asylum by tlie Mission in
ctarge, who meet the necessary expenditure for the purpose. The totnl number
of inmates admitted into the Asylum during the decade was 356, the highest
number admitted in any one year being 69. The number present at the close of
the year 1910 was 76. Besides the competent medical treatment and menial
service available in the Asylum, confortable quarters are provided for the
patients and rations and clothing, with the necessary household furniture,
are supplied free.
518. The Bawa Lakhan Asylum was founded in 1866 at a place about9 miles ^^'^^^^
from Sialkot. The building consists of three double barracks with accommo- kot).
dation for 72 lepers and servants' houses. Each leper is given one room with a
verandah. There is a good garden from which fresh vegetables are supplied to
each patient. The management of the Asylum is conducted by a Hospital Assist-
ant under the supervision of the Civil Surgeon. The institution, however, is
merely an asylum and the treatment is palliative not specific. Bach adult inmate
receives Rs, 3 a month and each child Rs, 2, with some clothing and one thick
blanket every second year. The records of the Asylum prior to 1 906 do not
furnish detailed information. In the beginning of 1906 there were 30 patients
in the Asylum and during the years 1906 to 1910, 74 were admitted, th.e
highest nubmer 22 having come in 1910. The average number of inmates in
-any one year, during the decade, has not been more than 53. The total ex-
penditure for the period of five years (1906—1910) is Rs. 11,834, of which.
Es. 6,816 were paid by Government and Rs. 4,094 by the District Board, the
^' Mission to Lepers in India and East" contributing about Rs. 1,110 towards
the cost of maintenance of the institution. The average annual cost per head
comes to Rs. 75.
519. The Tarn Taran Asylum is situated about a mile from the town of ^gy"^^*'^.
that name. It was established in 1858 by the Deputy Commissioner cf the District, ritsar).
The building consists of two double rows of huts and can accommodate 200
patients. It is in charge of a resident Medical oflBcer assisted by the requisite
menial establishment. Tarn Taran has always been visited by lepers in the
belief that the waters of the tank attached to the Sikh temple there cure leprosy.
Bathing in and drinking of these waters is considered greatly beneficial to
persons so suffering. Besides general treatment and the dressing of ulcers, etc.,
the patients receive the special Nastin treatment. Lepers come to the Asylum
from different parts of the Province. The number of persons admitted during the
decade was 804, the highest figure being 121 in 1907.
The number of inmates at the close of each year varied from 183 to 216.
The institution was first maintained by the Municipality aided by Govei'nment
and by subscriptions from other districts, but since 1903 it has been taken over
completely by Government. The total expenditure by Government during the
decade amounted to Rs. 89,623. The average cost of maintenance per head per
annum is Rs. 57.
520. The Chamba Asylum was started by the " Mission to Lepers" inl876, ChambaLeper
hnt was taken over by the State in 1881, and since then has been understate ^^y'"™-
management, although the cost of maintenance is shared by the Mission. The
average number of inmates is between 18 and 19. The Mission still suppoj'ts 18
lepers on the average and the State pays for the rest. Each leper is allowed Rs. 3
a month for food and clothing and one rupee per mensem extra during
famine. Two high caste Hindu servants (a male and a female) on Rs. 4 per
mensem each are employed by the State, while the Mission keeps an establish-
ment consisting of a dresser on Rs, 6, a female servant on Rs. 4, a sweeper on
Re. 1 per mensem and a teacher. The building is looked after by the State which
also provides medicines and firewood free. The total expenditure during the
decade was Rs. 1,926.
521. Lepers are no exception to the general belief in the efficacy Shrines and
of prayer as a curer of diseases. They frequent shrines of famous Mu- sacred
hammadan saints and some sacred places of the Hindus in the hope of places
getting rid of their infirmity by the blessings of the presiding saints. No resorted to
attempt at segi'egation is mado at any of these institutions, A brief account by lepers,
of some of the places is given below.
386
Census Report, ] lepbosy. Chaptbe
Shrine of 522. Hazrat Shah Sufaid came to Miana Mohra in the Jhelum Distiict
(Jheluiu^'l^s' fi'o^ Baharwal, a village near Delhi, about 200 ov 250 years ago, when he was a
trict). child. He married in the village and settled down there. He was very piously
inclined and in course of time, the fame of his holiness spread far and wide.
At his death, a shrine was built to his memory, which is in charge of his
descendants. At first the building was kacha but some 25 years ago,
it was re-built at a cost of one thousand rupees. Numerous people visit it
every Thursday and a large fair is held in the month of Baisakh. Lepers accord-
ingly come to this shrine in considerable numbers, some 25 of them having been
present at the time of the enquiry. The Deputy Commissioner has quoted 10
specific instances (giving names and addresses) in which lepers returned from
the shrine after a complete cure. At the shrine, they have no difiBculty in
maintaining themselves, as they go about begging their food in the surrounding
villages and are entitled to get one rupee from each village. It is believed that
leprosy can be cured by the blessings of the saint, and the inhabitants of the adjoin-
ing districts and parts of the Kashmir State have implicit faith in his powers to
cure leprosy and other diseases of an obstinate nature.
ShrineofDaud 523. Three miles south of Muzaffargarh, in the village of Rampur, is the
Jahaman. gbrine of Daud Jahani&n.* The shrine has a celebrity for curing leprosy, and
lepers from all parts of the Punjab and Kashmir resort to it. Persons who
have obtained a cure, present models of the deceased limb in silver or gold.
Baths of hot and cold sand are prepared by the attendants of the shrine for lepers.
Such baths are called rangin, the literal meaning of which is, the vessel in
which dyers dye cloth. The charge for a rangin is Re. 1-4-0. At this shrine
people eat with the lepers and mix with them very freely, without any fear of
contracting the disease.
Shrine of 524. There is a shrine called Zinda Pir in the Lund country, in the valley
fitera ^Ghazi ^^ *^® Shori torrent, about six miles above the place where it issues from the hills.
Khan). It stands beside a hot sulphur spring which is considered eflBcacious in curing skin
diseases and lameness. As the name implies, the spring is believed to be inhabit-
ed by an immortal and invisible saint. The shrine consists of a house
which has been built for his residence, and has been furnished with beds and
other furniture and a copy of the Koran. Numerons pilgrims visit it especially
in the month of March. t The shrine is frequented largely by lepers.
SakhiSarwar 525. The Deputy Commissioner of Dera Ghazi Khan reports that lepers
^w) *" visit the shrine of Sakhi Sarwar in large numbers, both for charity and in the
hope of being cured by the blessing of the deceased saint.
Pohowa. 526. Pehowa, a sacred place in Tahsil Kaithal of the Karnal District, is
also known as a place where leprosy can be cured by a bath in the Saraswati
river. There is, in fact, a colony of lepers at this place, and they can procure free
food from the two Sadabarats institutions for distributing charitable doles) opened
by the Cliiefs of Patiala and Nabha. The belief in the curative powers of the
spot is due to the story of the cure of Raja Vena's leprosy by bathing in the
Saraswati river, which is told in the Vishnu Purana.
^^d" g"^ r ^^^" ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ Tarn Taran, where lepers go for a bath has already been
Satiani. mentioned. A small asylum for lepers is also maintained by the Mahant of the
Gurdwara at Hoshiarnagar in the Amritsar District, known as Gurusar Satiani
Sahib. The patients bathe in the local tank and are fed by the Mahant.
• Page 73, Gazetteer of Muzaffargarh District.
t Page 5S of the Dera Qbazi Khan Diattict Gazeteer, 1893-97.
X.
387
SDBSIDIAET TABLES.
i Punjab. 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE I-
Number afflicted per 100,000 of the population at each of the last four Censuses.
DiBTElCT oE State and Natoeal
DinsioN.
TOTAL PROVINCE
I.—Indo-Gansetio Plain Wkst— .,
1. Hissar ...
2. Loharii, State
3. Bohtak
4. D^ijana Slate •••
5. Gurgaon...
6. Pataudi State ...
7. Delhi
8. Kamal
9. JuUundar
10. Kapurthala State
11. Lndhiana
13. Ualer Kotla State
13. Ferozepore
14. Baridlcot State ...
15. Patiala State
16. Jind State
17. Nabha State
18. Lahore ...
19. Amritsar
20. GojraDwala
8.— HlMALAYAN-
21. Nahan State
22. Simla
23. Simla Hill States
24. Kangra
25. Mandi State
26. Sulcet State
27. Chamla State ...
3. — SUB-HIMALATAN —
28. Ambala
29. KaUia State
30. Hoshiarpur
31. Gurdaspur
32. Sialkot
33. Gujrat
34. Jhelnm
35. Rawalpindi
36. Attock*
4.— North-west Dry Ae«a—
37. Montgomery
88. Shahpur
39. Mianwalit
40. Lyallpurt
41. Jhang
42. Maltan
43. Bahaioalpiir State
44. Muzaffargarh ...
45. Dera Ghazi Shan
Insane.
Males.
31 43
31
22
20
26
37
19
10
30
26
31
28
25
32
27
14
19
19
12
102
21
20
21
24
36
48
24
19
14
20
31
22
34
41
53
26
37
25
51
47
33
61
51
83
28
"31
40
16
35
31
25
41
25
29
72
29
14
11
10
17
100
34
35
59
61
4
26
96
4
41
42
42
62
89
42
30
27
40
67
42
3ti
31
34
34
36
18
10
39
26
33
35
32
44
34
16
19
26
15
57
20
44
92
25
27
46
34
18
64
34
49
40
26
21
19
41
43
44
Females.
58
43
41
40
45
40
5
21
44
47
50
47
50
31
34
35
47
48
33
47
41
55
74
115
58
32
84
48
41
149
51
20
17
15
23
6
8
10
"is
16
2i
19
14
2iJ
19
11
11
6
9
46
13
17
16
17
60 53
73
71
39
27
76
84
37
79
80
57 24
41 93
44
38
29
62
67
67
59
102
36
98
'55
155
53
119
52
90
81
1 118
40
,127
114 30
24
I
19
3fi
39
2'A
52
29
26
17
17
13
17
8
12
17
23
16
21
28
17
9
5
2
9
48
15
19
38
42
28
8
64
10
4
24
21
15
20
"ii
16
6
22
17
16
14
18
15
26
•Z2
6
9
13
7
29
12
15
27
66
18
1
30
19
16
17
Dbaf-mutb.
Idales.
10
36
26
33
48
25
28
3
24
23
32
32
35
30
18
20
25
29
25
37
26
IS
29
43
108
46
15
47
14
4
83
26 22 33
37
73
25
19
16
29
32
29
30
74
11
9
10
29
39
32
40 31
40
4H
41
IC,
44
58
29
49
47
29
28
37
54
35
38
55
26
26
15
39
44
511
71
85
67
55
97
79
11
95
58
66
130
45
157
65
79
46
29
59
83
58
49
59
43
52
54
67
73
47
74
285
216
109
181
437
51
107
258
115
125
281
115
114
73
96
147
144
131
94
103
102
94
56
106
117
65
119
103
91
47
74
135
30
64
71
87
32
26
46
94
42
60
41
48
39
39
79
42
37
59
326
260
153
229
464
48
176
384
60
273
109
62
46
77
88
150
12
115
158
151
142
67
156
156
102
118
133
74
86
82
67
94
59
70
5;
66
84
102
80
49
73
66
50
67
77
102
76
86
379
374
185
306
477
177
137
460
121
132
268
132
114
70
121
143
142
126 lie
115
150
148
106
64
167
94
Females.
13
145
102
99
80
inf,
112
79
14'
46
54
98
69
135
70
68
82
159
132
11
97
119
91
393
408
268
311
481
14
225
518
14
158
161
271
174
210
121
16:
123
139
117
205
157
139
126
140
106
15
70
38
50
116
25
58
58
21
35
15
38
68
25
23
38
21
34
36
34
45
36
45
226
211
137
178
311
37
62
242
83
80
256
86
72
55
65
99
125
96
141 66
76
79
69
36
74
84
48
75
64
16
17
66
29
49
8
22
26
41
38
15
17
24
50
31
42
23
48
23
23
58
30
26
35
279
239
169
234
356
31
233
375
83
39
215
82
50
31
45
72
110
85
91
107
109
44
94
102
62
73
103
77
45
55
44
41
"40
44
34
36
60
66
45
31
46
25
27
44
42
70
37
47
286
248
163
253
344
93
41
456
79
200
103
62
43
70
112
122
71
67
94
78
76
43
90
56
95
63
59
32
68
110
53
60
34
28
77
50
75
49
44
30
89
66
65
62
76
59
266
265
215
198
350
97
198
442
83 104
100
2ul
124
136
78
90
83
103
84
64
133
106
77
6c<
89
04
* Figures for 1901, 1891 and 1881 are contained in the Jhejum and Rawalpindi Districte.
t „ 1891 and 1681 are not available as the districts were created after 1891.
CensTis Report, ]
388
BUESIDIARY TABLES.
Chaptbb
SUBSIDIARY TABLE I-
-conclibded.
Number afliicted per
lOOtOOO of the population at each of the last four Census(
)a.
Blind.
Lkpkbs.
Males.
Females. \
Males.
Females.
District oe Statk and Natceal
Division.
1
1
l-<
t-T
^
.-H
i-t"
._;
1— (
•^
i-(
y^
y~i
y—i
1-!
T-(
i-i
pH
o
S
00
r~*
0
■5
00
cH
0
05
QC
W^
0
G)
2g
C5
Ci
00
CO
Oi
X
00
00
C5
CT>
£
00
(J>
CO
QC
19
20
21
22
23
•"*
'"'
t— 1
f-«
1-<
r-<
r^
T-t
r-t
1
18
24
25
26
27
28
ii9
30
31
32
33
TOTAL PROVINCE
219
298
343
506
261
314
861
556
n
26
37
65
8
11
13
22
1. — Indo-Qangktic Plain West —
288
340
396
579
30?
349
409
626
10
15
22
43
4
5
6
la
1. Hieear
358
325
452
53S
439
358
538
653
11
16
27
39
2
8
6
7
2. Loharu State
130
184
100
345
197
156
131
354
12
27
13
...
...
3. Eohtak
255
266
308
524
269
257
326
664
" 4
10
18
41
"" 1
1
"' 5
13
4. Dujana State
448
304
211
S59
2981 274
213
450
15
64
36
24
,,,
■ *•
...
...
5. Gnrgaon
373
335
363
456
512
416
486
633
11
20
43
58
3
3
8
11
6. Pataudi State
335
400
271
410
458
461
332
336
• ••
■ >■
...
7. Delhi ...
195
264
238
441
203
290
285
571
5
"16
"18
■■■ 52
1
'" 6
7
21
8. Karnal
290
343
43,6
666
263
351
464
811
12
13
23
50
6
2
4
8
9. Julluiidnr
376
434
520
563
404
493
582
618
6
20
34
42
1
6
10
17
10. Kaparthala Biate
248
278
435
522
276
222
373
491
22
16
46
40
8
1
10
t
11. Ladhiana
285
609
641
707
318
667
653
784
17
15
27
42
13
7
10
a
12. Maler Kotla State ...
296
601
449
615
232
747
337
622
2
47
16
• ..
• ••
14
1
13. Ferozepore ...
347
396
493
575
344
387
501
551
6
9
23
41
2
4
6
12
14. Faridkot State
275
374
483
618
205
367
460
505
3
11
17
30
5
4
s
15. Patiala State
266
198
275
710
239
135
218
740
14
23
18
59
' 5
6
4
16
16. Jind State
218
145
361
460
]88
138
326
416
3
S
15
23
...
2
1
i
17. Nabha State
289
449
378
584
218
349
304
633
4
10
15
64
" 1
7
8
n
18. Lahore
263
336
399
561
297
354
425
585
4
8
7
14
1
2
2
a
19. Araritsar
267
404
,^58
550
309
432
330
455
28
26
20
57
17
14
10
28
20. Gujranwala
236
299
360
579
235
319
371
572
3
6
7
15
1
3
4
7
2.— Himalayan—
128
130
152
223
144
154
161
24 3
117
163
209
289
50
70
83
lOi
21. Nahan State
174
220
30°
387
272
266
361
375
234
306
308
695
72
103
93
20s
22. Simla
36
76
103
217
116
113
181
202
206
298
317
355
144
283
242
163
23. Simla Hill States
90
86
156
155
J 08
105
154
127
99
161
204
228
48
62
84
75
24. Kangra
168
156
132
222
177
182
134
258
104
183
155
209
40
55
58
75
25. ilandi State
52
65
116
177
54
41
115
148
53
85
222
222
22
53
72
9fl
26. Suket State
117
159
61
123
54
171
41
155
121
135
65
256
19
51
16
5S
27. Cliamba State
96
111
195
374
98
171
272
520
171
250
449
621
121
145
224
27(
3.— Sdb-Himalatan — ...
m
298
316
439
229
318
338
491
U
25
37
70
7
10
13
22
28. Ambala
284
360
462
512
315
424
536
624
19
25
52
75
6
4
10
Ifi
29. Kahia State
236
300
449
493
30)1 308
503
367
16
22
29
79
...
3
10
29
30. Hoshiarpur ...
272
382
396
493
281
480
448
584
16
32
51
92
3
10
13
23
31. Gardaspur
279
331
299
504
278
318
272
541
9
14
25
54
2
5
8
16
32. Sialkot
224
293
282
482
213
272
256
478
13
19
21
57
4
5
8
17
33. Uujrat
171
296
288
466
170
319
317
508
13
25
36
90
7
16
14
32
34. Jhelum
221
296
247
329
216
305
319
373
18
30
28
53
12
12
18
22
35. Rawalpindi
134
128
173
220
119
122
180
261
26
32
46
68
23
18
25
29
36. Attock*
166
...
...
189
...
4
...
3
...
...
4.— Noeth-West Dey Abka — ...
228
253
304
536
247! 279
1
347
615
3
9
8
19
3
7
4
Id
37. Montgomery ...
290
355
345
586
310 348
321
597
4
10
9
8
1
7
3
a
38. Shahpur
213
378
405
607
232 439
486
761
3
6
10
28
3
i
6
14
39. Jlianwalit
171
221
...
201
304
• ..
2
4
• 1 1
2
6
...
...
40. LyaUpurt
173
136
182
124
2
4
1
3
• .•
...
41. Jhnng
221
265
283
584
203
233
361
721
1
6
"" 6
■" 17
2
8
4
(
42. Mnltan
237
268
221
488
26 S
267
234
521
4
10
7
14
3
7
2
(
43. Bahawalpur Slate
182
202
263
441
162
219
324
421
S
15
6
17
7
11
2
1
44. Muzaffargarh •■•
289
247
390
545
344
306
480
709
1
7
15
27
4
4
7
IS
45. Dera Ghazi Khan
307
299
278
559
369
358
335
704
4
16
8
26
1
11
6
16
• Figures for 1901, 1891 and 1881 are contained in the Jhelum and Rawalpindi Districts.
t I, 1891 and 1881 are not avuilable as the districts were created after 1891.
Note. — There are 1 Lanatic and 7 Leper Asylums. The corrected proportion for districts containing leper and Innatic asylaml^
after deducting the numbers of inmates born outaide the District or State in which the asylums are situated, is as follows : —
DisTBici OB State.
Name op Asylum.
Mftles.
Females.
DisTBiOT 08 State.
Name of Asylom.
Males.
Females.
Li-pers.
1. Ambala
a. Simla
3. Kangra
4. Amritsar
5. Bialkot
Ambala
Sabathn
Dharmsala
Tarn Taran
Sialkot
16
93
104
10
12
2
48
40
3
3
Lepers.
G. Rawalpindi
7. Chamba State ...
Insane,
1. Lahore
Rawalpindi
Chamba
Lahore
17
170
37
15
121
45
X.
389
SUBSIDIARy TABLES.
[ Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE II.
Distribution of the infirm by age per 10,000 of each sex.
Insank.
Dbaf-mdtk.
Males.
Females.
Males.
Females. 1
Agb.
1
.
1-H
1—1
tH
fH
•
1— (
o
O)
QO
r-l
o
O)
QO
a>
QO
I— f
0
a
Oi
o
00
2
QO
no
a
<r.
^H
r~*
*-i
1— I
l-H
'^
1—1
T-l
f-i
1—1
1
2
3
i
5
6
i
8
9
1
3 11
12
13
14
15
16
17
0-5
7
i 184
301
266
13'!
219
375
266
323 326
64C
499
436
409
781 621
5—10
62'
7 81G
1,016
993
67t
876
965
924
1.4
63 1,305
1,431
1,268
1,433
1,475
1,514 1,419
10—15
1,05]
L 1.267
1,171
1,181
i,04e
1,214
1,318
1,3U
1,375| 1,437
1,333
1,414
1,389
1,465
1,354 1,396
15-20
l.lSf
? 1,190
1,553
1,370
l,l5t
1,311
1,441
1,276
1,1
73 1,193
1,441
1,149
1,181
1,136
1,489 1,104
20—25
l,236i 1,0671
1,200
1 2,02"
1,1 2t
957
1,0d2
1 1,788
1,<
56 994
995
1 1,646
J, 049
918
920 )
905 1 1.477
25—30
1,28
2 1,139
1,222
1,0U
1,008
1,066
1.0
38 973
957
901
910
30—35
l,25f
i 1,049
834
[ 1,612
1,151
1,043
672
} 1,448
919 890
609
1 1,286
895
914
518 ^ . .
35—40
74'
7 78"
865
735
683
920
526 569
665
545
531
67
J I 1,234
40—45
81(
) 800
458
] 1,039
976
763
343
I 1,229
626 661
321
1 944
642
605
31
l\ «"
45—50
51
389
485
53«
364
686
338 359
467
324
302
51
50—55
46 £
) 480
216
] 757
594
576
238
j 810
422 409
203
1 757
431
420
1491 ) ...,„l
55—60
19i
' 164
344
201
187
503
148 15C
436
153
156
41
> '°'\
60 and over...
606
675
335
762
658
799
421
948
593 734
502
1,037
621
759
454I 1,015
Blind.
Lepers. 1
Males.
Females.
Males.
Females.
Age.
,-c
1— I
,
T-T
.-H
.
.
,-J
^
tH
w
t-(
o
a>
00
Oi
T-l
0
m
00
00
00
03
03
00
00
03
00
18
19
' ■'
•■'
i~t
,— (
'"'
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
: 27
1
28
29
30
31
32
33
0-5
193
181
306
208
164
120
212
176
54' 65
57
33
163
149
9f
> 44
5-10
422
440
444
473
310
311
317
334
1
16, 138
72
113
245
312
19?
> 174
10—15
461
478
453
525
306
347
383
376
1
75 298
194
277
268
350
40f
1 378
15—20
418
429
595
534
312
351
478
410
3
34 3S6
549
526
594
558
75i
683
20-25
4)9
435
523
962
332
364
410
4
52 452
663
j 1,467
513
655
68f
] 1,370
25—30
470
512
613
389
432
554
1 766
6!
iO 79)
1,127
641
796
1,21.J
30—35
35-40
496
429
575
452
495
682
997
498
397
546
413
434
7G3
1 960
hi
1,1(
4 1,132
6 872
1,051
1,605
1 2,156
1,049
1,142
1,161
930
951
l,53f
\ 1,947
40—45
45—50
673
518
719
483
430
942
] 1,218
801 778
502 486
454
1,104
\ 1,30C
),5l
1,0;
6 1,628
i9 1,013
868
),39]
] 2,265
1,573
723
1,302
670
75£
1,05*
1 2,145
50—55
980
927
478
) , g,o 1.094 1,057
i ^■''*^ 466 495
463
1 1,773
1,42
0 1,281
589
j 1.719
1,189
1,086
511
1 1,656
55—60
490
504 I
,496
1,71S
5S
7 528 1,051
478
439
90]
60 and over ..
*,031
3,865 2
,543
3,434 4,429 4,300
^,710
3,905
1,61
7 1,466 783
1,444
1,422
1,592
93;
1,603
N.B.— Figurea of 1901 include Noith-W
^Bt Frontier Proi
rince.
SUBSIDIARY TA
BLE III.
Number
afflicted pe
r 100,000 persons of each a
afflicted per 1,000
ge period
males.
and number of females
Number afflicted pkb 100,000.
NUMBEK OF FEMALES AFFLICTED
AOE.
PER 1,000 MALES.
Insane.
Deaf-mute.
Blind
lepers.
£
1
m*
(D
«
to
"5
a
QQ
.2
■3
s
CD
to
a
—
"a
S
CD
&4
CD
—
"3
8
to
IS
a
a
m
a
a
a
-a'
a
p.
13
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
9
10
11
12
All Ages
a
1
20
95
7
0 249
261
17
8 532
597
857
884
0—5
2
2
24
2
1 3t,
29
1
1 1,000
805
731
1,167
5-10
...
5
l(j
104
7
2 79
58
1
1 574
585
630
80S
10—15
,7
2(.
HO
9
4 97
78
0
2 530
604
569
590
15-20
18
28
122
10
1 114
loo
7
6 541
602
639
580
20-25
„
t5
26
lis
8
2 123
97
9
5 486
593
677
436
25—30
i.i
b
23
113
7
1 134
115
13
6 419
518
709
357
30—35
...
19
28
in
7
5 156
157
18
10 487
582
861
466
35-40
13
29
93
7
4 199
20)
35
18 524
620
792
397
40—45
...
12
30
99
6
9 279
321
43
19 643
613
1,020
394
45—50
i2
31
85
6
5 342
377
46
16 552
571
831
267
50—55
...
s
1
86
85
6
5 5)3
623
50
iO 674
609
957
322
55—60
...
:
3
27
77
7
0 669
800
49
^5 557
620
816
34v
60 and over
"-
I
23
94
7
6 1,669
2,036
45
JO 578
626
942
33t.
Census Report,]
390
SUBSIDIABT TABLES.
Chapteb
SUBSIDIAEY
Nnmber afllicted per 100,000 persons of each Caste
S'UMBIE AFFLICTED
FEB 100,000.
Number of females afflicted |
PEE J.,UUU MALHS.
Castb.
Insone.
Beaf-mute.
Blind.
Lepers.
0
a
a
'O
00
»4
S
ai
"3
m
■3
s
CO
m
1
a
o
"a
4
S
5
0
"a
S
a
CD
"a
s
1
c3
a
,—1
i
a
a
1
2
3
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Abdal
1,282
...
427
...
Aheri
'" 10
"" 11
,,,
57
154
114
liooo
♦5,000
625
Ahlr
11
4
55
29
222
319
"11
308
422
1,140
Arifn
30
21
77
60
194
217
7
" 4
581
633
902
"■410
Arora
47
26
73
46
257
253
3
2
465
538
845
455
Awin
37
21
131
98
238
175
7
6
488
657
643
750
Baddun
114
133
114
133
...
1,000
1,000
Bigri
...
• •>
133
...
...
...
...
Bahnipia ...
• ■■
...
"449
449
'225
...
Bihti
257
'" 53
1,542
' 906
1,884
'2,557
171
107
■ "l67
"472
'i',091
600
Bair4gi
9
6
67
39
240
311
13
500
400
889
Bangali
...
158
200
• ••
1,000
Bania
26
'■' 14
'" 71
51
266
271
" 9
' 2
456
■"599
847
211,
Banjara
21
26
125
130
101
391
42
1,000
833
3,000
...
Barar
30
152
...
212
603
121
"71
...
...
2,429
500 1
Banvila ...
32
42
135
80
290
295
9
1,091
489
842
...
Batwil
17
20
159
209
117
220
17
"'10
1,000
1,105
1,571
" 500
Biwaria ...
17
97
46
389
228
6
7
412
516
1,000
B&zigar
20
■■■ 24
61
24
219
96
5
...
'i]ooo
333
372
...
Beldar
...
...
58*1 171
778
342
...
333
500
...
Bhabri ...
30
19
46 19
304
38
15
500
833
100
...
Bhand
• ••
230
'250
• ••
250
...
...
. ••
♦1,000
...
...
...
Bhanjra •.•
176
1,004
353
717
"882
"l43
...
*1,000
"288
1,000
...
Bharain
■■■ 12
4
112
57
242
259
• ••
250
417
872
...
Bharbhunja
30
36
37
60
150
239
262
...
1,000
2,000
875
...
Bhat
17
112
132
152
212
122
46
429
1,045
1,233
333
Bhatia
25
20
25
10
160
lis
667
333
632
...
Bhatiara
...
70
73
26
170
315
•3,000
333
1,714
...
Bhatra
...
...
423
...
...
...
...
Bhojki
...
...
""123
...
"l23
...
...
...
...
Biloch
45
31
95
63
253
312
5
2
585
555
1,033
429
Bishnoi
11
4«
34
219
247
19
...
* 1,000
600
957
■••
Bohra
...
ini
57
151
57
...
500
333
...
Brahman ...
" 29
12
100
72
262
278
28
"11
327
585
858
325
Cham&r
19
15
107
90
298
390
13
£
664
711
1,107
346
Chanal
217
133
140
83
124
33
...
571
656
250
ChaDg
• •.
1,599
1,095
760
1,173
105
38
...
459
1,034
250
Changar
23
5
54
65
231
196
5
C
200
1,000
706
1,000
Chhimba
22
14
66
48
258
218
IC
2
500
596
681
143
Chirimir ...
...
...
442
324
1,104
1,294
...
500
8O0
...
Chishti
89
89
53
177
158
500
750
...
Chuhra
18
" 13
41
24
406
464
"' i
■" 1
'"564
476
926
227
Churigar ...
*••
• ••
120
...
...
1,000
...
Dabgar
275
'"649
.
• ••
...
...
Dagi and Koli
" 13
'" 2S
273
""283
146
'«18
"202
80
1,750
"968
1,402
872
Daoli
112
225
...
...
Darzi
"" 37
■■■ 12
208
""117
229
'"229
'iG
"286
""513
907
...
Diadpotra
34
21
51
53
77
158
8
...
500
833
1,667
...
Dhanak
9
10
61
38
323
315
16
a
1,000
556
860
143
Dhobi
34
17
168
108
327
331
4
i
414
S42
858
667
Dhogri
513
364
150
51
104
..
700
♦3,000
2,000
Dhund
8
135
8b
"' 68
6P
15
1:
♦1,000
556
889
1,000
Dhasar
■"l66
...
• ••
...
...
...
...
...
Dogar
21
2C
87
'" 36
" 216
"204
11
...
'1,000
' '333
75G
Doaali
...
...
424
45c
847
450
...
1,000
500
...
Damna
5
i
190
142
6S
! 11:
31
1!
1,500
650
1,414
538
Faqir
27
3:
85
6£
521
334
21
909
571
451
229
Gadaria
16
45
Sd
31
16S
441
...
2 000
429
2 000
...
Gaddi
2!
! 14
17S
9£
8S
T7
13^
1 "'3:
667
542
917
278
Gidi
4;
' ...
26£
1 '-'
268
164
...
'"
...
167
500
• ••
* No entriea for males.
X.
391
SUBSIDIAET TABLES.
[Punjab, 1911.
TABLE IV.
and number of females afflicted per 1,000 males.
NUUBBE AFFLICTED PEE IOC
NCMB
EB OP FRMAIBS APPLICTKD
).ooo.
PEE 1,000 MALES.
Insane.
Deaf-mute.
Blind.
Lepers.
"7
Caste.
0
m
m
CD
m
0)
<D
<D
g
—
DO
CD
"eo
a
^
m
"eS
CD
o3
2
'O*
U
2
"3
a
4
a
En
a
s
to
"5
a
a
9
i
10
h4
1
3
5
6
7
8
11
12
13
Gagra
357
203
833
339
595
339
60
68
500
357
500
1,000
Gandhila ...
280
...
,
280
*..
♦1,000
»1,000
GhAi
431
181
...
632
"2I6
'"333
*7,000
Girath
" a7
12
335
255
97
104
104
"32
'"417
707
1,000
'"283
Ghosi
...
61
...
123
...
...
...
...
Gosiin
...
21
72
63
418
315
*1,000
600
517
Gujar
14
8
75
51
177
157
'"12
'" 4
468
547
710
"'268
Gurkha ...
*.•
•••
• ••
...
54
36
...
H41i
46
19
297
' 418
65
■" 97
186
"272
"400
'i|344
l'.429
'i",400
Harni
...
56
...
111
126
...
...
...
1,000
Heai
446
334
112
111
223
222
750
1,000
1,000
Hijra
• •■
...
...
725
...
»1,000
,,,
Jaiawira ...
15
...
" 15
22
"ll9
' 89
1,000
500
Janjua
...
...
• •*
• ••
245
65
...
200
Jat
24
18
66
46
237
241
'" 7
4
"567
"■528
780
"421
Jhabel
61
32
51
48
38
145
500
750
3,000
Jhinwar •••
23
25
81
60
258
317
'"16
'" 4
911
596
998
"'188
Jogi
4t>
16
170
95
408
432
29
12
286
442
840
333
Julaha
32
27
126
92
272
265
11
6
716
608
818
432
Kachhi
...
...
816
649
408
...
...
500
Kahnfc
54
20
126
39
72
157
18
20
333
286
2,000
1,000
Kakkezai ...
47
59
50
94
314
800
3,125
Kal41
84
7
213
83
185
194
"■ 6
...
'" 67
316
848
...
Kamangar...
211
...
...
211
120
500
Kamboh ...
21
13
' 91
"" 50
240
220
'" 6
'" a
'"500
"453
746
"'333
Kanchan ...
...
28
28
*1,000
»1,000
Kanera
.••
>■•
..*
...
"'l27
80
...
• •■
■ ••
500
Kanet
21
16
197
""l67
143
172
151
75
■■■721
804
1,142
■"473
Kanjar
243
318
324
159
891
1,033
79
1,333
500
1,182
•1,000
Kaehmiri ...
24
12
102
89
228
256
'"11
7
435
745
963
545
Kathia
...
2,381
*1,000
Kiyasth ...
" 67
"" 68
"'" 53
"" 17
"*187
119
"'800
'"250
500
Khilsa ...
10
..•
• ••
33
181
147
...
...
*2,000
474
Kbanzada ...
250
120
250
421
400
1,400
Kharral ...
'" 53
" 31
80
81
129
150
5
"■ 6
'"500
867
1,000
1,000
Khatik
54
39
70
244
571
2,778
Khatri
41
" 19
61
56
228
202
"" 8
" 3
"371
745
719
"'250
Khattar ...
13
14
18]
28
181
127
1,000
143
643
Khoja
39
27
168
58
411
389
'" 9
"' 3
615
304
839
"'333
Khokhar ...
15
26
107
73
181
253
3
7
1,400
571
1,169
2,000
Kori
9
15
26
31
69
46
1,000
667
375
Kumhar ...
23
20
121
80
297
306
"11
'" 7
739
555
861
"563
Kanjra
41
41
325
98
...
...
250
Labiaa
48
23
144
" 64
204
249
'" 4
""400
378
1,031
•i',000
Lil4ri
12
41
165
89
241
2on
'"29
21
3,000
464
707
600
Lodhi
58
...
58
24
116
165
333
1,167
Lohir
24
16
125
105
254
2U
'25
" 15
'"571
705
738
"'500
Michhi ...
35
20
85
76
244
336
10
4
463
752
1,145
333
MahAjan ...
47
46
127
91
167
160
33
S
857
632
840
200
Mahtam ...
25
5
87
37
179
133
5
182
368
654
•2,000
Mali
33
S
49
32
197
257
14
2
211
536
1,053
125
Miiliir
31
28
73
85
109
206
2
800
1,029
1,673
1,000
MalUh
36
36
120
61
235
310
"J7
6
867
440
1,143
286
Mani4x'
152
608
no
658
271
101
...
125
346
Marija
106
9S
106
741
...
...
•i',000
1,000
*7,000
Mazljabi ...
25
8
11
148
116
1,000
611
Megh
9
.
108
137
270
192
5
"" 5
...
1,042
583
'1,000
Mpo
25
10
33
54
293
488
12
353
1,435
3,463
...
Mirasi
35
24
147
89
419
366
27
"12
581
522
753
394
1 Mochi
35
27
114
67
283
284
7
4
030
492
838
438
* No entries for males.
Census Report,]
392
BDBSIDIABT TABLES.
Chapter
SUBSIDIARY TARLTl
IV
t
1
1
Number afBlicted per 100,000 persons of each Caste and number of females 1
afflicted per 1,000 msdes— concluded.
Number afflicted per 100,000.
NUMlitB OF FEMALES AFFLICTED 1
PEE 1,000 MALES.
insane.
Deaf-mute.
Blind.
Lep
ers.
Caste.
m
oi
CO
m
<u
0)
.
«
.
0
o*
a
OB
J
■5
s
m
13
E
fa
"3
g
OD
"3
B
a
s
1— 1
•3
a
1
ffl
J"
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
u
12
13
MoghftI
24
27
96
80
142
213
7
7
923
706
1,263
750
Mussalli
34
29
104
68
279
309
>7
3
719
566
957
455
Nai ... ,,,
28
21
101
63
302
324
16
3
611
513
884
250
N«ik
27
...
378
67
27
...
• ••
143
...
Nar
'6",122
...
...
...
...
...
...
Nat
61
252
245
315
981
*1,000
1,000
3,200
...
Niaria
...
• ••
354
...
177
2G3
"'88
• ••
...
1,500
• ■*
NuDgar
44
37
65
93
65
*<>
"22
•2,000
'iisoo
600
♦1,000
Od
'" 47
47
33
483
159
17
t
...
625
289
333
Pachihda ...
...
6
12
...
48
45
...
...
♦1,000
875
Pakhivrira...
43
55
1,000
Paracha
"" 49
'"l48
'" 55
148
166
...
"333
1,000
■ •t
Pathan
41
"" IB
65
50
198
225
"'10
1
' '275
578
860
629
Patwa
...
• ••
295
437
295
• ••
...
1,000
...
PcDJa
56
...
56
34
70
"103
...
• ••
500
1,200
Pema
287
...
191
•3,000
•2,000
• ■•
(Pujari
• ••
■"192
'"203
192
384
"203
"576
•i.ooo
1,000
•2,000
3,000
Parbia
>•*
'" 68
174
...
1,500
iQalandar ...
■ ••
...
300
• ••
• •«
• ..
Qassib
41
" 25
S6
'" 63
253
334
" 8
2
"'538
"'667
'l,195
200
Qnreehi
32
27
99
6C
230
176
19
3
750
595
686
143
Kahb4ri ...
...
• ••
• ••
414
398
52
■ •*
875
Raj
108
S3
95
277
27
.,
'"750
2,857
RSjput
"■ 28
"" 21
100
73
226
207
22
8
614
594
751
' "289
Batbi
18
21
233
129
113
141
170
47
1,111
604
1,138
253
Rawat
35
15
162
103
231
103
12
15
333
500
350
1,000
Rehar
...
• ••
136
427
427
408
...
3,000
♦3,000
• •*
Ror
...
f
6
4
320
...
•i,uoo
•1,000
58,000
...
Saini
6
1+
82
93
178
206
"14
1,750
885
911
• •.
Ssiqalgar ...
...
123
...
...
...
...
Sanetrisb ...
943
■^1,000
SauBi
'" 74
74
"26O
14C
'"854
"'577
7
t-
'""818
425
""551
"i'ooo
Sarera
35
536
302
190
342
69
20
...
484
1,545
250
Satti
61
"■ 21
246
115
82
146
143
52
333
458
1,750
357
Sayad ...
81
17
105
75
233
306
IJ
3
488
626
1.146
286
Sepi
732
55P
814
670
105
112
714
2,000
1,000
Sheikh
42
"" 30
91
63
228
2S5
10
5
"582
556
904
368
Shoragar ...
377
>•>
...
...
...
Birkiband ...
'" 55
110
• ■•
...
• •■
...
...
Sud
" 62
'" 22
194
■"248
158
75
"' 9
2S6
1,045
389
Sunar
32
16
111
40
230
234
4
4
444
305
863
1,000
TarkhAn ...
23
15
90
70
268
260
16
5
518
632
789
2H8
Teli
22
26
94
67
253
265
8
3
972
592
861
308
Thftkkar ...
2S
...
790
082
370
611!
99
625
1,000
Thathiir ...
...
...
180
...
90
270
...
...
...
...
2,500
Thori
22
26
124
119
191
291
13
1,000
818
1,294
•l,Wi)
Turk
...
• ••
>••
599
599
•1,000
♦1,000
U)eni4
36
'" 20
""1S8
61
215
153
18
"500
"286
625
Unspecified
86,342
13,205
1,531
451
6,044
4,966
...
259
211
587
CHRISTIANS.
Enropean ...
8
12
Anglo-Indian
...
...
CIO
...
Indian
" 24
'" 25
'" 36
16
165
"175
"46
"55
"'sis
364
'"'853
"952
* No euirie* for males.
CHAPTER XI.
Caste.
GENERAL.
528. Imperial Table XIII contains the statistics of strength of each caste Reference
by religion and sex, iind the figures of such castes as contribute 2 per mille or to statistics
more to the population of the Province are compared with tbose of the three pre-
vious Censuses in Subsidiary Table II appended to this Chapter. A classification
of castes according to their traditional occupation is given in Subsidiary Table I,
and the arrangement of castes according to the classes fixed in 1901* will be
found in Subsidiary Table IV to Chapter VI. Sub-castes of fifteen selected castes
have been embodied in the Appendix to Table XIII printed in Volume III.
Instances of sub-castes of the different types dealt with in paragrai)hs 572 — 580
are given in Subsidiary Table III. Subsidiary Tables IV and V contain statistics
relating to the pigmentation of tongues discussed in paragraph 592, and Subai- '
diary Table VI shows the traceable caste-names of the Smritis.
529. Provision was made in the Enumeration forms and Instructions to Accuracy
Enumerators, for the entry of the caste as well as of the sub-caste. The names of of the re-
castes are fairly well known, but most people cannot distinguish between a caste turns,
and a sub-caste, and the number of the latter being enormous, their accurate regis-
tration was by no means aa easy task. As regards the caste, wrong entries could
be due to two causes, viz., {\) ignorance or (2) deliberate mis-statement. With
a view to minimise the former source of error, a caste index was prepared with
reference to the records of the previous Censuses and circulated, beforehand, to
the Supervising staff. The entries in the Preliminary Record were checked by the
superior officers, as far as possible, and mistakes corrected. Nevertheless numerous
entries other than the real caste-names were found in column 8 of the Schedules.
Where these were found to be names of sub-castes, they were transferred in the
course of tabulation to the proper caste, with reference to (1) the caste indexes of
this and the other Provinces, (2) the list of castes prepared in 1891 and (3) a
similar list prepared at the present Census. Where, however, the entries were not
known to be sub-castes, the necessary corrections were made after enquiry from
the local authorities. A complete list of the actual entries found in column 8 of the
Schedules is printed as Appendix D to the Administration Volume— Part IV of
this Report, but an idea of the extent of such errors can be formed fi om the fact that
126 different kinds of entries were found to be really sub-castes of Jats alone, and
that terms like banduhchi, sansoi and bdsha were found to be the equivalents of
chirimdr, ddoli and hhand, respectively. The latter source of error wjis two-fold,
viz. (1) where the mejibers of a comparatively low caste were anxious to assume
the title of a higher one and (2) where the low nature of the caste was disguised
under the name of some religious sect or new class-name.
Some of the castes of the former type agitated for a ruling in their favour,
as the instructions of the Enumerators were to record the caste to which a person
was known to belong, and not that which he aspired to. The Jadubansi and
Nandbansi Ahirs pressed their Rajput origin and desired to be shown separately
from the Gaw:ilbansi Ahirs. Since, however, the difference of sub-castes were to
be shown in the Enumeration books, no action was considered necessary. The
President of the Balmik Samaj of Jullundur represented that Chuhras should be
returned not as Chuhras, but as Mehtars, for the latter was the real name of the
caste which was not so degraded as the term Chuhra signified. The claim was,
however, considered preposterous, as the general name of the caste is Chuhra,
Mehtar being only an appellation used ironically to indicate their low profession.
Jangiras so far treated as I'arklidn (carpenter) or Lohar (blacksmith) claimed
to be classed as Brahraans and appear to have succeeded in returning themselves
as such, although their application was not entertained. The Kakkezais were
very indignant at having been called a counterpart of Hindu Kalals by the
former Census Superintendents and laid claim to a Pathan origin. They were
* India Ccdsub Keport, 1901, pages 560 and 581.
39-1
Census Report,] genebal. Chapter
told that Kakkezais would be registered separately from Kalals. The Karabohs
wanted to be classed separately from the Arains. This had already been
done at the previous Censuses. The Kalala claimed to be Rajputs. No action
was taken, but the Ahluwahas, known so far as a branch of Kalals, have in
some places actually returned themselves as Rajputs. Eanets also claimed to
be Rajputs and quoted references about their having been considered as pure
Rajputs, degraded Rajputs or Rajputs of mixed blood. They were told that
they would certainly be registered as a separate caste, and that they could,
as such, claim whatever status they hked. The Langah sub-caste of Mirasis
claimed to belong to the dynasty of some old ruhng chiefs and consequently
objected to their being entered as Mirasis. No action was necessary, as
functional castes are full of accretions from all grades of society. Ttie Mair
and Tank Sunars and the Mehras (.Jhinwars), througli their respective associ-
ations, made strong representations, wishing to be reckoned as Rajputs, and
so did the Mahtous of Hoshiarpur and Jallundur. The Nais applied to be regis-
tered as Khatris. In all these cases, it was decided that the name now in vogue
must be returned as caste, but that the persona enumerated were at liberty to men-
tion the caste to which they claimed to belong, as their sub-caste. The Rawals of
JuUundur and Hoshiarpur protested against the remarks contained in the former
Census Reports. No action was needed on their application so far as tlie registra-
tion was concerned. The Vaishya Maha Sabha requested that all Banias should
be put down as Vaishyas. This of course could not be done, as my attempt
was to ascertain the castes included in the Bania group, i. e., Aggarwal,
Oswal, etc. Wherever a tendency of this sort came to notice, the attention of
the local staff was drawn to it, with a view to prevent wrong entries creeping in ;
but there must have been several cases in which people unobtrusively gave their
assumed caste in place of the real one.
To the second category belong such class-names as Arya, Vedic and
Khalsa. No check could be exercised in respect of these, as the persons
enumerated simply refused to give their castes, and it was decided that in
such cases, the class names should be entered instead. No attempt was made
at this Census to assume the Varna name of Vaishya by the artizRn classes ;
the reason probably being, that in the race for status, the dignity of the
Vaishya does not appear to be attractive enough, and the ai'tizan castes would
much rather aspire to the disunity of Rajputs, who are also recognized as an
agricultural tribe. The only application of the kind was one made by the
Kalala of Calcutta requesting that the members of that caste should be returned
either as Vaishyas or Kshattriyas. No action could of course be taken on the
request. The educated section of the artizan group of Tarkhan, Lohar, Raj and
Thathiar now take exception to being classed as menials, which is an appellation
based on their petty professional service to the landloj'ds in village, but which
they hardly disowe. Their attempt however is to establish a status similar to
that of Rajputs and Brahmans.
The ambition to rise in ths social scale is by no means a novel feature.
Even at the time of Manu provision was made for the elevation of status*, and
prosperity has always helped to raise the dignity of a caste or tribe. The
Andhras, spoken of as a very low caste by Manu, rose to be Rajputs and we now
find the name as a sub-caste of the Jats. The attempt of persons, or groups of
persons, who have fallen from a higher status, to revive to their former position,
is therefore not without precedent. Nor is the tendency confined to the Hindus.
Aivioali7i Nadddf budam b'ad azdn gashtem Sheikh, ghalld gar arzdn shavad
imndl Saiyad me shawam (I was originally a cotton scutcher and then became a
Sheikh. If the prices fall this year, I hope to become a Sayad), quoted by the
late Sir Denzil Ibbetson, is a common saying which has its counterparts in
Urdu t and other vernaculars. Instances exist of the descendants of a
Jat who had acqui)'ed a reputation for holiness and was called a Mian, ordinarily
known as Miami, assuming the title of Sheikh, and with the lapse of time
acquiring the status of Qureshis and then of Sayads with a pedigree
* Mann X, 65.
t Paihle thdmain n(mJuldhi, phirhana main Sheikh, mdh Mohamim dn,ede, ab Said baninga dekh (I was
£rat a half weaver, then I became a Sheikh. Let the mouth of Mobarram come, see I vrill now became a Sayad.)
i
XI.
395
CLASSIFICATION OF CASTES.
[ Punjab, 1911.
leading straight up to the Prophet. The Puniab Ahenation of La;id Act has
given a great stimulus to the desire of being recognized as an agriculturist and the
tendency now is to rise to the status of one or the other of the castes notified
as agricultural tribes.
CLASSIFICATION OF CASTES.
530. A classification of the castes of this Province was made, according By statas.
to social status, on pages 560 and 561 of the last India Census Report. The 54
selected castes contributing 2 per mille or more to the total population, for which
separate statistics have now been given in Imperial Tables IX, XIV and XVI
have been grouped on the same lines in Subisidiiny Table IV to Chapter VI, in
connection with the proportion of sexes. But it is by no means certain that the
classification was correct with regard to actual facts, so far at least as this
Province is concerned.
531. In view, however, of the, ill-feeling between the various castes, which By tradi-
the discussion of their relative tional occn-
Actual figures (OOO's omitted).
Agriculture.
Land-holders
Cultivators
Cultivators and cattle rearers ...
Total
FasUire.
Graziers and dairy men
Fishing and Bunting.
Fishermen, boatmen, paUd bearers and water-carriers
Hunters and fowlers ...
Total
Extraction of minerals.
Earth, salt, etc. workers
Industry.
Barbers
Washermen
Weavers and dyers ..
Tailors
Carpenters
Masons
Potters ... ...
■Glass and lac workers
Blacksmiths
Gold and silversmiths
Xrass and coppersmiths
Confectioners and grain parchers
Oil pressers
Distillers
Butchers
Leather workers
Basket workers and mat makers
21
10,666
920
11,607
57
753
135
888
47
350
156
1.01-1
36
648
15
550
2
329
158
i
14
296
34
120
1,587
126
Total
... 5,439
Scavengers.
Sweepers
... 1,494
Trade.
Traders and peddlers
... 2,035
Transport.
Carriers by pack animals
29
Profession.
Priests and devotees
... 1,395
Temple servants ...
... 5
Genealogists
37
Bards and astrologers
29
Writers
13
Musicians, singers, dancers, mimes and jugglers
340
Total
.. 1,819
Labourer.
Labourers
29
Domestic service.
Domestic servants ...
39
Village watchmen and menials
86
Total
Others
125
619
status created last time it waspation.
decided not to re-open the
question, but to classify castes,
as in J 891, according to their
traditional occupations. Even
here one treads on uncertain
ground, as the occupation of
castes has been changingin vary-
ing degrees, and in many cases,
only one of several professions
which have been followed by
the members of a caste, for a
considerable time, has had to
be taken as the traditional
occupation. This classification
has been made in Subsidiary
Table I appended to this
chapter. The total figures for
all castes falling in each group
are given in the margin.
The Province being mainly Land-holdera.
agricultural, the castes, except-
ing menials, who are connected
with land, muster 480 per mille,
i.e., close on half the population.
The bulk of them are culti-
vators, i.e., they own as well as
cultivate land.
Tiiere are very few castes
or tribes which own land, but do
not cultivate it. The Daudpotras
of Bahawalpur and the Qazil-
bnshes alone have been classed
under this head. Daudpotra was
originally a limited tribe consist-
ing of the ruling family of Baha-
walpur and their relations, but
the group, now consisting of
21,229 persons having grown
too large to depend upon the Ruling Chief, most of them have taken to agriculture
and other professions, but the name having originally been applied to only the
Chief's family, landowning has been taken as their traditional occupation. The
Qazilbashes are a limited body of immigrants, who have so far depended largely
on political pensions or grants of land ; but the multiplication of their numbers
and the curtailment of their resources are gradually forcing the poorer members
to take to the plough.
Census Report. ]
396
CLASSIFICATION OF CASTES.
Chapter
CnltiTators.
Cultivators
and cattle
rearers.
Graziers and
dairy men.
Fishermen ,
boatmen, &o.
Honters and
fowlers.
Extraction of
minerals.
The castes falling under the category of cultivators are : — Jat, Rajput,
Arain, Biloch, Awan, Kanet, Pathan, Kamboh, Ghirath, Meo, Saini, Mali, Moghal,
Rathi, Maliar, Qureshi, Khokhar, and Labana named in the Subsidiary Table,
and the minor castes of Ror, Kharral, Gakkhar, Dhund, Bishnoi, Satti, Rawat,
Khattar, Taga, Kabut, Loda, Thakkar, Mahton, Naik, Chang, Bahti, Khanzada,
Janjua, Bodla, Lilla, Miana, Magh, Kachchi, Gara, Jhoja, Phiphra, Sahnsar,
Tanaoli, and Kathia, clubbed together under Others. It must not be inferred
that every one of the members of these castes and tribes lives upon land, or that
none of them follows any other occupation. Heveral Rajputs depend exclusively on
military service, while others, like the Ruling Chiefs, have nothing to do with culti-
vation. The grouping only implies that cultivation of land is the traditional
occupation of each of the above mentioned castes and that the majority of the
members of each still pursue it. The main divisions of this group are : — 1. Cul-
tivating proprietors {Malik Khudkdshd) and cultivators pure and simple (see
Chapter XII).
Allied to cultivators are the castes and tribes who, although pastoral by
origin, have, for generations, also cultivated land. These are Dogar, Gujar,^
Pachadha and Ahir, and cattle rearing forms an important part of their means of
livelihood, even now.
Castes dependent mainly on grazing of cattle and supplying milk and
other products thereof to the market are Gadaria, Gaddi, Gadi and Ghosi. The
strength of each does not, however, exceed 2 per miUe of the total population.
Fishing as a profession was the monopoly of the Jhiuwars, Machhis,
Jhabels, Kehals, Mens and Mallahs. But for some years the tendency of other
castes, who are destitute of all knowledge of the " craft ", to catch fish for
themselves has been mai'ked ; and as these amateurs are incapable of securing
a catch by legitimate methods, it has had a most deleterious effect on the stocking
of our water?. For a brief description of each caste and tribe the glossary at the
end of this Chapter should be referred to. The Kehals, also called Mors, live
mainly by fishing and are found chiefly on the Indus and on the combined
Punjab rivers in Multan ?Cad Muzaffargarh. The Mens are fishermen by tradition
but have taken to various other occupations as well. They are to be met with
along the Sutlej. Jhabels (Chhabels) work largely as boatmen and have also
taken to cultivation. The Mallahs, including the Mohana of the west and the
Darein of the Kangra hills, combine fishing with ferrying. The Jhinwar
(Dhinwar) and Machhi, also known as Mahigir, are functional castes connected
with fishing, but are now employed largely in carrying and supplying water, and
have taken to cooking and various other pursuits, mainly domestic. They
were also the Pdlki (palanquin) bearers of the Province, — a profession
which is dying out. Jhinwars, who are mostly Hindus, have certain groups
such as Kahars and Mehras who are not fishermen at all. Among the
Machhfs, the Machbera section alone lives by fishing. All the other castes of
fishermen are mainly Muhammadan, except the Tarns* and Dareins* of the
Kangra hills and the Kewats * of the eastern Punjab aggregating 6,630 persons^
The total strength of fisbennen and other castes connected with water is
about 753,000, and they represent 31 per mille of the total population, although
the number of persons dependent solely on fishing is not more than 10,162.
The bunting castes are Mahtara, Bawaria, Aheri, Chirimar and Gedri..
Mahtams have taken largely to rope-making and a few of them have returned
themselves as Rambatt (rope-twister). Only 384 Mahtams, out of a total strength
of about 82,000, subsist by hunting alone and 293 have returned hunting as their
subsidiary occupation. The Bawarias, a criminal tribe, also live a gi-eat deal on
huntintr and engage in whatever kind of labour may be in demand. The other
hunting castes are unimportant. On the whole these castes have a total strength
of 135,000 and represent 6 per mille of the population against 2,137 persons who
are hunters bv profession. i » • j
The castes connected with the extraction of minerals are :— the Agari and
Nuno-ar who manufacture salt, and the 8horagar who extract saltpetre. Beldars
and *bds are traditional workers in earth. The total of the castes is 47,000 or
2 per mille of the population.
Included in Mallab.
397
XI. CLASSIFICATION OF OASTBs. [ Punjab, 1911.
The Nais (barbers) are a caste by themselves. Particulars of the caste are Barbers.
given in the glossary printed at the end of this Cbapter. Barbers not only do the
shaving, but also act as local surgeons, bleed people, treat boils and ulcers, assist at
marriages and other festive occasions, and serve as personal attendants. This is
in accordance with their traditions, but they have now adopted various other
occupations. They number no less than 14 per mille of the total inhabitants of
the Province.
The traditional washermen, numbering 6 per mille of the population, are -washermen.
Dhobis including Charhoas of the west, but only about 35,000 out of 61,000
actual workers still depend principally on that profession.
The bnlk of the weavers are Julahas (635,044) who are mostly Mohamma- weavers and
dan, about 67,000 of them being Hindu or Sikh. In the Firozepur Jhirka carders.
Tahsil of the Gurgaon District, some Chamars, who have for two or three genera-
tions adopted weaving, are reported to have been admitted to the Julaha caste.
The traditional occupation of the Meghs was probably scavenging in the beginnino',
but the majority of them are found in the Sialkot District, where they have
for a long time lived mainly on weaving. They nevertheless remain distinct from
the Julahas, although their traditional occupation has been recognized to be weav-
ing. Another caste included under weavers are the Kashmiris. The majority of the
Kashmiri Muhammadans, who have immigrated at different times from Kashmir,
are the Shdlbdfs (shawl weavers) of that State ; and, although the number of
respectable Kashmiri traders is not insignificant and Kashmiri peasants come
down in large numbers every year to work in the plains, in winter, as wood cutters
and weight carriers, yet the term Kashmiri has, in the Punjab, come to be
associated with the profession of weaving. Kashmiri weavers are most
numerous in the Lahore and Rawalpindi* Divisions and in the Ludhiana District.
The Lilari is the traditional dyer and the Chhimba who is really a calico- pygrg.
printer is also concerned mainly with dyeing, although he also works as a washer-
man.
Darzi (tailor) is a functional caste which, owing to the comparative respect- Tailors.
ability of the profession, is receiving large accretions, although the tendency of
even those persons who have been assimilated with the caste is to connect them-
selves with some high caste.
The carpenters. are an important caste representing 27 per mille of the carpenters,
population. They belong to the Muhamtnadan, Sikh aud Hindu religions, in the
proportion of 30, 18 and 17, and comprise Tarkhans (including Khati, Badhi,
Barhai, Kharadia and Ramgarhia) and the small caste of Kamangars. The Tar-
khans are allied to Lohar aud Raj and in many places no distinction is made be-
tween the Lohar and Tar khan or Tarkhan and Raj. The division between these
three castes is therefore not very reliable.
The blacksmiths representing 14 per mille of the population are mainly Biaci smiths.
Lobars, but the castes of Dhogri and Saiqalgar are also included under that group.
Only 15,000 persons have rekirned themselves as Raj or Sangtr^sh as jjagong.
distinguished from Lohar and Tarkhan.
The Kumhars form an essential adjunct of the agricultural population in pouers.
the well-irrigated tracts and are important as supplying the earthen vessels on
which the people have so largely depended in the past. They take up 23 per
mille of the population. Hadi, a small caste, counting only 431 persons, has
the same traditional occupation.
The Churigars are a small caste, with a strength of 1,756 persons, working Glass and Lao
in glass and lac. . workers.
The ca.'ite of Sunar practically monopolises the work of gold and silver- q^-^^ 3„,,
smiths. A brief account of the caste is given in the glossary. Silversmiths.
By tradition, Thathiars are the only caste supposed to manufacture brass g^^^g .^^^j
and copper vessels. They are a small group numbering only 4,074. Coppersmiths.
The only caste of confectioners is the Bhatiara, mainly Muhammadan,
while the Bharbhilnjas, chiefly Hindus, are the principal grain parchers. But l^l^^:2T^'^
selling cooked food or parching grain is not the monopoly of these two castes, parchers.
Jhinwars and ilachhis also consider both the occupations to be in accordance with
their tradition.
* Except the ilianwali District.
Census Report, ]
398
CLASSIFICATION OF CASTES.
Chapter
Oil-pressers.
Distillers.
Botchers.
Leather
workers.
Chamdrs and
Mochis,
Chandla.
Khatik s and
Pdsit.
liab gurs.
Basket ma-
ktrs and mat
makers.
Changars.
Scavengers.
Chuhrds
JtusalUs.
VhdiMlis and
Ddgi-KoUs.
Trader* and
peddlers.
Tedders.
Peddlers.
Carriers by
pack animals
Banjdrdl.
Rahbarii,
Thoris.
Priests and
Devotees.
Bards.
Astrologers.
Telis are the traditional oil-pressers. Manufacturing country soap is con-
sidered to fall under their hereditary occupation and so the term Sabansaz has
been treated as a synonym of Teli.
The two castes, Kalal and Kami, have been included under the head of
distillert", although very few of tliem actually engage now in distilling spirits.
Their total strength is only 33,492.
The Qassab, a Muhammadan caste, is the only one with the traditional
occupation of butcher. Among the Hindus and Siklas, the profession of Jhatkai
(butcher) belongs to the Jhinwars. In the western Punjab, the Qassab is also
the cotton scutcher.
The castes connected traditionally with work in leather are Chamar,
Mochi, Khatik, Dabgar, Pasi and Chanal, who, on the whole, number 66 per
mille of the population.
The Chamiirs and Mochis who flay dead animals and also make shoes
aggregate 1,129,000 and 419,000, respectively.
Chanals are professional skinners in the Simla Hills.
Khatiks (also called Chatnrang) and Pasis are the village tanners, although
the Pasis Inrgely keep tame pigs.
Dabgars are aa allied caste, mainly Muhammadan, whose tradition is
confined to the peculiar work of making kuppas (jars) of beaten raw camel hide.
Barar, Bhanjra and Diimna are the mat makers of the hills. They also
make baskets and pattals (plates of leavea) and work as agricultui-al and other
labourers.
The Changars are a distinct caste, mostly Muhammadan, who are mainly
basket makers, but also engage as labourers.
The scavenging castes are Chuhra, Musalli, (and Kutana of the western
Punjab), Dhauak, Uagi and Koli. They are an important factor of the population
representing 62 per mille thereof.
The Chubras number close on a million and have been put down mostly
as Hindus. There are only 84,000 Muliammadans.
The Musallis who have a strength of 310,000 are Chuhra converts
to Islam and are found mainly in the central and western Punjab.
The Dhanaks are scavengers in the eastern Punjab and the Dagi-Kolis,
in the hills.
The traditional trading castes embrace over two million persons, i.e., 84
per mille of the population.
The castes of the tiaders are Khatri, Arora, Bania, (Aggarwal, Oswal,
Mahesri, Saraliti, etc.). Sheikh, Khoja, Sdd, Mahajan, Kakkezai, Bhabra,
Paracha and Bhatia. The Kakkezais, who were formerly treated as the counter-
part of Kalals, have now been thrown under traders, as they are not known to
have pursued distilling as a traditional occupation.
The peddlers are theKhakkhas, Khomras, Kunjras, Tambolis, and Maniars.
The Banjiiras, Rahbaris and Thoris have been classed as carriers by pack
animals. The Baujaras have a triple traditional occupation of ear piercers,
peddlers and carriers of merchandise on pack animals, the last being their most
important function.
The Rahbaris are the camel-men in the eastern Punjab. The camel drivers
of the western Punjab are called Jats and are generally Biloch by caste.
The Thoris carry mercliandise in the hills, mostly on bullocks.
The professions relating to religion may be divided into (1) priests and
devotees and (2) temple servants. Under the foi'mer class fall the Brahman
(H),* Sftyad (M),t Gostiin (H), Chishti (M), Bainigi (H), Jogi (H) and Ulema
(M) ; and under the latter lihojki (H), Pujari (H) and Mujawar (M). The
Sayads are very largely agriculturists and so are sections of Brahmans like the
Mohials of Jhelum and Gaurs of Rohtak, Delhi, Karnal, Gurgaon and Hiss^r
(excluding Sirsa) Districts. Between them they account for about 1^ million
persons and represent 58 per mille of the population.
The Bhats are the traditional genealogists and bards.
Astrology is really an occupation of the Brahmans, but the castes of
Bhatni and Jogi-Rawal have becrorae associated with palmistry and fortune-
VH=Hiadu, t M.= Muhammadan]
399
XI. TBE CASTE SYSTEM. [ punjab, 1911-
telling, althtiugh the latter are also oculists and Lave taken to trade. — See
glossary.
Kayasths are a small caste, who have cherished the tradition of scribes, and Writers,
have been known for their literary attainments in Persian and Urdu.
The chief caste of musicians is the Mirasi with a population of singers and
227,000. They are also the counterpart of Bhats among the Muhammadans, *^*°'^''"-
act as messengers in connection with marriages and festivals, like the Nais
and sei-ve as personal attendants.
The Rababi, Kehar, Abdal, Bharai and Gfiri are minstrels. Rabdbi,etc.
Kanchans are the musicians and dancers, the women dividing their talents ^anciMne.
and accomplishments between professional dancing and prostitution. Tbe term is
peculiar to the eastern Punjab, but, in order to distinguish it from Kanjar, a
separate caste in the same tract, the corresponding caste of the central and
western Punjab, which is termed Kanjar, has been included among the Kanchans.
The registered strength of the caste is rather less than 6,000 persons, but this is
much below their actual number, the reason of the small Bgures being that a large
number of them have retu)-ned their original caste from which they had joined
the disreputable profession or group. Pernas are nomadic singers and dancers,
and Hijras follow the same occupation at male births and marriages.
Hesis are the singers and dancers of the hills. Hesi.
Bahrupias are mymists by profession and the Bhandacouple singing andMymists.
acting with that art.
Bazigars and Nats are the rural acrobats. Acrobats.
Under labourers have been classified Bagri, Ghai, Hali, Sepi and Marija. Laboarers.
The total strength of the castes is small.
Ghulam, Jaiswara, Kori, Kurmi and Purbia are employed largely as do- Domestic
mestic servants. Village watchmen and menials also belong to this class. But^"^*"**-
it must not be understood that these are the only castes supplying servants, as all
castes from Brahmans and Sayads downward take up domestic service.
The castes which cannot be classified under any of the above mentioned others,
heads, and races which have no caste distinction, contribute 26 per mille to the
total population of the Province.
THE CASTE SYSTEM.
532. In view of the numerous tlieories which have been put forward Prelimi-
regarding the origin of caste, it has not been considered necessary for Provincial nary.
Superintendents to theorize further on the subject ; but J venture to offer a few
remarks more by way of suggestion as to the line which might be taken by
students in pursuing this interesting subject from the abundant material already
placed on record by various writers.
Origin of Caste.
533. Owing to the extreme antiquity of the material from which inferences chances of
have to be drawn, the chances of misinterpretation of facts are very great. The error in ap-
significance of the carving on the Sanchi tope referred to by Sir Herbert Risley piying {^0^^
in paragraph 764 of his India Census Report, 1901, in support of his racial basis
of caste may be quoted as a i-emarkable instance. I reproduce the whole
paragraph below for facility of reference : —
" On a stone panel forming part of one of the grandest Budhist monuments in India —
the great tope a^. S.-xnchi — a carving in low rehef depicts a strange religious ceremony.
Under trees with conventional foliage and fruits, three women, attired in tight clothing
without skirts, kneel in prayer betore a small shrine or altar. In the foreground, the leader
of a procession of monkeys bears in both hands a bowl of liquid and stoops to offer it
at the shrine. His solemn countenance and the grotesquely adoring gestures of his comrades
seem intended to express reverence, devotion, and humility. In the back ground
four stately figures, two men and two women of tall stature and regular features, clothed
in flowing robes and wearing most elaborate turbans, look on with folded hands and
apparent approval at this remarkable act of worship. Antiquarian speculation has, for the
■most part, piissed the panel by unnoticed, or has sought to associate it with some pious legend
of the life of Budlia. A larger interest, however, attaches to the scene, if it is regarded a8
the sculptured expression of the race sentiment of the Aryans towards the Dravidians,
which runs through the whole course of Indian tradition and survives in scarcely abated
strength at the present day. On tliis view the relief would belong to the same order of ideas
as the story in Ramayana of the army of apes who assisted Rama in the invasion of Ceylon.
It shows us the higher race on friendly terms with the lower, but keenly conscious of the
essential difference of type and taking no active part iu the ceremony at which they appear
400
Census Report, ] the caste system. Chapter
as sympathetic but patronising spectators. An attempt is made in the following pages to
show that the race sentiment, which inspired this curious sculpture, rests upon a founda-
tion of fact wliich scientific methods confirm ; that it supplied the motive principle of caste ;
that it continues, in the form of fiction or tradition, to shape the most modern developments
of the system ; and, finally, that its influence has tended to preserve in comparative purity
the types which it favours."
The picture has been reproduced on the cover of Sir Herbert Risley's
"The People of India " and been adopted by other -writers on ethnography as
a frontispiece. (See, for instance, the cover of Crookes' Castes and Tribes of the
United Provinces). Now, the panel referred to was, so far as I can see, not
intended to exhibit anything Hke social distinction or superiority. It is admit-
tedly a piece of Budbist sculpture and, as such, would naturally be far from
reproducing a scene from the Ramayana, much less illustrating the racial aenti-
meut which was diametrically opposed to Budhist tenets. That the scene is
purely Budhistic, as all sculpture on the Sanchi tope has been ascertained to be,
without exception, will be clear from the following explanation of its meaning.
The tree in the picture is the Bodhi tree, the so-called temple, the Bodhi Manda
(platform) and the two kneeling women are doing homage to the Manda which
is taken as a substitute for Budha. They are not dressed in tight clothing but
wear skirts similar to those of the standing figures. The kneeling posture has caused
the skirts to adhere closely to their forms, as is clear from the dark shading of
the hem, which is similar to that of the dresses of the standing figures. The side
view makes the head dress and blouses look different. The third picture, which
looks so much like an incense burner, is not a woman, but a child squatting down
between the two, with his hands thrown up above his head towards the Bodhi tree
in the same devotional attitude. The two men and two women standing
by are there in a reverential attitude, with folded hands, and are not looking on
with indifference. There seems to be nothing gorgeous about their dress- The
elaborate turbans are nothing more or less than the hair tied up with strings —
something like the platted haii' of the jogis of the present day. The Punjab turban
which the folded hair would appear to look like, is of comparatively recent origin.
The two monkeys are really one and the double figure is intended to signify motion.
The representation of Budha's horse on another panel,* on the same tope at
Sanchi, is an excellent illustration of the multiplication of a figure to indicate
motion. The monkey is offering a bowl of honey according to the famous
Budhistic t story. The date of the carving, as determined by the Archseologi-
cal Department, is about 100 B.C. and in all Budhistic sculptures of that period,
it was customary not to show Budha himself, but to depict the Bodhi tree or
manda or some other Chinha (mark) as the sacred object which would be
worshipped as an emblem of Budha. There are several other mandas of exactly
the same type on the Sanchi panels, as can be seen from the complete set of
photographs taken by the Archaeological Department. The women standing
are not much larger in stature than those kneeling, but, being removed from the
manda, are made to look somewhat bigger, and the men who are further
away appear still bigger. The variation in size thus obviously indicates distance,
and in determining the sizes, the sculptor appears to have placed himself
farthest away from the manda, which is the most important point in the picture.
It is wonderful, indeed, how a simple religious picture, having nothing whatever
to do with race, can, with the best of intentions, come to be adopted as an
unquestionable basis of a theory of the origin of caste.
Confusion 534. The ideas conveyed by the terms race, tribe and caste, as applied to
»bout mean the Conditions existing in this Province, are extremely vague. The Eiu'opeans,
ingoftwms. Anglo-Indians, and the inhabitants of foreign countries, have been treated as
different Races; while the Indian Christians, who have given up caste distinc-
tion, have in some cases designated themselves as Panjabi, Bengali, etc., by race.
It is not intended to deal in this chapter with the justification for the adoption of
the term by the Panjabi Christians.
In vulgar parlance, the terms Caste and Tribe are used as synonyms.
There is apparently no equivalent for Race in the Indian vernaculars. The words
* Se(! album of Sanchi pictures with the Director-General of Archaeologj-, Vol. I, p. 19.
+ Budhist records of the Western World by S. Beat, Vol. II, p. <jS, and picture at p. 513 (figure 254) of L' arts
Greco-Bauddbique des Gandhara in publication D. N. Ecole Francaise D. Extreme Orient, Vol. V.
401
XI. • THE CASTE SYSTEM. C Punjab, 1911.
commonly used are zdt (from Jfiti Sanskrit) which is intended to signify caste
and qaum (Arabic) which is the equivalent of tribe. The latter word is foreign
to India and, so far as the Indian castes are concerned, is used only as a substi-
tute for zdt. But the essential characteristic of a tribe is common descent, i.e.,
descent from a common ancestor and residence in a specified tract at one time
or another. Now, common descent and endogamy which, according to Sir
Herbert Risley himself, is the universal feature of caste are a contradiction in
terms and cannot co-exist. For, people descended from a common ancestor, how-
soever distant, cannot intermarry according to the first principles of caste. It,
therefore, follows that whenever a caste was formed, it must have included more
than one group of families (descended from a common ancestor). It would con-
sequently not be quite correct to say tliat certain castes were of a tribal nature.
It is of course likely that a tribe may have come in touch with the caste
system, adopted endogamy and other restrictions and got absorbed into one of
the castes.
It is a patent fact that all social groups, which came under the influence
of the caste system, were so completely Hinduised that they lost all traces of
tribal organization and identity. Consequently, as matters now stand, the terra
tribe can only be applied to such foreign bodies of comjsaratively recent immi-
grants as Pathans, Biloches, and other foreigners like the Arabs, etc. In
dealing with the subject, one must guard against the tendency of the converts
to Islam to disown allegiance to the caste system and to try and connect them-
selves with mythical ancestors in order to prove a foreign origin, and thus to
assume the status of a tribe. The customs and traditions engrained by centuries
of association are, however, not easy to efface.
535. The impossibility of defining a foreign term applied to a complicated Definition.
Indian institution, of which the introducers of the term had but a superficial know-
ledge, and which in its present form is the sum total of most varied and conflicting
influences, is obvious enough. Sir Herbert Risley, after examining all the
definitions given by different authors, defined caste as follows : —
" A caste may be defined as a collection of families or groups of families bearing a
common name which usually denotes, or is associated with a specific occupation ; claiming
common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same
professional calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming
a single homogeneous community. A casto is almost invariably endogamous in the sense
that a member of the large circle denoted by the common name may not marry oulsido that
■circle, but within the circle thei'e are usually a number of smaller circles each of which is also
endogamous. Thus it is not enough to say that a Brahman at the present day cannot marry
any woman who is not a Brahman; his wife must not only be a Brahman ; she must also
belong to the same endogamous division of the Brahman caste."*
That he was conscious of the diflicully of his task, will be inferred from
the expression, " and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion,
as forming a single homogeneous community." Ketkar, an Indian writer of
great acumen, gives the following definitionf : —
" A caste is a social group having two characteristics : (1) membership is confined to
those who are born of members and includes all persons so born ; (2) the members are forbid-
den by an inexorable social law to marry outside the group. Each one of such groups has
a special name by which it is called. Several of such small aggregates are grouped together
under a common name, while these larger groups are but sub-divisions of groups still larger
which have independent names."
That is to say, he considers only birth and restrictions of marriage to be
the elements distinguishing castes. This, at best, merely describes two important
characteristics thereof.
It appears idle to attempt an impossible task and it is perhaps best to
content one's self with describing the existing conditions which go to make up the
present caste system ; and this has been done in a very comprehensive manner
by Sir Herbert Risley in the India Census Report of 1901.
The definition given by Mr. Gait in the Bacyclopasdia of Religions, J m.,
that " Caste is an endogamous group or collection of such groups bearing a com-
mon name, having the same traditional occupation, claiming descent from the
* Census Report, India, 1901, para. 817, page 517.
t Ketkar's History of Castes in India (1901), Vol. I, page 15.
I Vol. Ill, page 234.
402
Census Report, ] ths caste system. Chapter
same source and commonly regarded as forming a single homogeneous community"
is about the best yet devised.
The expression " Common source " averts the objection to common origin,
•which I have mentioned above. I would adopt it with slight alterations, as
a concise description of the idea at present conveyed by the word caste. I would
call it an endogamous group or collection of such proups, bearing a common name,
hnown to have had at one time the same traditional occupation and united hy iradi'
tions of birth and social usage.
Origin. 536. The earliest indication of castes is contained in the well known
Piirnsha Sulcta (Rig Veda X 90, 12) which gives a four-fold division of society.
This division is regarded by tlie orthodox Hindus as the basis of what is now
known as caste. Others consider the division only to indicate classes. Then the
Purusha Sukta is regarded by some to be a later interpolation. But Muir* points
out that a division of labour had been long established in the Vedic times. Indeed,
it is impossible to believe that any society could exist without some sort of a
division of labour for thousands of years. Moreover, the ideas about the origin
of creation expressed in the Purusha Sulcta also appear in several other hymns.f
On p^ge 4 of his book on the Religion and Philosophy of the East.J Ken-
nedy says : — " We know as every philologist knows that the Aryan language
dates from at least 10,000 (years) B. C." Again on page 9 he says "It is probable,
in view of the length of time which it is calculated, the race needs in order to
develop, that the Aryans could not have originated much less than 60,000 years
ago in the territory which is now known as Persia, Afghanistan and Asia Minor."
Assuming the age of the Vedas to be 3,000 years, which is the latest scientific
opinion about it, the language in which the Vedas were composed must, according
to Kennedy, have existed about 9,000 years before it and one could form an idea of
the development of the civilization of the Aryan people anterior to the composition
of the Vedas in the measure of the development ascribed to the 2,000 years
following the Vedic period. It does not stand to reason that the Aryans who were
supposed to have composed the Vedas in the Punjab were still in a primitive state
after 9,000 years of existence, if not after the longer period of half a century of
viilleniums. The obvious inference would be tliat the ideas expressed in the
hymns were the indications of well formed conceptions and of firmly established
institutions.
There is no clear mention in the Rig Veda, so f.ir aa I am aware, of the
hereditary nature of the social divisions, but the use of the word Ajdyata at the
end of the verse above alluded to {Pad Bhydm Shudro Ajdyata) leads very strong-
ly to the belief that the description given in the verse implies the conception of
birth in respect of these divisions. Considering the allegorical sense of the
whole of the Purusha Sukta, it would not be correct to interpret it in
too literal a sense and to say that the creation began with four persons
sprimg out of the mouth, arms, thiphs and feet of Brahma; for, if
that were what had happened, the procreation of the species would still have
to be accounted for and the use of the plural incase of the Kshattriyas (,Raj-
anydh) and Vaishyas ( Vaishydh) would be superfluous. To say that a couple was
created in each case, would be equally absurd, for marriage between brothers and
sisters would be conti'ary to all traditions of caste. The Purusha Sukta, there-
fore, obviously implies the existence of society on the lines indicated therein, evi-
dently on a functional basis, and the Mantra in question merely assigns status and
duties to each class, to be transmitted by heredity. It is for this reason that the
creation is referred to in the past tense. The Brahmans being born of the Creator's
mouth therefore apparently means that they, as a class, received the gift of know-
ledge and eloquence, and similarly the Kshattriyas got the strength of arms, the
Vaishyas were created to bo the mainstay of the country, and the Shudras were
evolved from the feet to perform the lowest function. The division thus remain-
ed functional, qualified by the limitation of birth. The terms Pancha Janah
and Punch Kshiti used in the Vedas may indicate tribal or geographical groups.
• Minor Sanskrit Texts, Volume V, para. 4S2.
t See Rig Veda X 190, and Ibid 1:21.
1 Edition T. Burner Lawrie.
403
XI. THE CASTE SYSTEM. [ Punjab, 1911.
The hereditary nature of caste becomes clear in the Brahmanas and
Upanishads, which, according to the orthodox theory, co-existed with the Vedas
but according to the philologists and other scientists followed closely on them. The
Smritis, chief amongst them ' The ordinances of Mauu' leave no doubt about caste
by birth. The boob of Manu was, according to Biihler written between
200 B. C. and 200 A. D. There is a strong belief that the compilation
known as ' Manava Dharm Shastra' is based on an earlier code of Iriw known as
' Manava Dharm Sutra'* belonging to the Sutra period and of much older date,
but has taken cognizance of the facts as they existed at the time of its (Dharm
Shastra's) compilation, and explained the facts then existing on the basis of the older
treatise. By referring to this belief I merely wish to indicate that the rigidity
of the distinction of Varnas was older than 200 B, C. Nevertlieless the ' Manava
Dharm Shastra ' is the oldest comprehensive book on the subject of caste, which is
now available, and our conclusions must be based on inferences which can be
drawn from it. Tbe author lays down four Varnas after tbe Pui'usha Sukta and
gives a number of mixed castes created by the processes of Anuloma and Pratiloma,
castes which had lost their status on account of neglect of sacred rites, and castes
due to the exclusion of persons from the community. He employs two words —
Varna and Jdti. Varna is used principally for the Brahman, Kshattriya and
Vaishya and Jdti for Shudras. The mixed castes, which vary in status, are
called Jatis and sometimes the tenn is also applied to the main Varnas.
537. The meaning of Varna has created much confusion. In modern ^ama.^
Sanskrit Varna is used almost exclusively for colour. It is, therefore, inferred that
the designation of the fourfold division of society was primarily based on difference
of colour, the conquered aborigines being relegated to the lowest order of Shudra.
In other words, the distinction is supposed to have been mainly racial. But from
Manu (X-4) and other authorities, it is clear that the distinction was drawn
mainly between the twice-born and the once-born, and that the former were
separated by larna limits from one another just as much as the Divijas were
from Ehjdties (Shudras). If colour was the basis of difference between the
Vwijcis or Aryas and Shudras or Dasyus, it surely did not form the distinguishing
feature of the three upper classes. Apparently the term varna is derived from
vri, to cover or enclose, and means a collection of peoples of a similar status.
But this status was, according to the orthodox Hindu views, hereditary
from the very beginuing. The Vedic religion is the earliest religion known here,
and the idea appears to have been that, with the exception of certain classes men-
tioned, such as Maler.hhas and Dasyus, who followed different cnlts, the whole world
conformed to the religious and social ideas of the Aryan people. This view might
have been based upon their limited knowledge ; but in the absence of some other pro-
noimced religion and social system, it appears to have been a very cosmopolitan one.
When, therefore, other races came within the area inhabited by the Aryans, they
wei'e quite readily admitted to the status of one or the other of the Varnas,
according to their qualifications. Indeed, Manu mentions, the Greeks, Persians,
Chinese, etc., as Kshatriyas, who had fallen through the loss of sacred ceremonies.f
This assimilation of foreign elements above alluded to appears to be baaed
on the idea tliat people of allied races were eligible to the status of the Varna
Ashram. But there is nothing to show that once they were so assimilated, they
did not begin to obsei"ve the restrictions of caste by birth. To me, therefore, there
* Manava Dharma Sutras are mentioned in some books, but they have not been discovered yet. References
to Manu in tbe Ramayana and Mahabharata show that some code known by his name existed before the epic period,
but the occurrence of the verse dpadartham dharm rakahet, ddrdn ralcshet dhanairapi dtmdnom satatam ralishet, dd.
rdirapi dhanairapi, in Manu iChapter VII — 213) and the existence of an identical passage in the Mahabharata, in con-
text which does not refer to Manu, leads to the strong belief that the present book of Manu was compiled subsequently
to the Mahabharata. In Manu, the rule is laid doivn for a king, in dealing with the tactics of war. If he has given up aJI
hope of overcoming his enemies, then, owing to his duty to tfie country, he is enjoined to forsake his wealth and wife
in order to preserve his own life so that he might be able to serve his country again . In the Mahabharata, the
saying is most appropriately quoted by a Brahman wife to her husband when the Pandwas with Kunti had put up
with them as strangers, and it was the turn of the household to furnish a human victim for tbe food of a Rakhshasa who
lived outside the to\Tn. The father offered to go as he had seen plenty of this Ufe and to leave the wife and the son
to look after the household ; the son remonstrated saying that his sense of duty would not permit him to see the father
devoured by the demon wliile he was alive ; so he offered to go ; the wife urged that it was for her to go and told
the husband that ho should act on the above saying. Eventually Kunti succeeded in persuading the Brahman to let
one of her five sons go, for, if he got killed, she would still have four left. Had the present Code of Manu existed
then, the Brahman's wife would certainly have said ' You must act on the following rule of Manu, ' But she merely
quoted it as a saying.
t Manu X, 43.44.
404
Census Report, ] the caste system. Cbaptee
Racial.
appears to be nothing incompatible between the modern discoveries and the
orthodox theory tliat birth has been the distinguishing feature of the institution of
caste from the earhost period known to us. I need not, however, go into the ques-
tion why the Aryan society in its primitive state adopted the institution, and
■whether or not it was the most economic method of the division of labour. It is
sufficient for our purposes to know that the ancient Indian society was classed into
four Varnas, and that the various Jdtis, which may, in some cases, have been
equivalent to races or tribes, were arranged into one or the other of the Varnas.
538. Whether the basis of caste is racial or functional, is the burning ques-
tion of the day. To take the racial theory first, its greatest expounder. Sir Herbert
Risley, depended mainly uponanthropometrical data, but they are now held to be of
little value. The theory is based upon an Aryan invasion of the Punjab, about
the time of the composition of the Vedic hymns and the Aryan conquest of the
Dravidians, who formerly occupied the country, but were gradually driven to the
south or converted and admitted into the society, mainly as Sbudras belonging to
the menial class. The fusion of different racial elements, under the hierarchy
of caste appears to have been so complete, and the mixture of castes by inter-
marriage and degradation has been so large, that it has become extremely difficult
to distinguish between the various castes on an ethnic basis. There is no lack of
members of the Brahman, Khatri, artizan, Cbamar, Chuhra and other castes possess-
ing similar features and probably similar measurements. A paper on the Myth of
the Aryan invasion of India contributed by P. T. Srinivasa lyenger of Madras to
the Journal of the Royal Society of Arts (July 19, 1910, pp. 841-846) which,
though written in defence of the Dravidians, and consequently somewhat one-sided,
contains some very striking facts and arguments. On the strength of Dr.
Hadon's " The study of Man ", he remarks : —
" This ' Aryan type ' is found in the purest form in the Punjab valley, and in other
parts of India, is mixed with another type, called by Risley the ' Dravidian type.' To
account for the existence of a ' pure Aryan type ' of non-Indian origin in the Punjab
valley, Risley assumes that the ' Aryans ' must have moved into India with wives and
children, 'by tribes and families without any disturbance of their social order,' at a time
when north-western India must have been open ' to the alow advance of family or tribal
migration.'* The previous inhabitants of the tertile valley of the five rivers politely retreat-
ed before the advancing ' Aryans ' so that the purity of the ' Aryan type ' might not be
polluted ; and when the ' Aryans ' had moved into the Punjab, an obliging Providence
ordered that the NorthWestern Frontier of India should be 'closed to the slow advance of
family or tribal migration.' Granting that all these miracles took place four thousand
years ago, does subsequent history help us to believe that this Aryan type has remained
unpolluted in the Punjab ? Innumerable races have poured into India through the north-west
in historic times. Persians, Europeans, Greeks, Bactrians, Scythians, Huns, Afghans, Tartars,
and Moguls have all invaded India and settled in larger or smaller numbers in the Punjab,
and been absorbed in its ' Aryan ' population. It requires great scientific hardihood to
maintain that the nasal index of the Panjabi has remained unafiected by this age-long
'welter of races.' The Vedic people were no doubt at constant feud with their neighbours
whom they called Uasyus, but these Dasyus were distinguished mostly by their different
cult, and not by any peculiarities of race or physical characteristics.t * * •
* None of these confiicts appear to be incidents of a war of invasion. The Aryas
do not speak of themselves as invaders gradually driving the aborigines before them, and
wresting their land from them. There is no trace of the inveterate habit of people set-
tling in a new land, i.e., that of importing into the land of their adoption, geographical and
personal names from their far-off original homes. In the Vedic hymns there is not even the
slightest reference to, or memory of, any land outside India, which the ancestors of the
Aryas inhabited. No hint of the route through which they came to India, no phrase re-
miniscent of any foreign connection. Nor is there anything to indicate that they were
gradually or suddenly moving hoardes ; the Aryas of the Vedic Mantras speak of themselvea
as people living in the Punjab valley, leading a settled life in towns and villages, plough-
ing the soil and tending their numerous herds of cattle. Their kings, petty chiefs, lords of
towns, and heads of villages, their village assemblies, political and religious, their irrigation
canals, and their roads, their threshing-floors and water troughs for cattle, all indicate that
the Aryas lived in an organised society in the Vedic time. * * * * The Fire and
Soma cult and the Vedic speech, then, and not the differences of race, distinguished
• " Imperial Gazetteer of India," page 302.
•f 1 have referred incidently in para. 50 (Chapter II) to the real significance of the prayer Jivema Shardah
Shntam of the Aryanf., which is interpreted to be an allusion to the severities of winter of a higher altitude where
the Aryans had their original home. Even though the six eeaaons may bea later development, yet the iocon-
veniences of the winter iu the Punjab plains are no less trying;.
405
XI. THE CASTE SYSTEM. [ Pxinjab, 1911.
the Vedic Aryans from the Vedio Dasyns, in so far as can be judged from the Vedas."
He goes on to show that " the Vedio tongue came to India as a foreign language and
underwent there a leveiJing down of its vowels and other alterations."
From the fact that the Soma cult flourished in ancient times in Persia^
he eoccludes that it found it? way into India from without. He holds that " Had
the language and cult of the Aryas been accompanied by any considerable drift
of foreigners who formed a race by themselves and lived apart from the native
races, neither the cult nor the language would have undergone serious changes."
He is therefore of opinion that " The Fire cult and the speech of the Aryas must
have come to India in the wake of a peaceful overflow of people from the uplands
of (central Asia into the plains of India, or as the result of a peace intercourse
between the Indian people and foreigners.
There is much force in some of the above arguments and perhaps some-
one may hereafter collect materials to establish that, even the language and cult
were not foreign but indigenous to the north-west of India, and that with one
upheaval, they passed out to Persia and Central Asia, while, on the other hand,
they spread to the other parts of India. It is admitted that the Indian civiliza-
tion was older than the Persian, the oldest literary work of Pei^sia dating 522
B. C. The idea of Sir Herbert Risley, that the caste system of India was an
adoption of the four classes of the Persians, therefore, apparently reverses the
order of things. It is more probable that the Persian classes were merely rem-
nants of the Indo- Aryan system of caste. The Persian missionaries entered
India after the invasion of Alexander the Great, i. e. later than 300 B. C. This
was surely subsequent to the composition of the Itihdses and much later to that
of the Upanishadfi, which bear abundant testimony of the existence of four Varnas
in India. The idea expressed above would be in accordance with the theory
propounded by Mr. A. Curzon, 60 years ago, viz., that the Punjab was the cradle
of the Aryan races.* But, as stated by Sir Herbert Risleyt, it did not attract
the serious notice of the modern scientists. The discoveries being made in the
departments of philology and archasology are, however, so fast and startling,
that one should not feel surprised if certain facts may, before long, be discover-
ed, which would lead to Mr. Curzon's theory being taken up in right earnest.
The migration to America of the Mongols, following some ancient form of
Hinduism, on the dispersal of the Aryan tribes, after the Mahabharata, hinted at
by the Hon'ble Alexander DenmarJ may throw some light on the subject.
But were the Aryans a race, appears to me to be a question which is by
no means easy to answer. The oldest authority on the subject are the Vedas,
and so far as I can see, the term Arya is used there not in a racial sense, but as
an honoriBc title. The Aryas are distinguished from Dasyus and from those who
do not perform fire sacrifices. In the later Smntis, the term is used to denote the
three tvvice-born classes. Even foreigners, admitted to the Kshattriya Varna were
treated as Aryas. In the Yajur Veda. Arya is, in one place, used as equivalent
to Vaisliya.% There may have been an Aryan and a Dravidian race, but
the sense of the word Arya in the Vedas, as interpi-eted in the Nirukta and other
later commentaries, does not point to a consciousness of race distinction. In the
Vedas, we find a contrast between ' Suras ' (also called Devas) and 'Asuras.^ This
again was a distinction of merit, and not of race, and differentiated the Vedic
people from the Persians, who considered the Almrns (Asnras) to be angfils and
Devas as devils ; and the Vedic God, Indra was particularly abhorred by the Zends
as a mischievous power that exulted in the intoxicating Soma and helped the
wild warriors who delighted in chivalrous gallantry. The conflict with the
Bdkhshasas was not so marked in the Vedic times, as it became in the epic
period, when the so-called Aryans came in contact with BdJchshdsa and monkey
races, who differed obviously in physical characteristics. But they were gradually
brought under the influence of the Vedic tenets, and the alhes began to be ad-
mitted to society, so much so that at a later date, the Dravidian Brahmans of
Dakhshan were considered to bo as good Aryas as any Brahmans of Upper India.
Here again the distiuguishing element was the cult, and not the race.
• Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, XVI, p. 172—210.
t India Census Keport 1901, Vol. I, p. 544.
± Indian Review, September 1912, pp. 70G— 710.
§ brahmardjanybhydm, Shudrdya chdryayacha. yajnr Veda, AshtakaXXVI, 2.
406
Cenaus Report, ] the cabte ststbm. Chaptkr
Varna Ashrama DharmiX being the soul of the Hindu religion, the early
Aryans assimilated other tribes and races not by conquest or proselytization but
by the propagation of their superior culture and promulgation of their social
economy, without prescribing any particular dogma.
It is contended by some, that the Shudra Varna did not exist during the
Vedic times, and that the only distinction then observed was between Aryan and
non-Aryan. It is held that ttie aborigines subdued by the Aryans were relegated
to slavery, and this class was termed Shudra. Now, it is obvious that a society
cannot exist without a menial class, and if the Aryan race had existed for
thousands of years with a highly complicated language before they migrated to
India, they are bound to have had a servant class, and the warrior chiefs could
not have moved about without a body of personal servants. It is quite natural
that the greater portion of the subdued people who had a much inferior civiliza-
tion were admitted to the lowest ranks of society, but the nucleus of the
caste must have existed before additions began to be so made.
The widely different characteristics of certain castes are adduced as a reason
for their racial origin, but the development of peculiar traits can be easily explain-
ed on the basis of functional isolation or association. An Arora resident of
Mianwali is known to have formed a member of a gang of Pathan outlaws and
dacoits and is said to have been one of the bravest men of the party, besides being
a very accurate shot. A Brahman similarly flourished sometime ago as a most
successful member of a gang of Sikh outlaws in the Lahore District.
iFunetionai. 539. Sir Denzil Ibbetson held the basis of caste to be functional, and in his
masterly handling of the mass of facts, he tried to justify, in the Census Report
of 1881, his theory, which is also advocated by Nesfield. But, in judging the
conditions of remote antiquity from existing conditions, one is apt to overlook
certain important factors and intermediate influences. I venture to agree in his
view, that the earliest division of Indian society probably was functional. But
what was it that created such rigid barriers between the castes from the days of
the Upanisliads, if not from the Vedic period itself ? It has to be remembered
that the conditions which prevailed in other countries having the four functional
classes were different, and we must seek for some distinguishing features which
made the institution hereditary and immutable in this country. This apparently
was the desire for spiritual purity based upon the belief in re-incarnation and the
law of Karma. The evolution of the Jivdtma (soul) through the four stages on
which the four-fold division of Varna and Ashrama is based, is explained very well
m the following extract from the advanced text-book of Hindu religion and ethics
called 'Sanatana Dharma'* published by the Central Hindu College, Benares: —
" The first thing to understand is that the evolution of the Jivdtma is divided into four
great stages, and that this is true of every Jivdtma, and is in no sense peculiar to those who,
in their outer coverings, are Aryans and Hindus. Jivdtmas pass into and out of the Hindu
relicion, but every Jiviitma is in one or other of the four great stages. These belong to
no age and to no civilization, to no race and no nation. They are universal, of all times
and of all races. The first stage is that which embraces the infancy, childhood and youth
of the Jivitma, during which he is in a state of pupilage, fit only for service and study, and
has scarcely any responsibilities. The second stage is the first half of his manhood during
which ho carries on the ordinary business of the world, bears the burden of household
responsibilities, so to say, the accumulation, enjoyment and proper disposal of wealth,
together with the heavy duties of organisiug, training and educating his youngers in all
the duties of life. The third stage occupies the second half of his manhood^ during which
he bears the burden of national responsibilities, the duty of protecting, guiding and
ruling others, and utterly subordinating his individual interests to the common good, even
to the willing sacrifice of his own life for the Uvea around him. The fourth stage is the
old ago of the Jiviitma, when his accumulated experiences have taught him to see clearly
the valuelessness of all earth's treasures, and have made him rich in wisdom and compassion,
the selfless friend of all, the teacher and counsellor of all his youngers. These stages are, as
aaid above, universal. The peculiarity of the Sanatana Dharma is that these four universal
stages have been made the foundation of asocial polity, and have been represented by four
definite extern»l castes, or classes, the characteristics laid down as belonging to each caste
being those which characterise the stage of the universal evolution to which the caste
corresponds. The first stage is represented by the Shudra caste, in which, as we shall see,
the rules are few and the responsibilities light. Its one great duty is that of service ; its
virtues are those which should be evolved in the period of youth and pupilage — obedience,
• Second Edition, 1904, p. 239—242.
407
XI. THE CASTE SY3TEM. [ PuDJab, 1911
fidelity, reverence, industry and the like. Tlis second stage is represented by the Vaishya*
the typical house-holder, on whom the social life of the nation depends. He comes under
strict roles, designed to foster unselfishness and the sense of responsibility, to nourish
det-aohment in the midst of possession, and to mako him feel the nation as his household.
His virtues are diligence, caution, prudence, discretion, charity, and the like. The third
stage is represented by the Khshattriya, the ruler and warrior, on whom depends the national
order and safety. He also lives under strict rules, intended to draw out all the energy and
strength of his character and to turn them to unselfish ends, aud to make him feel that
everything he possesses, even life itself, must be thrown away at the call of duty. His
virtues are generosity, vigour, courage, strength, power to rule, self-control and the like.
The fourth stage is represented by the Brahmana, the teacher and priest, who lives under
the strictest of all rules, directed to make him a centre of purifying influence, physically
as well as morally and spiritually. He is to have outgrown the love of wealth and power,
to be devoted to study. Learned and wise, he is to be the refuge of all creatures, their sure
help in time of need. His virtues are gentleness, patience, purity, self-sacrifice, and the like."
The idea of I'enunciation has also had a great deal to do with the creation
of limited circles within circles. In the matter of iaterdining, for instance, we
find that in the higher castes, the circle of free interdining is small. Within that
circle there are again groups, and the older members of an orthodox family will
often separate themselves even from their own children, preparatory to their final
departure from this world. This idea seems to have been taken up somewhat
blindly and followed to an extreme in castes like the Brahmans of the United
Provinces, where every man must ordinarily cook his own food.
540. It is ^(euerally held that tribe was prior to caste, and that whole Is tribe
tribes or clans coming under the influence of the Hindus, formed the classes which prior to
(frystalhzed into castes. This appears to be true to a certain extent in so far as caste or
the Varnasharma Dharma evidently received accretions in this manner. But the vice versa.
contrary seems also ti'ue. Sections of castes formed into distinct clans by
geographical or other kind of isolation, e.g., the Pathania, Katoch, etc., Rajputs,
the Thakre Khel and Nandwani Aroras, the Kesarwani Aggarwals, and the like.
541. As shown in paragraph 211 instances of the grant of the status "Was caste
of a Brahman to individuals of lower Varnas are met v?iih in the earliest convertible
books ; but these were exceptions which go to prove the rule that birth was univer- ii the
sally regarded as essential to the Varna division. On the other hand degra- earliest
dation from a higher to a lower Varna, whether by mixture of blood or other days?
causes was a matter of every day occurrence. The saying Janmand Jdyate
Sudro, Sanskdrdddvija uchyate, is often quoted as an authority for the convert-
ability of Varna, but the advocates of this opinion forget that, although birth
was an essential, the sacraments were necessary to qualify an individual for the
dignity of his position and the proper performance of the duties assigned to each
Varna was compulsory for the maintenance of that status. It is laid down that
a Brahman, Khshattriya or Vaisha cannot be born of a Shudra mother.* Again
it is clearly laid down in the Mahabharata that austerities, knowledge of the
Vedas and birth make the Brahmanaf. It has also been shown in the paragraphs
quoted above that a considerable foreign element was assimilated with the society
following the Varna Ashram DharmaJ. But whether individuals, groups or whole
tribes were admitted to a Varna, the admission fixed the status of the new comers
for all eternity and that status was thereafter transmitted by birth.
542. Whether the original abode of the Aryans was the Punjab, the coun- ^'^^"P"
try immediately north or west, or the great plateau of Central Asia, they appear to "^^ °
have been more or less on the move in the earliest times of which we have*^*^*'
any knowledge, and the fourfold division of society then existing was suited
to the functional requirements of the time. But we read of chariot makers,
armourers, etc., in the Rig Veda. So, within the functional partition of society
which had been associated with birth fiom the earliest times, functional sub-groups
were distinguished from the remotest period known. This functional sub-
division was, however, confined to the artizan classes. The Vaishyiis, who tilled
the land and naturally developed into traders as well, had an uniform calling
to begin with, and so had the warriors and the priests. The development of the
Ashram Dharma, i.e., the division of tlie life of a Dwija into Hrahntarhar!/a,Griliacta
* Nahi •'"/luJio Yonau. Brahmana Ethnilriya Vainhyah Jdyante. Harita Dharma Sutra,
■f Tahpah shrulishcha Yonishcha, Cctadbrdhmana Karanam. Anushasana Parva 121, 7.
i See Bhandakar'B paper on ' Foreign Element in the Ilindu Population," Indian Antiquary, January 1911,
pp. 11, et »«f.
408
Census Report. J '-the caste system. Chapter
VinapraHha and Sanyasta restricted the multiplication, particularly of the re-
ligions class. Warfare acted as a check on the overgrowth of the Kshattrija
population. The multiplication of Vaishyas and Shudras was welcome to the
growing needs of society. As industrial occupations multiplied, more and more
functional groups were fonned. At the same time aliens were admitted into the
social organization, mostly in the lower Varnas, usually with specific occupations.
The admixture of castes by the processes mentioned by Manu was also in
progress, aud new castes {Jdtis) were in the course of formation. They were
relegated to different Varnas and were either forced to take up a particular
occupation, or being freed from the restrictions of the main Varnas, chose new
occupations for amusement or livelihood. The multiplication of castes, therefore^
occurred mostly among the Shudras and Vaishyas, and the names of the smaller
groups assumed so much importance that the Varna name came gradually to be
given up altogether as an unnecessary auxiliary.
In Subsidiary Table VI, 1 have placed some of the caste names of the
Sinritis (together with their parentage), in juxtaposition with similar caste or
sub-caste names ptill in use. The traditional occupations given in the Smritis
enable the identification of the names which have undergone greater or lesser
modification. If the origin of the mixed castes described in Manu is at all to be
believed, the comparison made in the Subsidiary Table would show that the
process of Annloma and Pratiloma have played no mean part in the development
of the institution of castes.
In more recent times, which may be called the Puranic period, the limita-
tions of caste became more rigfid. The process of fusion had by then been
practically completed, so far as Upper India was concerned and with the com-
mencement of the era of social and political disruption, the caste restrictions
became stricter. Later on the observance of Ashram Dharma became lax. It
resulted in the overgrowth of the Brahman population and necessitated some of
them taking to other pursuits. On the other hand Kshattriyas subdued by Kshat-
triyas settled in distant parts of the country and persons of the same status,
i.e., belonging to the same Varna began to distinguish themselves by geographical
names. The process of fission then came into prominence, and while degradation
of castes and individuals continued freely, the provisions referred to in para-
graph 21 1 for regaining status by degrees appear to have been lost sight of,
although traces of it are still found in the popular saying in the Kangra hills
that the daughter of a Ghirath can become a Rani in seven generations thus,
(1) a Ghirath daughter may many a Kacha Riithi, (2) and his daughter may be-
come the wife of aPakka Rathi, (3) whose daughter may in turn marry a Thakkar,
(•l) a Thakkar may give his daughter to a Rajput, (5) he to a Mian and (6) a
Mian's daughter may be married to a Raja.
The processes which have led to the development of the caste system to
its present condition were fully discussed by Sir Denzil Ibbetson and Sir Herbert
Risley, and some of thom are briefly alluded to in this Chapter.
The present 543. It is unnecessary for me to describe the present condition of the
condition institution of caste, which is the result of the causes above alluded to as well as of
the counteracting, political, religious and economic influences. The present Hindu
community may be divided into three sections, viz., (1) the orthodox, who follow
the caste system, more or less, strictly, (2) those who have ignored the restrictions
of intordining, but still adhere rigidly to the limitations prescribed for marriage,
and (3) those who have given up both. That the restrictions of caste are fast
dying out is obvious enough, but it will not be correct to ascribe this to the
theory that birth was not originally the essential of caste. It is laid down in
the Smritis that in the Kaliyuga there will be only two castes, viz., the Brahmans
and the Shudras. The writers could obviously foresee the effects of the disin-
tegrating processes that were then at work. The thirst for spiritual purity
was on the one hand bound to make the Brahmans more exclusive, while, on the
other hand, intermixture of blood and the multiplicity of occupations were
likely to produce a more or less homogeneous body among the other three
Varnas, in the long run. But they did not reckon upon the influences which
would come to bear adversely on the institution in later days, and accelerate the
process of disintegration. The changes have been more rapid than anticipated.
409
XI. THE CASTE SYSTEM. [ Pnnjab, 1911.
but it is -wonderful that, while caste restrictions were said to be disappearing
thirty years ago, in the same way as they are said to-day, yet, the number of
persons who disown allegiance to one caste or another is extremely small, being
Hindus 10)7, Jains 330, Sikhs 221, Muhammadans 762, viz., 1 per 10,000
of the Hindus, Sikhs and Muhammadans, and 49 of the Jains, The modern
classes like Khalsa and Arya which are being substituted for the old
castes will probably in course of time become as rigid as any others. The
revolt against caste is due mainly to the inconveaience of restrictions of inter-
marriage and interdining. The upshot of the modern tendency will, there-
fore, probably be a complete disappearance of restrictions of both kinds, while
the name of the caste or tribe may be retained in the case of higher castes as
a traditional distinction, the lower castes grouping themselves in large democratic
classes of uniform status. But how long this process will take is very
difficult to predict. My general conclusion is that there has been little
change in this Province during the past thirty years with reference to the
basis of caste distinctions, but that the restrictions have become very lax,
the rules are being disregarded with impunity in respect of intermarriage
and interdining, the traditional occupations are being given up owing to the
functional revolution which is in progress, and a general re-action has set in
whereby members of lower or menial castes are trying to rise to the level of
the higher ones, either by connecting themselves with a forefather belonging
to one of those castes, or by discovering a new oi'igin for their tribe or caste.
Caste pules and restpictions.
544. It has been held by some scientists that the caste system having General
originated in Magadh never reached the Punjab in its full force. 1 venture to remarks,
doubt this assertion in view of the fact that as many as two hundred and thirty-
eight castes, including those classed as minor, have been ascertained at the
pi"esent Census, in spite of the forces destructive to the caste system which are
at work, and the tendency of the lower castes to merge in the higher ones.
The explanation of a smaller number of castes here compared witli the United
Provinces, Bengal, etc., is probably to be found in the more homogeneous
structure of the inhabitants of this Province, which resulted in the multiplication
of sub-castes without creating new castes. In Manu itself we find the alliance of
a Brahman with a Khshattriya woman recognized more or less (although looked
down upon), and the offspring treated as Brahman ;* and the process is still
going on in the Kangra HiUs. Similarly breaches of rules likely to degrade a
person from his caste were evidently considered sufficiently punished by the
relegation of the offenders to a separate group of the caste instead of being
expelled altogether. On the other hand, perhaps the admission of outside tribes
or castes into the functions of a particular caste led to the formation of new
groups under that caste. We find this going on in the western Punjab, where
an Arain, a Rajput, an Awan or any other caste, except the principal castes of
the locality, namely, Pathan, Biloch, Sayad, Arora, etc., who takes to the plough
is indiscriminately called a Jat resulting in the treatment of Arain, Rajput,
etc., as sub-caste of that caste. It is due to these processes that we find
castes divided into innumerable sub-castes, the Jats alone having some 4,500.
The main distinction between the caste system of the Hindus and the
social divisions of peoples following other religions lies in the fundamental princi-
ple. The law of Karma on which the whole structure of Hinduism is based
necessitates primary attention to the performance of duty, while the exercise of
individual right has been the goal of other nations and religions. The Hindu,
subordinating his worldly ambitious to his hereditary status was contented with
his lot and lacked the ambition which members of other religions have so pro-
minently shown in rising to spiritual or temporal greatness, irrespective of
the grade of society in which they were born. The caste system therefore
implied, self-abnegation, self-restraint and renunciation, and resulted in the evolu-
tion of numerous restrictions.
in dealing with restrictions of the caste system, a distinction must
be made between the orthodox adherents of the system, and the educated classes
imbued with a spirit of reformation, who although professing in name, to
* Manu X, b
Census Report, ]
410
THE CASTE SYSTEM.
Chapter
Ifarriage.
Widow mar-
riage.
Eaily mar-
riage.
Expenditure
on marriages.
Occupation.
belong to a particular caste, observe few or none of the un-written laws of that
community. The following remarks apply only to those who still adhere to the
traditions, whether tbey are good or bad.
545. Caste being endogamous in its origin, a member of each caste must
marry -within the limits thereof and in many castes, there are smaller endogamous
circles beyond which a marriage may not take place. Instances of intermarriage
between Brahmans, Kshattriyas and Vaishyas are found in Vedic literature, e.g.y
the marriage of Maitreya, a Brahman, to Saraswati, daughter of Vishnumitra, a
Kshattriya, aud that of Ganga, the daughter of a famous Kshattriya general, Yagya-
datta, to Brahmadatta, a Vaishya.* Indeed, when selection for marriage was made
in a Sivayambara by competition, the maiden offered her hand to any one who
fulfilled the conditions, irrespective of the distinction of Varna. But even in
those days, such cases seem to have been rare, although the endogamous limits
became more rigid later on. With the sub-division of castes, the endogamous
limit has become narrowed down, while the exogamous circle, which was ori-
ginally the Kula (family) widened to the ever-increasing institution of Qotra,.
thus greatly restricting the field of matrimonial selection.
Breach of marriage restrictions, within the endogamous group or con-
travention of the mle of hypergamy merely lowers the status. For instance^
if a " Dhaighar " Khatri marries a wife from a " Sarin " or some other lower
group, or if he gives his daughter in marriage to one of the sub-castes in the
lower social grades of Khatris, his children will be looked down upon and the
other Dhaighars will hesitate to intermarry with them, but marrying outside the
caste entails complete separation from the community and cases of excommunica-
tion on this account have not till recently, been rai-e. Among the Hindus of
modern ideas, intermarriage between different castes is encouraged. Nevertheless,
the exogamous limitations are seldom transgressed.
"Widow marriage which, amongst the Hindus, has almost always commenc-
ed with the levirate, not being allowed except for the artizan and menial
castes has been the cause of degradation of many an individual and group. The
Mahtons of Hoshiarpur and Jullundur are, for instance, said to have fallen from
the status of Rajputs (of which caste they appear to have been members at one
time) because they adopted widow marriage. The Gara and Rathi castes appear
to have fared similarly.
Giving away a girl in marriage, before she attains the age of puberty ia
more or less general and is looked upon as a sign of high breeding. But even
according to Slanu, it is better that a woman should remain unmarried the whole
of her life than that she should be given to an unworthy person. Consequently
failure to give away a girl before puberty is not made the occasion of social
ostracism, although the parents incur the odium of the whole brotherhood, who try
to bring all sorts of pressure to bear upon them in order to save their honour and
that of the community- The tendency now is however, against early marriage
and amongst the Hindus, the age of marriage is being raised gradually, parti-
cularly in the educated classes.
The scale of expenditure on marriages and other ceremonies is no doubt
regarded as a mark of high birth, but the standard is compared within the circle
of each caste. Reform societies, in each group, are trying hard to curtail such
expenses but for all practical purposes they have not succeeded yet in checking
extravagances.
546. Occupation which was one of the essential elements of the caste
division has now become quite a secondary consideration. Brahmans, Khatris,
Banias, Artizans and even menials are, imder the impartial treatment meted
out by the British Government, equally eligible for any occupation, provided
they possess the requisite intellectual and physical fitness. Owing, more-
over, to the laxity of caste restrictions as regards the functional distribution
alluded to in tho preceding paragraphs, no occupation can now degrade a member
of a high caste except scavenging, tanning and other unclean works. Brahmans
are found shop-keepingt; they are found in Military and other services and a
large number of thera act as cooks or other personal attendants.
• cseB " Siailriji ■ by ShiviiBth Tnitva Blinshiin, tecmid editioii, published by Natesan & Co., Madras,
■f The percentage of Brahmans who are traders by profeseiou is 76 (actual workers only).
(f
411
XI. THE CASTE SYSTEM. [ Punjab, 1911.
On the other hand Jats educated in Sanskrit are acting as teachers of
Sanskrit, a profession which for centuries was the exclusive loonopoly of the
Brahman. The case of other castes is similar. But to this day the lowest
castes ranking as touchables will disown a member who takes to a profession
which is considered unclean. What occupations are unclean, has to be decided
in each case according to the opinion of those who have to deal with the situation.
Cases of the type in which a man marrying, or interdining with, a Sweeper or
Chamar is excommunicated, are simple enough, but a high caste Brahman start-
ing Tannery works will ordinarily escape criticism, while a low caste Kahar
taking up the profession of a shoe-maker shall have to give up his caste without
doubt.
Poaching on the preserve of other members of the caste is considered Poaching on
very objectionable among the menial dependants like the barbells, and where ^^^^Pj[®^*®j^^^
caste government is strong, serious notice of the conduct of such a menial isbersofthe
taken if he attempts to work for the clients of another. But the punishment ''*^'*-
awarded is fiscal (by way of a fine) and not social. No offender would be excom-
municated for such a fault unless he refused to pay the fine, levied by the Panchayat.
So also is the case with the priests, although the coercive force is not nearly so
strong with them as amongst the trade guilds.
547. The Shudras appear to have been excluded from the Dwijas, interdining.
not because they belonged to aboriginal stock but because it was impossible for
them to observe rules of cleanliness so essential for the psycho-physical progress.
Pollution, according to the Hindus, is caused physically by the contact of sputum
and by transmission of bacteria by touch or even by the breath, while psychic
contamination is effected by the transmission of magnetism by touch and of thought
forms by association. The restrictions do not essentially imply hatred. They rather
show that each Varna wanted, by exclusive adherence to particular kinds of
food, habits and conditions of life, to fit itself for the duties assigned to it as a
social unit. Originally perhaps, there were practically no interdining restrictions
between the Dwijas, but the non-observance of Varna Ashrama Dharma and
the mixture of castes, coupled with other alienating circumstances, appear to
have led gradually to the creation of exclusive groups.
All religions have their own restrictions, but with the Hindus they have been
general, while among the Christiana and Muhammadans they are confined to the
religious orders. Not only was a Hindu required to restrict his interdining and
other relations, but he had to observe numerous fasts and institutions involving a
certain amount of trial and privation. The object of the whole system was to
shake off slavery to the physical world by obtaining an absolute mastery
over the senses through which Nature exercises its control over man. It is these
ordinances fostered in daily life which culminate in the complete conquest of the
mind by Yoga.* lu other words, the aim of the psycho-physical discipline is
to acquire a complete detachment of the soul from its physical environments.
HuJckd Pdni (which means bubble bubble and water ; i. e., smoking and Hukk4 PSni.
taking water) is the crucial test of free communal intercourse. When a man
is excommunicated, his Hulckd Pdni is stopped ; i. e., he is not allowed by
any member of the caste to smoke his bubble bubble, nor is water touched
by him, drunk by any one of them. Water can be taken from the hands of any
touchable Hindu, Jain or Sikh, but the privileges of smoking are somewhat
more rigid. Smoking together is permitted ordinarily only within each caste,
although the restrictions are growing lax every day. A Brahman will not smoke
with a Kahar, although in many places he will not mind doing so with a Rajput or
Khatri. In the Himalayas which have been more secluded than the plains, from
levelling influences, and in certain tracts of the plains where the Hindu element is
still strong, an untouchable is not allowed to pull water out of a public well which
is used by the Hindus. Chuhras and Chamars have separate wells in such places.
But in the greater part of the Province, the Muhammadans and Hindus use wells
in common and consequently the restriction is not very strong. The untouch-
ables are often allowed to pull water out of the public well, although in many
parts, particularly in the sub-montane districts of Hoshiarpur and Ambala, a
Hindu's water vessel is considered to have been defiled if an untouchable happens
* Yogah chitta brilti nirodhah ; Fataujali.
412
Census Report,] the caste ststem. Chapter
to be standing on the platform or if his bucket rope is still inside or touching
the well. The more scrupulous Hindus will even now, not take water from a
■well which is used by the unclean classes. On the other hand, in tracts where
Muhammadan influence has predominated or where water is scarce as in
the Rohtak, Gurgaon and Hissar Districts or in the western Punjab, water is
taken from leather buckets or mashakK, while in the rest of the Province leather
is considered so unclean that not only may not water be taken from a leather
vessel but if the hand touches leather, it must be washed with earth before any
food or drink is touched. But in the eastern districts mentioned above, a
Muhammadan may supply drinking water in his own mashak, while in the western
Punjab, the Hindus will have their own mashaks and will not allow a Muham-
madan to touch them. In the city of Delhi, Muhammadan Bhishtis supply
water to some Hindu houses. They are not allowed to touch the vessels of the
family, but the lid of the pitcher being uncovered by a Hindu, the Bhishti
pours water into them from his mashak, from a distance. This usage
appears to be based on the maxim Apah pavan shuddhanti ^waters are purified
by the air) the idea being that a current of water received through the air even
out of unclean hands is freed of its pollution by the time it reaches the clean
receptacle. In neither places, however, will a low caste Hindu be allowed to pollute
the"'water.
Ganges water is an exception. It is always pui'e, even though it may be in
the hands of an untouchable. The vessel in which it may be contained is also purified
by the touch of it and so ordinarily vessels of whatever metal containing
Ganges water will be admitted to the holiest place without reserve. The
more orthodox, however, sometimes regard the vessel, if touched by a low caste
man to be polluted and will therefore pour out the Ganges water into another
clean vessel before it is admitted to places of worship. A gold vessel is purified
by the air, a silver vessel with water, but base metals have to be scrubbed
with earth or ashes before being washed. It does not, however, make any difference
in the pollution of the water, if it happens to be in a vessel of the noble metals.
Pakka food. In the matter of interdining, distinction is made between pakka and
kacha food. Pakka means food cooked in ghi. Such food is classed in the same
category as fruit. Food, in the preparation of which no water has been used
e. g., when the flour is kneaded with milk, and cooked in a superfluity
of gJii (butter) does not get polluted by any one's touch, although even that may
not be eaten if an untouchable happens to be within polluting limit. The idea
is that the hand having become polluted must not touch the mouth before it is
cleaned, even if the food is unpoUutable. The term pakka food is, however, used,
now for food cooked in ghi even though water may have been used in its pre-
paration. All siveets, piiris, and other confections of the kind fall within this
clfiss. Pakka food may be eaten by the highest castes from the hands
of any but the untouchables. In some places Brahmans will avoid even pakka
food made by non-Brahmans, — (e. g., some Gaur Brahman and Brahmans in the
hills) but the ordinary Punjab Brahman makes no bones about it. The Brahmans
and Rajputs of the hills will not eat even pakka food in the same chauka,* with
the artizan or menial classes, and the Brahman will usually eat separately from
the Rajput or the Khatri.
Kacha food which means food cooked in water is more open to pollution.
Properly speaking, no caste should eat kacha food from the hands of a caste of a
lower status. Except in the central and western Punjab, a Brahman will even
now not eat kacha food from the hands of a Khatri or Rajput, nor will a Gaur
or Kashmiri Brahman do so anywhere.
Indeed, the privilege is limited to the endogamous group. But among
other castes of nearly equal status, there is practically no barrier. The Khatris,
Rajputs and Aroras have few scruples about eating together, although they wiU
not eat with Jliinwars, Nais, etc. But the Khatris, Aroras, etc., will eat kacha food
, from the hands of a Kahar. The restrictions axe strongest in the eastern Punjab
where among the Brahmans, Banias, Khatris, Kayasths, etc., kacha food may not
be removed from tho chauka in which it is cooked and persons sitting down to
eat, must sit in adjacent chaukas. Amongst the more orthodox, the elder
~ • Chauka means a circumicribed piece of ground which has been washed with cowdung and clay.
418
XI. THE CASTE SYSTEM, [ Punjab, 1911.
member of the family will not eat food cooked by the younger and the cook or
the eldest lady of the family on once entering the central chauka, where the
cooking goes on, may not leave it until food has been served out to every body.
This accounts for the custom prevailing in Delhi and other eastern Punjab towns,
as also in the United Provinces, of having only one kacha meal a day, the
evening repast consisting usually of pakka food.
Restrictions regarding pollution by proximity are far less stringent Pollution by
in the Punjab tban in the east or the south and are being relaxed more and ^^j ""^ p™"
more every day. In the old days, a person belonging to the untouchable caste
was not allowed to come within measurable distance and till recently a sweeper
walking through the streets of the larger towns, was supposed to carry a broom
in his hand or under his arm-pit as a mark of his being a scavenger and was
expected to shout out ' baeho'; ' bacho' (look out) with a view to prevent people
from being polluted. But conditions have greatly changed, and with the
necessity of travelling by I'ail, at times in the same compartment with the
lowest castes, and the equal liberty of all castes in frequenting the streets,
proximity is not considered now to cause pollution, and as long as an untouchable
does not come in actual contact, he may draw as near as possible, although he is
not permitted to be within an enclosed space with a continuous flooring or
chauka ; e.g., a Brahman and a Chuhra may not stand together in the same room
which is floored with a matting nor within a chauka or on a small platform.
But the exigencies of the times are overcoming even these restrictions.
The Gaur Brahmans, Banias, Bhabras, and other Jaius are averse to eating Meat eating
meat. Some of the Panjabi Brahmans eat meat openly and others secretly.
They are looked down upon but not excommunicated. The Kashmiri Brahmans
are meat-eaters as a class. Among the Banias and Jains, meat-eating i« a very-
serious social offence deserving no less punishment than excommunication.
The flesh of tame pig and tame fowl is prohibited by the Shastras as much
as garlic and onions,* but of the meat eaters, the Kashmiri Brahmans are the only
caste who follow the rule. Pigs are not reared except in the eastern and central
Punjab and pork is not a favourite food except among the Sikhs. But the Rajputs,
Khatris, Aroras, and other castes who eat meat have no scruples about eating tame
fowl, onion or garlic. Goat's flesh is preferred everywhere to mutton, and ducks,
pigeons and other permitted birds are eaten without distinction. But the pea-
fowl is respected generally and may neither be killed nor eaten.
The scaleless fish particularly rnalli (Wallagus Attn) is not eaten in some Fish,
parts, probably because it is supposed to be allied to the water snake ; but the
restriction is not general. The Shias are said to be strongly opposed to eating
malli&sh and the hare. No objection whatever is taken to the scaly fish by any of
the meat-eating castes.
648. The castes which wear the sacred thread are Brahman, Rajput, The sacred
Khatri, Arora, Bania (Aggarwal, Oswal, etc.,) except Jains, Sunar, Sud, Bhat, '^''^^'^
Bhatia, Bairagi, Kalal, Gosain, Mahajan, Bishnoi, Pujari, Mahton, Thakkar, Rathi,
and Kanet. The Lobar, Tarkhao and other artizans are now adopting
the sacred thread as a mark of Dwija status. Similarly Jadu Bansi and Nand
Bansi Ahirs now generally wear the thread, although the Gwal Bansis do not.
There ai'e differences regarding the details of investiture with the sacred thread.
The Brahmans and other higher caste observe it as a separate ceremony, which is
celebrated a considerable time before marriage, while other castes with a compara-
tively lower status invest the boy with the yagyopavit at the time of his marriage.
The Dhusars who claim to be Brahmans observe the latter custom and the Puris
are the only sub-caste among the Khatris who defer the investiture till marriage.
The Arya Samaj gives the sacred thread to every member of the low castes who
is elevated and the Jats are being raised to the status of Drvija by the grant of
this emblem (see paragraph 212). The cause of this novel feature is that the social
bar against the wearing of this mark of status by others than Dwijas is disappear-
ing and no one is now supposed to have a right to object, if alow caste man cares to
celebrate the sacrament. On the other hand, the castes entitled to the privilege are
in many cases discarding it on most trifling pretences. A Kayastha family in Delhi,
* Manu, V 19.
414
Census Report. ] the caste system. Chapter
for instance, gave it up because one of the members died two days after being invest-
ed with the sacred thread. The general laxity respecting the Sanshdrds (sacra-
ments) has reached the limit of even Brahtnans and Rajputs hanging the yagyo-
pavit on a peg at night and putting it on in the morning as a part of the dress,
while others will go for days and months without it, if none is handy. People
of reformed ideas have given it up altogether as a superfluous encumbrance or a
mark of superstitious barbarism. While, therefore, the sacred thread is being
adopted by some of the low castes tis a means of raising their status, the high
castes are beginning to grow indifferent to it.
Theshikha. 549. Every Hindu is Supposed to hea,r a Shikha (scalplock). It is un-
necessary to dwell here on the rationale of the sacrament. But till recently no one
was. in this Province, considered a Hindu unless he had a tuft of hair on the top of
his head. To this day, even in the western Punjab, where caste observances have,
owinc to Muhammadan influence, been rather lax, no Hindu is given water at the
chhabils (shelters where drinking water is supphed free), unless he can show a
shikha or yagyopavit. Among the educated classes, however, absence of the
scalplock is now becoming the rule rather than the exception.
The cutting of the first crop of hair is still treated as a sacred ceremony.*
But there are certain marked differences in the ceremonial among the different
castes. Some of the high caste Brahraans and even Rajputs, Kayasthas and Khatria
treat it as a regular sa7isMr and after the necessary Havan (fire sacrifice), the first
crop of hair is shaved except the scalplock, which is preserved intact and is not to
be cut unless the naan takes sanyds (i.e., retires from the world). Some of these
castes perform the ceremony at a sacred place, e.g., some temple, or place of
pilgrimage such as the Ganges or Katas. They shave the whole head without
keeping any portion of the first crop. A few days after, a second shaving takes
place and on this occasion a tuft of hair is preserved on the top of the head and
is allowed to grow untouched thereafter. Most of the other castes follow the
same procedure. Among the Rajputs of Kangra, the first crop is removed at
some Devata's temple, but only with the scissors, the maternal uncle doing the
necessary clipping. A razor must not touch the hair until the investiture with
the sacred thread. The scalplock is preserved at the first cutting of the hair.
On the occasion of the yagyopavit ceremonyj the father and mother are called
upon to cut the shikha of the boy with a pair of scissors after which the barber
shaves the whole head clean and the shikha is preserved at the next shaving.
The low castes, including the sweepers, have a peculiar custom. Immediately
after birth, they cut off a few hair and preserve them carefully as the s»chchi
jhand (the unpolluted hair) ; and later on, have the hair clipped on an auspicious
day, preserving the shikha. It is not essential to shave the head, but the parents
sometimes observe a subsequent ceremony, when the head is shaved with the
exception of the scalplock.
Loss of the sacred thread or shikha was till recently considered to be an
unmistakable mark of fall from Einduism involving excommunication from the
caste, but circumstances have so changed that, although the orthodox sections of
certain castes, still hold aloof from persons violating these essential emblems of
Hinduism, the penalty of excommunication from the caste, as a whole, is seldom
enforced.
I'fationb ^^^' Initiation by the Guru is going out of fashion, but no caste is
the Guru. ^ debarred from adopting a Guru. Those wearing the sacred thread generally
content themselves with the initiation at the investiture. Mow and then, a person
raligiously inclined s^eks a preceptor with a view to better his futui'e life or to
obtain salvation. A person usually finds a Guru suitable to his caste and status, but
there are instances of the lowest castes receiving spiritual or occult instructions
from very highly advanced Brahmans or ascetics, and at Kapurthalal came across
a Chuhra Sadhu who said he had imparted teachings to members of high castes
without touchiug them, although the story should perhaps be taken with a pinch
of salt. The realm of occultism is however above the phme of caste distinction,
but birth in a high caste, which is reckoned as a sign of spiritual advancement in
previous lives, is supposed to create the mental fitness to profit by spiritual
instructions suited to that grade.
* Sven the Mahammidans will not remove the first crop except »t a shrine or with a certain ceremonial.
415
SI. CASTE GOVEENMENT. [ Punjab. 1911.
Caste Government-
SSI. The influence of society in enforcing its unwritten social laws is General,
familiar to every counti-y. In India the close relationship existing between religion
and social distinction has created a complicated set of rules for each community and
necessitated the organization of social tribunals to adjudicate on all questions regard-
ing their breach. Such institutions, which are now strongest in the eastern Punjab
were, at one time, general throughout the Province and traces thereof are still
visible even in the western districts, where the waves of Muhammadau invasions
and the influence of Islam had reduced the Hindu community to a small minority.
Caste Government is found in the out-of-the-way Himalayan tract. It
exists in a pronounced form in the Simla Hill States and even in the isolated tract
of Kulu, where the Kanets of Malana have a regular Panchayat. On the other
hand castes observing the PancLiiyat system are found as far west as Rawalpindi.
Generally speaking, however, Caste Government is now confined to the lower
orders and is being driven out of the higher castes by the introduction of
education and development of the ideas of individual rights. A specific instance
of this has been reported from the Rohtak District, where in village Gaddi Kheri
on a dissension between the Jats and the Nais, the former were not strong
enough to coerce the I'anchayat of the Nais who determined to boycot them and
carried out their resolution. Panchayats are common iu the eastern Punjab,
because the tract has been comparatively free of the levelling influence of
Islam and the Hindu element is still considerable there. On the other hand
the instinct iir not dying out, but the old Panchayat is beit\g replaced in educated
circles by Conferences and Sabbas confined to castes like the Arora, Khatri,
Kayastha, Rajput, Brahman, Kamboh, Kakkezai, and groups of snb-castes like
Bunjahi and Khukhrain Khatris, on reformed lines.
The governing body is called a Panchajat, derived from Panch meaning
five. Originally therefore the tribtmal consisted of five members and neither more
nor less. The Panchayat is held in great reverence almost on the same level as
gods and the sacred places of pilgrimage, as testified by the sayings, " Panchon men
Parmeshar hai " meaning, there is God in the five. The council is often addressed
by the confessing offenders thus " Panchayat Ganga I Mere gundh mudfkaro " (For-
give my faults) with a view to obtain pardon for the offence. The coercive powers
of the Panchayat would naturally inspire awe in the offender but the investiture of
five persons with the unlimited power of tahoo would appear to be due to a belief
in the highly spiritual effect of a combination of five. The worship of five gods
and five saints, the purificatory power of the Panch Gavya, the five elements, the
five Prdnas, the five Mahdyajnds (daily sacrifices), the Pnnj Pidrds (5 persons
initiated by Guru Gobind Singh at the outset) and 5 essentials of Sikhism, 5
prayers among the Muhammada.us, and the grant of 5 dates in the western
Punjab, as alms, called ' Panja,' are some of the instances of the importance of the
number 5, not only in Hindu mythology but also in other religions. Each
member of the council was called a Panch, that is, one of the five, and the term
has now come to be adopted for any leader of the brotherhood, 'i'he decision of
the Panchayat is still regarded, among the lower castes at all events, as a divine
decree.
The results of detailed enquiries made in pursuance of the Census Commis-
sioner's instructions are given in the following paragraphs.
552. In the present stage of growing anarchy in Caste Government, it is Classes of
impossible to arrive at a hard and fast classification of the Panchayats, but those Pancha-
now existing may be divided roughly into : — (1) Fixed and (2) Elective, each of yats.
them being sub-divided into — (a) those with territorial jurisdiction (i) local, i.e.,
limited to a small locality, {ii) general, i.e., extending over a large area, and
(/;) with tribal jurisdiction. In the fixed Panchayat, the membership is either
hereditary, that is, the descendants of those who were appointed to the office in
the remote past have the right of succession by virtue of birth ; or vacancies in
the permanent council are filled by representatives nominated by the caste.
In the second kind representatives are elected from time to time for each
meeting. But there is also a third system of Panchayat, which may be called demo-
cratic, in which all the male members of the community, constitute the
governing body and every member, important or unimportant, old or young, who
Census Report, ]
416
CASTE GOVEENMENT.
Cbapteh
Cia)
r Hereditary
1. Fixed ]
C Representative
2. Elective
Democratic
Sabbas and ConfereDcea.
553.
(i)
(»•)
(6)
With territorial
jurisdiction.
Local.
General.
can attend a meeting, has a say in the matter. The new societies and sabhas form
a distinct class. The classification is noted in the margin. This classification of
the Panchayats is based solely on its consti-
tution and jurisdiction, but does not affect
their functions. The scope of their coer-
cive powers depends upon local or tribal
usage, and whether the Panchayat belongs
to one class or the other makes little
difference. The institution is strongest
among the artizan and menial servant
classes.
Castes 553. Almost every Hindu caste, and not a few Muhammadan castes of
which have Hindu origin, are supposed to have a governing body, known as the Panchayat,
governing Bhdichdrd or Birddari (brotherhood) which fall under one or other of the
bodies- categories enxunerated. The information received in respect of ench is given
.below in tabular form —
With tribal
jurisdiction.
Locality.
Hissar ...
Bohtak
GnrgaoQ
Delhi ...
Karnal
Ambala
Simla Hill States and
District
Kangra ...
Hoshiarpur
Perozepore
Lahore
Amritsar
Gurdaspur
Sialkot
Shahpnr
Rawalpindi
Jind ... _.
Bahawalpar
Faridkot
Hissar ...
Hoahiarpnr
Gnjranwala
Ferozepore
Amritsar
Sialkot
Shabpar
Jallnndar
Faridkot
Castes.
I (a).— Fixed Panchayats with terkitoeial jurisdiction.
Bishnoi, Chamdr, Khdti, Khoja, Nai, Kumhar, Teli, MAli, Lohir,
Dhanak.
Ch^mar, Dhanak, Kabdr, Nai (Hindu and Mahammadan), Mirasi,
Raj, Bharbhnnja, Knnjra, Kanchan, Mali (in Gobana Tahsil only),.
Lobar, Mani4r, Teli, Khdti, Kumhar, Cbnhra.
Kumhar, Chuhra, Cbamar, N6i, Saqqa, Dbobi (Muhammadan), M^Ii,KoIi,
Kunjra, Teli, Multdni, Lobar, Thatbiar, Khali, Dbanak, Dakaunt,
Bawaria, Snuar, Khatik, Bhatiara, Achdraj, Ghhippi.
Cbnhra.
Jat, Mali, Cbnhra, Cbamar, Dbanak, JNii, Kumhar, Jbinwar, Bhar-
bhanja, Pnrbia (Hindu), Arain, Dbobi, Teli, Saqqd, Bbatiara, N&i, Dum,
Lobar, Jogi. fy*
Kuchbandh, Dhai, Nnngar, Kayasth, Cbamar, NAi, Chuhra, Kuzagar,
Qassab, AggarY?al, Brahman, Saini, Julaba, Jogi, Lobar, Tarkhdn.
All castes.
Cbamar, Jbinwar, Darein, Batheru gronp of Brabmans, Cbamdr, Dum,.
Batwal, Nai, Bazigar, Brahman.
Rajput, Mahton, Jhinwar, Cbamar.
Cbamar, Cbnhra, Mehrd, Bawaria, Bishnoi.
Dbobi, Cbamar, Pui-bi4.
Sansi.
Jhinwar, Sansi, Chuhra, Porbii, Changar, Qalandar, Batigar.
Jhinwar, Sansi.
Sansi.
Bbabra.
Afrgarwal, Chhimba, Khatri, Jat (Sikh and Mnbammadan), Kamboh,
Oswfil, Chuhra, Nai, Jbinwar, Teli, Kumb4r, Cbamar, Lob&r, Saqqi,
Mirasi, Biloch, Qassab, Brahman, Sunar, Rajput, Maniar, Dhobi^
Tarkban, Rrthbari, Mdli, Dbanak, Kayasth, Knnjra.
Arora, Khatri, Brahman, Bhatia, Jogi, Bhanqi-
Bhabra.
I (&). — Fixed Panchayats with tribal jukisdictios.
Bishnoi.
Nai, Bbarai.
Sansi.
Bishnoi, Nil.
Marwdri-Bazigar, Panjabi-Bazigar, Kanjar, Sanai.
Mahajan.
Golola.
Barar, Gandhila, Bangali, Bazigar, Baddnn.
Sansi.
XI.
417
CASTE GOVEENMENT.
[ Punjab, 1911-
Locality.
Castes.
Rohtak
Gurgaon
Eangra
Jullundui'
Jiod
Faridkot
Rohtak
Delhi ...
JuUundur
Ferozepore
Amritsar
MuBafFargarh
Jhelum
Bahawalpur
Delhi ...
Kangra
Hoshiarpur
Jullundai'
Jbelnm
Rawalpindi
II. — Elective.
Khatik.
Dhobi (Hindu).
Sad, Brahman, Jhinwar, Darein, Chamar (Hamirpur Tahsil), Ghirath, Tar-
khan.
Jhinwar, Nai, Chamar, Chuhra.
Sirdj and Kumhar.
Bawaria, Chamar.
III. — Democeatio.
Mali (excluding Gobana Tahsil), Dhobi, Darzi, Saqq&.
Jat, Aggarwal, Dhobi, Teli, Sheikh, Chamar, Lobar,
Chuhra.
Dhobi, Parbia (Hindu).
Mochi (Hindu).
Purbia.
All Hindas.
Hindustani (Pnrbii)
Bdnia, Kanjar. Kutdnd.
IV. — Sabhas and Confkeences,
Gaur Brahman.
Mahajan.
Rajput, Mahton.
Ditto.
Khatri (Bahri), Arorbans.
Ahluwaiia, Khatri (Bunjahi), Khatri (Khnkhrain).
Khdti, Dbanak,
Note. — There are Sabhas and Conferences for almost every high caste, e.g., Khatris, Aroras, Brahmaos, etc., in
Lahore which are supposed to represent the whole caste in the Province, while the Hindu Sabha and the Anju-
man-i-Himayat-i -Islam deal with matters relating to the Hindu and Muslim community respectively as a whole.
554. In castes having defined sub-divisions, there is a Panchayat for each The unit
sub-caste or group, but in the artizan or menial castes, where the sub-divisions are represented
not very defined or where the numerical strength of the whole caste is small, there by the Pan-
is one governing body for the whole caste. In the Rohtak District, Hindu Nais, chayat.
Bharbhunjas and Lohars have separate Panciiayats for their sub-castes, and in
Gurgaon, Jentia and Chada Chamars, Goela and Ban Bhairo Nais and Jadu Malis
have separate Panchayats. In Delhi the Jats, Aggarwals, Dhobis, Telis, Sheikhs,
Chamars, Lohars, Khar is, Dhanaks, andChuhras have Panchayats by sub-castes but
they meet together when questions afPecting a whole caste have to be dealt with.
Then again, the Gaur and Sarsut Brahmans have separate Panchayats (if any), and *
in Kangra, the Nagarkotia, Batheru, Dogra and Halwah have separate governing
bodies. Among the Khatris, the Bahris of Jhelum, the Bunjahis and Khukhrains
of Rawalpindi have been reported to have separate organizations, and in Lahore
every large group of Khatris is supposed to have a Panchayat of its own (although
their powers are very restricted). The Aroras have separate Panchayats for
Utradhi, Dakhna, and Uahra sections but in Bahawalpur, the Sindhi Aroras
have also a separate governing body.
As a result of the system of a whole village belonging to a caste or a
strong section thereof, its whole population has so far been, and in certain
tracts is still, knitted together by a strong communal tie. The various .social
factors, contributing to the body, deal with their respective affairs within
their own circles, b-.it in matters concerning the administration of the whole
village, the Panchsiyats of the smaller units merge into that of the principal
owners of the village, to form a tribunal whose deci.^inn is binding on the
whole community. This constitiition is now disappearing, but there seems to
be no doubt whatever about its effectiveness in the past ; for even to
this dayi matters are settled in this manner in some of the villao-es in
the eastern and also in the central Punjab. The repeated efforts to establish
418
Census Report, ] caste qovkenmknt. Chapter
village Panchayats dealing -with petty civil cases are an attempt to revive
this institution, and the elaborate system introduced by the Patiala State and
referred tc in paragraph 570 is nothing more or less than the legalization of
references of civil disputes to the arbitration of such tribunals.
Castes hav- 555. The castes faUing under class I, have fixed governing bodies, whether
iS| commit- the members are hereditary or appointed by election. All disputes relating to
tee- caste discipline are referred to them as a matter of course.
Methods of 556. On principle, the Panches (also called Chaudhris or Mehtars) are
appoint- representatives and have to be elected. But as a rule the most influential and
ment well-to-do persons are called upon to discharge the duties and the association of
the leaders of villages, etc., with the office, has led in some places to the creation
of a birth-right. This type of Panchayat is common in the Gurgaon, particularly
around Rewari. Among the Kuchbands, Dhes and Chuhras of Ambala, too,
the office of Panch descends by the rule of primogeniture.
Where the office of a Panch is considered hereditary, no fresh appoint-
ments have to be made except in the case of the death of a member without male
issue or of serious misconduct by him, which is resented unanimously by the
community, and he is either excommunicated or forced by the unanimous vote
of the caste to vacate his office. In such cases the vacancy is filled by the
nomination of another person who is considered by the whole body to be a fit
representative. But in castes which do not recognize the hereditary status of
the Panches, fit representatives are nominated by the brotherhood assembled in a
meeting, to fill up each vacancy as it occurs. The standing council however
remains fixed. This type of Panchayat is the most common throughout the
Province. In the castes falling under the elective system, the body of represent-
atives is elected from time to time by the members of the caste or sub-caste as the
case may be, and their term of office terminates with the decision of the questions
referred at the sitting. Instances of this kind are found among the Bhabras of
Rawalpindi, Serajis and Kumhars of Jind, Chamars of Bahawalpur, Bawarias of
Faridkot and Ghiraths and Tarkhans of Kangra. The Bhabras elect five represen-
tatives on the spot; the Chamars nominate one man from each village, the Bawarias
pick out four men for eveiy meeting ; the Ghiraths invite the leading members of
the community on each occasion and the Tarkhans appoint four Panches and one
Sarpaneh (chief member) wherever a tribunal is required.
The democratic type shows some independence of views but it is often
a very strong governing body. For example the Khatiks, Malis, Dhobis,
Darzis, and Saqqas of Rohtak ; the Dhobis, Chamars and Purbias of Lahore
have no standing Panchayat nor do they authorize a few representatives
to adjudicate on disputed matters. The whole community has the right of
giving the decision. They assemble and elect a headman for the time, to
conduct the proceedings. Matters are settled by unanimous consent.
In the Sabhas and Conferences all adult inale members of the caste are
supposed to be members, but the executive or managing body consists of a selected
few. Delegates from different localities assemble at periodical conferences.
Number of 557. As already noted, the number constituting a Panchayat was originally
members, five, but this rule is now adhered to only by some of the castes which have a local
or tribal organization. These are the Brabmans, Khatris and Aroras of Bahawalpur,
Lobars of Muktsar, Bhabras of Rawalpindi, Nais of Hoshiarpur, Chamars,
Dums, Niiis and Bazigars of Kangi-a, Chamars of Palwal and Nais of Gurgaon. In
many cases the fifth, who is generally the chief, has been dropped, e.g. by the Sansis
of Gujranwala and Sialkot, Pernas of Amritsar, Chuhras and Kohs of Gurgaon,
Chuhans of Delhi and the Dhes of Ambala. A few castes have a number vary-
ing above or below five. The Dhobis of Lfihore have 4 to (3, the Kumhars of
Gurgaon have 4 to 8, Multanis of the same district have 8 to 10. The multipli-
cation of influential men probably resulted in raising the strength of the council.
Among the Bishnois the Panchayat consists of 10. They trace their institution
350 years back when a Panchayat is said to have been appointed by their patron.
Saint Jambhaji. There may be some peculiar significance of the number 10 in con-
nection with the alleged origin of the system. But the Chamars of Dera (in Kangra)
also have as many as 10 or 12 members in the Panchayat. The Mahtons of
Hoshiarpur have 4 to 37 members in each of their villages. In the democratic
419
'XI. 0A8TE GOVERNMENT. [ Punjab. 1911.
type of Panchayat no number is fixed as all present constitute the tribunal for
■the time being. In Panchayats with territorial jurisdiction, the organization is quite
different. There is usually a central institution with one man at its head. A
number of villages or tappdif (groups of villages) are afiBliated to it, each of them
with a permanent Panch. All these Panches go to form the Panchayat under the
Presidentship of the chief man. In the local units, each Panch adds a few of the
influential local members of the community to form a local Panchayat, the
number is therefore not fixed.
558. The following translation of the report of the Tahsildar of Rewari Jurisdic-
(Pandit Amar Nath) illustrates the nature of the organization of which the Caste tion.
Oovernment in the Gurgaon District is a remnant.
" During^ the Moghal rule and in more ancient times, the kingdom of Delhi was
considered to be t lie (Sarpajic/i, (chief iirbitrator) for all castes throughout the country; and
all the caste representatives who attended the Durbar were recognized as the Sarpanches
(chief arbitrators) of their respective castes. They had under them Panches of Subds
(Provinces), lldkds (Divisions), Tappds (groups of villages) and villages. Local Panchdyats
■were held for a village, Tappd, Ildkd or Suhd according to necessity ; but questions affect-
ing a caste in the whole country were decided in a general assembly of representatives held
at the Metropolis (Delhi). The nucleus has now disappeared, but the local organization
is still extant in villages, Tnppds and lldkds. For instance in the Ildkd of Rewari with 360
villages, there were 22 Panches in charge of Tappds and one Sarpanch at the head-
quarters of the lldha, i.e., Rewari. The number of Panches of Tappds has however, dwindl-
ed down to 8 or 10 but their control still centres the Sarpanch of Rewari. The appointments
of Sarpanch and Panches are hereditary."
The jurisdiction of the Sarpanch assisted by the Panches of the Tappds
■extends to the whole Ildkd. Within the Tappd, the Tappddar (representa-
tive of the group of villages) exercises the powers with the help of the
•village Panches, who in turn decide matters of local importance in the
.presence of the local community. This body of Panches is known as Panchayat
-and the decision of each, in his respective jurisdiction, is final, being
respected more than even a civil decree which is open to appeal. This ig an
instance of the Panchayat of the Territorial hereditary type, and with slight
modifications, the system is followed by all castes of this class in the eastern
Punjab. Some pecuhar features of the local Panchayats will be of interest. In the
Rohtak District there are three centres of the Chamar Panchayat, viz., at Gohana,
Rohtak and Jhajjar, with a Chaudhri (equivalent to Sarpanch) at each place.
Under each of them there are 5 to 7 Tappds, each Tappd again having a smaller
Chaudhri called Mehtar, who controls the society in the villages of the Tappd.
Dhanaks and Kahars of the district have also a similar organization, the only
difference being that the Kahars call the headman Panch instead of Chaudhri.
The Maniars of Jhajjar have two groups of four villages each called the upper
and lower Ohosera with a resident Chaudhri who is responsible for the work of the
unit. The Khatis of Rohtak have a very elaborate organization. There is one
Panchayat embracing 52 villages in the Gohana Tahsil called Bawan Majra,
another for 84 villages in Rohtak, known as Chorasi Khera, a third for 24 in
Jhajjar termed Haveli, a fourth for 20 villages of the Maham Ildkd called Bisi,
and a fifth for 360 villages constituting the Kharkhauda tract also known as Daltil
or Dhia. These divisions do not correspond with the administrative units. At
•the headquarters of each group there is a head Chaudhri and in the first four
he has several Chaudhris under him in charge of Tappds. In the Kharkhauda
Panchayat there are no Tappds and the chief Chaudhri deals direct with the village
representatives. The Rohtak group is the most important and a conference dealing
with questions affecting the community in general is not considered complete unless
the Rohtak Panchayat is represented. The Chuhras of Rohtak have also a similar
territorial system, each village having a Mehtar or Chaudhri of its own who,
•with the brotherhood, forms the local Panch4yat. Bat the assembled Chaudhris
of the territorial groups mentioned above constitute the Panchayat for the Ildkd.
The Gurgaon District has a pecuhar feature in the way of having a process-
serving establishment attached to Panchayat oGBce-bearers. In the town of
Palwal, the Chuhras have four Chaudhris and two peons. This caste alleges to
have a chief at Delhi and his Wazir at Palam, and in cases of extreme impor-
tance they have to be invited at great expense to visit the locality and
Census Report, ]
420
CASTE GOVERNMENT.
Cb AFTER
Matters
dealt with
by Pancha-
yats.
give their verdict. The Chamars of this district have also an elaborate
ierritorial divisiou of their own like the Khdtis of Rohtak. The Jatia Panchayat of
Sohna, with one Cbaudhri at its head has jurisdiction over 360 villages in the
neighbourhood and the Chaudhris of the Palwal Panchayat are assisted by a
Harkdra (peon). Some Panchayats of the district have two Thoundds (peons)
to each Cbaudhri. Each Panchayat of Nais has four or five Chaudhris with one
Ghobddr (baton bearer) who acts as their emissary for summoning offenders and
collecting the brotherhood or Panchayat. In the Panchayat of the Ban Bhairo
section of Nais, each Chaudhri has four Chakraits (menials) under him for the
same duty.
The special feature of the Saqqa Panchayat of Gurgaon is that it has a
Chaudhri, a Mausiff and a Pedda (process-server) in addition to the members who
vary from 20 to 50, according to the number of villages included in the
group. The Nais of Hoshiarpur have an elected body of five persons which ex-
ercises jurisdiction over 327 villages and the similar Panchayat of the Jhinwars
deals with a group of 66 villages. In the Jhin war Panchayat of Sialkot, the
Panch is assisted by a Kotiudl (messenger) and a Bedak (informer).
In the Jind State, the Aggarwal, Oswal, Khatri, Jat and Chhimba castes
have a Panchayat for each village and town appointed by the State, Other
castes have Panchayats of similar jurisdiction which are not officially recognized.
The Jogi Panchayat of Bahawalpur located at Ahmadpur Sharkia is
presided over by a Mahant assisted by a Wazir (Minister) and a Katwdl and has
jurisdiction over the Jogis throughout the State.
The jurisdiction of the tribal type of Panchayat extends over the caste
throughout a larger area, with local establishments for places where the caste is
found in abundance. Most of the castes falling in this class are nomadic, such as
Bawarias, Sansis, Bazigars. Kangars, but certain other castes, e.g., Bishnois and
Bharais also have governing bodies with tribal jurisdiction. In the nomadic castes
each group has one or more Panches who decide local questions from time to time.
But matters of importance have to be reserved for the general governing
body which assembles once a year at some fair. The whole brotherhood then
comes together and all pending questions are brought up for decision. The
Kangars alone have a fixed Panchayat, consisting of two men who decide questions
relating to the whole caste between the Ravi and Beas rivers, to which tract the
caste is practically confined.
The Bishnois have a central Panchayat at a place called Mukam in Bikaner,
which exercises jurisdiction over Hissar, Ferozepore, Bikaner, Jaipur and Jodh-
pur. A fair is held at this place twice a year in the middle of Asauj (beginning
of October) and middle of Phagan (beginning of March) and all important
questions relating to the caste are brought before the Panchayat for decision.
The Bharais of Hoshiarpur, JuUundur, Ludhians, Ambala and Bilaspur have
recently established a central Panchayat at Hoshiarpur with tribal jurisdiction.
The democratic type of Panchayat deals with questions relating to the
caste in the locality to which the members assembled belong.
559. The matters of which the Panchayats usually take cognizance and a
few instances of enforcement of the action taken by them in regard to offences of
varying degrees reported from some of the districts are mentioned below : —
(1), All breaches of caste rules relating to matrimony and death, e.g., breach
of contract of betrothal, dishonourable conduct in respect of marriage, improper
behaviour of husband or wife towards each other, failure to perform after-death
rites of a deceased person, etc. (a). A Jhinwar of Kartrirpur was fined Ra. 50
for breach of a contract of betrothal, (t). In village Nadalon a Mahton
married a woman of another caste. He was ordered by the Panchayat to
feed the members of his caste in that village and to go and bathe in the
Ganges. He complied with the order, (c). A Dhobi sold another man's wife.
Be was fined Rs. 52. (d). A Muhammadan Lobar in the Rohtak District
married a woman of another caste. He was turned out of the brotherhood.
(2). Interference with marriage and death ceremonies of another member
of the caste ; for instance, if a man creates disturbance at some mari'iage cere-
monies on an unwarrantable excuse, or attempts to prevent the due performance
of after-death rites.
421
XI. CASTR GOVERNMENT. [ Punjab, 1911-
(3). lllegdl intimacy, (a) A sweeper widow in Rohtak District had
illegal intimacy with her father-in-law. Her mother-iu-law called the Panchayat.
He was excommunicated. The Panchayat took chai'ge of the woman and gave
her in mari'iage to a man of their choice, {l) The wife of a Dhobi in the
Amritsar District had illicit connection with her husband's younger brother.
The Panchayat ordered that the man should be covered over with a blanket
and kicked 5 times by each member of,the Pancliayat. He was, however, pardoned
after he had been kicked by only four of them.
(4). Carrying of a carcase of an animal against custom.
(5). Failure to discharoe a valid debt.
(6). Breach of social laws to which a caste is subject, (a) In the
town of Hissar some Mali women went to sell vegetables in the bazar. The
families concerned were excommunicated and were not re-admitted till they had
paid fines ranging from annas 8 to Rs 2 each- (6) The Mahtons in the
JuUundur and Hoshiarpur Districts do i.ot allow women to go to another
village for condolence, uidess the deceased was very closely related. A woman
belonging to a village called Panjaur broke this rule and was fined Re. 1-4.
(c) The Bishnois have a very humanitarian code of rules. Permitting any
one to shoot animals, selling a cow or bullock to a MuhammJtdan, drinking,
meat-eating, castrating an animal, failure to perform sufficient Praydshchit
(penance) after unintentional murder of a cow are refen-ed to the Panchayat.
A Bishnoi in the Ferozepore District gave permission to a Muhammadan to
shoot. The others tried to stop him, but the man who had given permission
resisted. He was fined Rs. 51. The fine was not paid for six months and for
that period he remained excommunicated from the caste, {d) In the Hissar
District, the Jats will not allow a bullock or a cow to be sold to a butcher
and the offences against this rule are also dealt with by the Panchayat.
(In the Hissar Tahsil a Jat sold an old bullock to a butcher. He was
fined He. 1-4).
(7). Breach of trust and fraud. (A barber in Gurdaspur District arrang-
ed a fictitious aUiance. He was fined Rs. 25 and had to feed the brotherhood.)
(8). Failure to attend when summoned by the Panchayat.
(9). Cases of immorality, elopement and enticing away of women,
(a) In Kosli, Rohtak District, a woman conceived from her husband's elder
brother and confessed her guilt to the Panchayat. The man was excom-
municated and fined Rs. 25. But he was pardoned on giving a dinner to the
whole brotherhood and paying a nominal fine of Re. 1-4. (/;) In the town of
Bhiwani, the wife of a Chamar who had eloped with a Dhanak was taken back
by her husband. He was excommunicated from the brotherhood, but re-
admitted on turning out his wife and paying a fine of Rs. 25. (c) A Kunjra
in Rohtak District enticed away the wife of another Kunjra. He was fined
Rs. lUO and was ordered to give his daue;hter or sister in marriage to whom-
soever the Panchayat might nominate or in default to pay Rs. 25. He com-
plied with the latter alternation. The woman was fined Rs. 5 and the five
abettoi's had to pay from Re. 1 to Rs. 5 each.
The .':bove subjects are common to Hindu and Muhammadan Panchayats.
But the most important questions dealt with by the flindn bodies are — Smoking
the hnkka (bubble bubble) with a member of another caste, and eating or
drinking from the hands of a person outside the circle of interdining. (It may
be noted here that if a Muhammadan belonging to a caste with a Panchayat
smokes with a Chamar he has to be tried by the tribunal and fo atone for his-
offence according to the dictates of a Maulvi.)
But certain questions are taken up by the Panchayats of certain castes
only. The Malis of Gurgaon (and perhaps some other castes as well) take
notice of a person who charges a bride-price. A Kunjra puicha«ing vegetables
from a field or market without the knowledge of other members of the caste ha»
to stand before the tribunal and a Teli buying uncleaned rapeseeti for his mill or
sending a married woman to the bazar to sell oil has to explain his conduct. In
the Hamirpur Tahsil of Kangra all Panchayats adjudicate on boundary disputes..
The Turbia Panchayats will hear and decide civil disputes of all kinds, and
in Gurdaspur even criminal cases of simple hurt are decided by the caste tribunal..
Censns Report, ]
422
CASTE OOVEENMENT.
Chapter
Institution 560. In cases of personal injury, the aggrieved party appeals to the
of proceed- Panchayat by making a I'epresentation to the local office-bearer who takes the
ings- necessury steps on behalf of the Panchayat. But in matters, religious or social,
affecting the caste as a whole, the Panchayat may take action on the report of any
person whatsoever, on a reference made by any of its members or of its own
accord.
Advice of 561. Generally speaking, the Brahmans or priests have no hand in Caste
Brahmans Government and are not consulted in matters dealt with by the Panchayat except
(priests), when a religious question is involved or if it has to be ascertained what puri-
ficatory ceremonies must be performed according to the Shastras or the Shara.
In such cases the advice of a Brahman or Mulla is taken, but the adoption of the
suggestion rests with the Panchavat. In the Simla Hill States, however, the Brah-
man is referred to more frequently than elsewhere, and in the eastern Punjab his
voluntary intercession on behalf of one of the parties carries much weight.
Convening 562. No procedure is laid down for the Panchaj-ats in any of the castes,
a Pancha- and the proceedings which are never reduced to writing are very simple and brief,
jat. Proceedings are instituted summarily as mentioned above. The agency usually
employed for summoning the members of the Panchayat, tlie parties concerned
and the brotherhood, is some village menial, such as, the Nai or Mirasi, unless
the Panchayat has its recognized messengers known as Ghohdars, Kottcals, Sdkhi,
Peddns, etc. Among the Kuchbands of Ambala, the aggrieved person has
to go to all four members of the Panchayat before they give orders to the
Sdkhi, to summon the other party and arrange for a meeting of the brotherhood.
In certain castes, the officers of the Panchayat are paid. For instance, among the
Jhinwars the messenger called 'Kotwal' is paid 2 annas if the assembly is lo be a
local one, but 4 annas if Panches of other villages have also to be called in. In
other castes they get a small fee out of the fine, if any, imposed on the person
accused. In case of Panchayats of the democratic type, the aggrieved person, with
the help of a few influential members of the caste, arranges to collect the brother-
hood. At the assemblage of the Pancliayat and the members of the community,
one of the Panches calls upon the aggrieved person to state his case and
to produce his evidence, and after this has been done, the other party — i.e.,
the person accused — is asked to present his side of the case. Since the Pan-
chayat always consists of local people who know the parties well and are in touch
with the occurrences tci which the complaint relates, it is not at all difficult for
them to arrive at the correct conclusion. The Panches usually have a considtation
and manage somehow or other to come to an unanimous decision, which is
announced there and then. It is only in rare cases of exceptional importance or
involving the production of lengthy evidence that the proceedings h,>ve to be pro-
longed for two or three days. The decision of the Panches is accepted by tlie bro-
therliood without demur. In the Panchayats of the democratic type, consultations
sometimes lead to hot discussions but the opinion of the more influential members
prevails in the end. Among the Mahajatis of Sialkot, an application is made in
writing to the Panchayat which makes a preliminary local enquiry, and if the
complaint appears to be true, a regular assembly is convened and the other party is
summoned to make his defence. In the Jnliundur District, wh^-n the veracity of
a person accusing another of a breach of caste lulea is doubted, he is required to
invite the members of the brotherhood himself, and prove his stntemr-nt before
the Panchayat proceeds to take action against the offender. The commonest
device for ascertaining the true facts i« to put one or both parties on
oath. Very often one of the parties offers to bind himself by the other's
statement on oath, but the cour.se is also adopted if the Panches find
it difficult to form a definite opinion The person concerned makes his
statement with some sacred book or Ganges water on his head or in
his hands. The oath is generally administertd to Hindus in a temple and to a
Miihammadan in a mosque. The firm belief that a false oath under such circum-
etances is bound to result in some catastrophy has so far inspired the liars with
the fear ( f God. But it is stated that cases of perjury even under the above con-
ditions are becoming rather common, nnd that compared with the chance of
going to a recognized court of justice, tlie decisioi.s of the Panchayat give less
satisfaction.
423
XL CASTE GOVEBNMEKT. [Punjab, 1911.
Altliougli the Panchayats do not, as a rule, resort to empirical tests with a
view to determine the guilt or innocence of pafties, yet the existence of such
practices in some of the lower castes would seem to imply a more general accept-
ance by the fatahstic populace of decisions based on such methods of administer-
ing justice, in the old days. Among the Pernas of Amritsar, in cases in
which it is difficult to determine whether the one or the other party is telling the
tmtli, the Panchayat makes three balls of kneaded flour, the Chaudhri puts a rupee
in one of them and a pice in each of the other two and the balls are thrown into a
pitcher full of water. Each party is asked to withdraw a ball from the pitcher.
The person choosing the ball with the rupee is adjudged to be on the right.
563. The punishment awarded for offences against religion and for breach Matters regu-
of casto rules varies with the locality, the status of the caste, the seriousness of tenc^
the offence, and the position of the offender. All these determining features
are considered by the Panchayat in passing the sentence.
5G4. The commonest form of punishment is a 6ne, the amount of which The nature of
generally varies inversely with the status of the caste. Among the castes given to awarded*"
smoking, the offender is often subjected to the disgrace of preparing the smoking
bowl (hukka) for the Chaudhris. The punishment ot requiring the person condemned
to place the Chaudhri's shoes on his own head, or in less serious cases to carry the
shoes and place them before the Chaudhri to wear, is resorted to in most castes.
It amounts to an unqualified apology. Where fines are not imposed the offender
is required to feed the Panchayat or sometimes the whole community. It is only
for very grave offences that the person accused is excommunicated* from the
society and certain penances oidained by the Shastras or the Shara have to be
performed before he can claim re-admission into the community. In the eastern
Punjab specific punishments are prescribed for various offences in almost all
castes having Panchayats. In the Rohtak District, the fine varies from Re. 1
to Es, 1 00, but when the penalty is heavy, an abatement is allowed at the time of
payment. Among the Chuhras of Gurgaon the minor offences are punished by a
Nazrdna (present) of Rs. 2 to the Chaudhri, e.g., for poaching on the preserve
of another member, i.e., for usurping his birt (the aggrieved person has also
to be restoied to his right). But for more serious offences the accused has to
pay a fine of Rs. 11 and to feed the brotherhood. The compensation allowed
for the abduction of a woman is from Rs. 25 to 50. Among the Chamars of the
Gurgaon District, the marriage of a widow performed contrary to the custom in
vogue is voidable at the instance of the Panchayat and besides the restoration of
the woman to her lawful guardians, the seducer has to pay a fine of Rs. 15 to
Rs. 20 and a Nazrdna of Re. 1 to the Chaudhri. The Nais have similar rules,
but the amount of fine to be paid for a breach of professional etiquette is
Rs. 4. The Mahs and Kolis of the District set a higher value on their women, the
compensation for the abduction of a woman being Ks. 65 and Rs. 100 respectively.
The sum assessed as damages is called Jkagra, among the Kanjars. The
scale of fine for this offence among the Kuchbands of Ambala is Rs. 60, but
mere flirtation with a woman lays the offender open to a smaller fine of Rs. 5 to 20.
A similar fine can also be imposed for causing hurt, and a person bringing a false
charge is liable to the same punishment as that prescribed for the offence. The
Chamars of Dehra in the Kar.gra District have executed a written agreement to
the effect that every offence against caste rules shall be punished by a fine of
Rs. 25. Among the Jhinwars the amouiit of fine fixed for all kinds of offences,
varies with the position of the offender. The maximum limit of fine among the
Sansis is Rs. 30, of which Rs. 10 to 15 are paid to the members of the Pan-
chayat and the remainder to the complainant, by way of compensation. Among
the low caste Purbias of Amritsar (i.e., Chamars, etc.) a person enticing away
another man's wife may retain her on payment of Rs. 36 to her husband.
If she consents to go back to her husband, the offender pays oidy Rs. 12. If the
• 1. Dhouloo Kauet. of Klianoj; wuh excoiiimuincated for keeping; a Chamar woman, lie was ordered lo lead
the whole brotherhood. lie fed 300 or 400 men and was re-admitted, but has been excommunicated again for re«
taining the woman.
2. In Maaza Bol, Kaku Brahman kept a Kolnn (Koli woman). The Panchayat prescribed a Fray&shchit
(penance) and required him to go to ilnrdwar and feud Urahmnns there. He did so but afjiiin kept the woman.
The oa-e was reported to the Raja who forced him to ro to Hardwar af;ain and gave him Rb. 10 for exponecB oat of
the State Treasury. Hut he stnck to the wooiau nevertheless and was declared by the Eaja to be permanently
«xcommanicated. He is now treated as a Koli by caste.
424
Census Eeport, ] cabte qoteenment. Chapter
man is unable to pay the 6ne and the woman is not -willing to go to her husband,
the offender is made to suck at her breasts (which amounts to recognizing her
thenceforward as his mother) and the woman is then made over to her husband.
It is said that among the Bhatiaras, the 6ne of a Dhela (half a pice) ia taken as
most humilitating. A man fined a Dhela for abducting a woman would much
rather pay a hundred rupees instead. In tl>e Bahawalpur State, the maximum
limit of fine for enticing away a woman is R3. 140 among the Kanjars and Rs. 200
among the Chamars. The Chamars insist on tlie seducer sucking the abducted
woman's breasts and vigorously enforce excommunication if one or botli of the
parties insist on ilhcit relationship. On the other hand, they are equally strict
about the enforcement of contracts of marriage. If a man refuses, without sufiB-
cient cause to give the hand of a girl to the man to whom she has been betrothed,
he is made to pay double the expenses incidental to the aggrieved party marrying
in another family, and none of the community accepts the hand of that girl. Ab-
duction is always punished with the maximum penalty. Among the Bhangis of the
Bahawalpur State, a man who abducts a virgin has to give his daughter or sister
in marriage to the person to whom she had been betrothed or to some one of her
male relatives, by way of atonement, and is made to eat nightsoil. For abduct-
ing a married woman, the offender has to pay a fine of Rs. 25 to Ks. 50 with 25
strokes of a broom, and to receive a shoe-beating to the same extent. If tbe
woman's husband is unwilling to take her back, her head is shaved and she is excom-
municated. If the parents claim such a rejected woman or if some one else wishes
to marry her, a fine of Rs. 11 has to be paid by the party concerned and the bro-
therhood has to be fed at a cost of Rs. 50 to 200. The only condition on
which the lovers can be pardoned and allowed to live as man and wife, is that
they shall own to be beneath all sense of honour, and disgrace themselves by
appearing in absolute unity before the assemblage and preparing a smoking pipe
for the Panches. Such a course is, however, seldom resorted to, and the offenders
prefer to be excommunicated or suffer any other punishment whatsoever.
These are some of the types of punishment awarded by the low caste
Panchayats. The higher castes are seldom s\ib3ect to governing bodies and
where they are, the control is not very effective. The punishment generally award-
ed is the performance of a prdyashrhit (penance) according to the Shastras and
excommunication from the brotherhood until the needful has been done. This
form is most prevalent in the central districts where the usual form of Panchayat
is democratic. But when a fine is imposed, the trivialness of the amount is
the measure of the disgrace to which an offender is put. In the Bahawalpur State,
the scale among the Brahmans is from 1 anna and 3 pies to 2 annas and 6 pies.
In the same way the fine among the Bhatias varies from 5 annas to Re. 1-4.
A Jogi offender besides doing Pundr.haran (bathing in the Ganges and giving a
feast to the Sadhus) has to pay a fine of Rs. 5.
Treatment of 565. In properly organized Panchayats, any of the parties to a case pend-
contumacious jjjg j^gf ore the tribunal may be summarily excommunicated for deliberate failure to
attend the meeting and remains so until he calls a Pauchayat, pays the penalty for
his default and stands his trial on tbe original charge. A person failing to carry
out the orders of the Pauchayat is treated as an out-caste. Among the Purbias
an offender expressing his inability to pay the fine impo.sed on him is literally
kicked out of the gathering by four members of the Pauchayat. Such expulsion indi-
cates exocmmunication. The defaulter cau be re-admitted only if he carries out the
orders of the Pauchayat to the letter and pays an additional fine for his contuma-
cious behaviour.* luter-dining and inter- marriage with the excommunicated
members is stopped and none of the brotherhood will take water from their
hands cr smoke with tiiem from tlie same bubble bubble. They are vigorously
boycotted by the community and even by their priests, but sometimes crawl
back into the society after thw lapse of time, when the incidents have slipped out
of the people's memory. But the hold of the governing bodies, though strong in
certain localities and castes, is not half so effective, as it used to be; and owing to
the facilities for travel and the wide field of employment for the lab 'Uring classes.
• Not only are contumaciouo offenders coerced but a person ignoring the brotherhood isaimilHrly denh with.
A Maltani in Gurdaspnr District married two or three wires without giving a feast to the brotherhood. He was ex-
OOiumuaicated froui the caste but was re-admiited on begging forgiTeuess and feeding the whole commanitj.
425
XI. CASTE QOVEENMENT. [ Punjab, 1911.
contumacious persons do not feel the pinch of expulsion so acutely as their ances-
tors did. In the Kolitak District, a Muhammadan Lohar married a woman of an-
other caste. On being excommunicated from the brotherhood he left for Delhi and
took up his abode there. Indeed, except in low castes, expulsion and excommuni-
cation do not, in the modern state of society, signify much inconvenience to the
offender ugainst social or moral rules and this being the chief foothold of caste-
government, its efficacy is rapidly on the decline.
566. The fine realized is generally spent on feeding the Panchayator the Disposal of
brotherhooiL The headman is sometimes presented with n turban and the menials ^^^'
are paid small fees in cash ; among the Muhammadans, the Ssiqqa (water-carrier)
and the messenger are always paid. When the amount is too large to be ex-
hausted on the above purposes, it is invested in works of pubhc utility, such as the
repairs to a temple, mosque or a well, or on the purchase of articles which can be
of use to the community on festive occasions. The Hindus often send money to a
Gaushala (place where old and infirm cows are fed). Among the Chamars and
other low castes, a liberal serving out of liquor at the feast of the brotherhood
is the favourite way of spending the proceeds of fines.
Ami>ng the bhes (Barars), the fineisdistribiited equally to all members of
the brotherhood, including the Panches who receive no extra share. The Pancha-
yat alone appropriates the fine among the Hansis, The Bishnois remit the whole
fine to the temple at Mnkam (in Bikaner) for expenditure, partly on repairs to
the temple and partly in purchasing grain for the feed of birds.
•■167. The castes enumerated in paragi'aph 552 under the head of Elective Castes
and Democratic Panchayats liave no standing committees. But they are nevertheless which have
under a form of caste government. The castes not named in the said para- no standing
graph, or at. all events most of them, have no provision for the regular disposal of committees,
questions relating to caste government.
In the castes of the latter kind, when the members are of opinion that steps taken
one of them has committed an offence against caste rules which ought to be breaches of
dealt with, they convene a meeting where the question is discussed, and if the roles,
person concerned is considered guilty, a punishment is proposed for him and
pressure is brought to bear on him to comply with the orders. When
the community is united and strong, the decision is enforced* by the threat
of excommunication,! but when such is not the case, the community usually
splits into factions and no action can be taken. In matters concerning
individuals, the commnnity tries to use its good offices to bring about an
amicable settlement, failing which, one of the parties is referred to the Civil Court
and some of the members of the brotherhood undertake to support him by
fjivmg evidence on his side.
The control of the caste, as a whole, is consequently much less in such "J^eir control,
cases than in castOvS with regular Panchayats. Indeed, as a matter of fact, such
castes have no control whatever over individual members who have little
diflBcnlty in setting the wishes of the general body at defiance. Cases of this
nature are of every day occurrence and the strength of the dinsenters is
tncreHsing. In Lahore, partictilarly, the individual opinions have gone to
such an extent that the castes, aa a body, have ceased to take any notice of the
breaches of caste rules including interdining and intermarriage.
568. In rural (ract the caste Panchayat rf the artizans is in itself a trade Caste Pan-
puiM, for nil artizans of one class belong to the same caste. A few instances chayats
will illustrate how the caste Panchayat deals with professional misconduct, and trade
As stated before, the purchase by a Teli of unclean rape-seed is punish- B^iilds.
ed by n fi'ie of Re. 1-4-0, while a Kunjra buying vegetables without the
knovN^dpe ot other members of the caste has to pay Re. 1. The Panchayat of
Mais in the Ho>hiaTpur Disti ict fine the offender against the rules regarding birt
• A Jat of Hoshiarpur carried a liaison with a Chamar woman in village Ramgarh. The heaclmnn of the vil-
lage colli ctxi Jats of 5 villages and the assembly forced iho oflender to give up his relation with the womao and to
ati.ne for his sin by such methods of purification as might be prescribed by the Bnibmans.
A Muhammadan in the same di.'strict smoked with a Chamar. The brotherhood assembled and according to
a Maulvi s verdict his bead was shaved and nails were clipped, and he was made to repeat the Kalima before being
re-admittefl to his caste
t Excommunication is by no means easy in fuch cases, and under the law such a threat would perhaps make
theauthois liable to civil damages, where a regular Panchiyat did not exist. In case of failure of an oflender to
suffer the prescribed ninishment, the most that can be done is for each member to abstain from interdining or
smoking with him.
426
Census Report, ] casts govkenmknt. Chapter
(clientele) Rs. 50. A barber of the Rohtak District began to work for the client
of another member of the caste. He was fined Rs, 100. A Kumhar in the
Gurdaspur District fired his kiln on Amatvas (last day of the dark fortnight)
which was observed by the caste as a boHday. He escaped excommunication by
offering an apology, preparing the smoking pipe for the Fancbayat and paying
4 annas to tlie barber.
In the cities and larger towns, there are committees of artizans of the nature
of trade guilds ; but members of different castes following the same occupation
pin it without distinction and these associations have no connection whatever
with the caste Panchayats.
Constitu- Trade guilds as distinguished from caate Panchayats are unknown in
euild^ ''*''° rural tracts. In cities and towns some old trade and artizan guilds exist and
others are in the course of formation. The most important institution is the
Desi fieopdr Mandal (the Indian Chamber of Commerce), which deals with very
general questions relating to trade. It has succeeded in persuading the larger
merchants of Lahore to close their shops on the last Sunday of the month.
Committees have also been formed by traders and artizans of different kinds to
regulate the hours of business and the wages of skilled labour. The shop-keepers
in the Dabl)i Bazar of Lahore, for instance, will not sell goods on any account
after 8 p.m. The Goldsmiths, both Hindu and Muhammadan, will not charge
for any particular class of work below the rates fixed by them in a pam-
phlet which has been printed for the use of all members of the profession.
At Kot Kapura in the Faridkot State there is a committee of ti'aders of all
castes, c> insisting of representatives of each caste who decide cases relating
to trade. The towns of Faridkot and Mehyanwali Mandi have similar com-
mittees. The labourers of Kot Kapura have also formed a committee which
fixes the minimum wage below which no labourer dare Work.
Powers of Such committees do not generally exercise the powers of Panchayats, but
trade guilds, tbe members under the guidance of the lieadman (called the Chfiudhri) try to
boycott an offender. In some cases the committees manage to impose and collect
fines for breach of certain prescribed rules. The Shoe Merchants of Lahore will
not, for instance, sell a pair of shoes for a smaller price than what they may
write down on paper and if they do so, they have to pay a fine to their guild.
Sabhas, con- 569. But no society can exist without some kind of organization and
ferences. etc. while caste Panchayats are losing their hold on the various social groups ; on the one
hand education and the influence of western civilization are awakening people to
the necessity of ridding their social system of abuses and modifying their rules to
suit the requirements of the times, and on the other, the growing prosperity
and the levelling effects of distribution of wealth are creating a desire among the
castes who have hitherto had a comparatively low status to raise themselves in
the social scale. With this view, Sabhas, Associations and Conferences have been
establi^'hed by different castes. Although supposed to satisfy the craving for a voice
in social administration, they conBne their energies merely to economic problems,
such as, the reduction of expenses on ceremonies connected with marriage and
death; acquiescence in the breach of rules committed by individuals, which the
committees are powerless to prevent ; adoption of measures for the spread of
education in the social group ; and except in the case of the highest castes, the
discussion of means of finding an exalted origin for the caste and raising the
body in the estimation of Government and the public. The latter tendency is a
consequence of the distinction between the traditional status and the position
acquired by wealth, which is still very strong in this country. In the society, a
poor man of high birth still commands more respect than a wealthy member of a
low caste, although the intensity of the feeling is gradually disappearing. We
see tliat in the past, castes acquiring wealth and power have managed to achieve
a high origin in order to maintain the dignity of their position. It is not surpris-
ing that history should repeat itself.
The number of such organizations
is so far not very large but they are
multiplying rapidly. Some of the
associations now in existence in the
Province are named in the margin.
1.
Khalri Conference.
8.
Jangira Committee.
2.
Arorbans Conference.
0.
Anjuinan-ilslahi-Kam-
3.
Brahman sabha.
bohin.
4.
Vaishva Maha Sabha.
10.
Rawals Association.
5.
Rajput Pranlik Sabha.
11.
Uair and Tank Rajput
6.
Mchra Rajput Sabha.
Sabha.
7.
Hamgarhia Sabha,
12.
Qaum Sudhar Sabha.
13.
Eakkezai Association.
427
XI, CASTE GOVEENMKNT. [ Punjab, 1911.
By way of illustration of the remarks made above, it may be mentioned
that theMehra Rajput Sabha which, as the name will signify, is a committee of the
leading members of the Mehra (Jhinwai*) caste, is concerned chiefly Avith the
acquisition of the stafcvis of Rajput. In the same way Kakkezais who have in the
past been treated as Muhammadan Kalals are trying to prove that they are really
Pathans, while the Mair and Tank Sunars want to be recognized as Rajputs.
The Jangira Committee of a sub-caste of Tarkhans and Lobars is trying to
■establish that they are Brahmans and style themselves as Maithal or Vishkarma
Vansh Maithal Brahmans. The Qaum Sudhar Sdbha is an association of Nais
(barbers) who wish to pass as Kshattriyas, and so on.
670. From time immemorial, the King has, in this country been looked upon Connection
as an incarnation of God. The spontaneous and unpremeditated bi'eaking loose of of the King
the populace to actually worship the steps of Their Majesties' thrones, immediately with the
after the unprecedented Coronation Darbar at Delhi and the loving and devotional caste sys-
homage paid by the masses at the memorable Darshan procession of the Badshahi tern.
Mela (people's fete) were practical proofs of the fact that tlie instinct is still
alive in the hearts of the people. In ancient times, tlie Brahmans directed
ritual and the sages were the repositories of spiritual knowledge. It is also true
that the King depended a great deal upon the spiritual assistance of the holy
people as is beautifully described by Kalidasa.* But the very essence of the Hindu
Society combined temporal power with clerical authority and the King was not only
responsible for the maintenance of peace, the protection of his subjects and
administration of Civil and Criminal Justice, but he was also the protector of the
castes and orders and it was his duty to see that each was devoted to its duty,
in order.t The acquisition of Brahm Viclya (Divine knowledge) by some of the
Kings, entitling them to impart religious instruction even to sages, as in the case
of Janaka and others, associated them more closely with caste government.
This duty of preventing caste confusion vested in the King till the down-
fall of Hindu power, but it did not end there. The account of caste government
received from Re war i (see paragraph 558) shows that even in the time of the
Moghal Emperors, the Delhi Court was considered the head of all caste Panchayats,
and that questions affecting a caste throughout the Province could not be settled
except at Delhi and under the guidance of the ruler for the time being. Remnants
of the old system are found in some of the Native States, to this day. In
the small Simla Hill States a man once excommunicated for breach of caste rules
cannot be re-admitted without the permission of the Chief and the purificatory
ceremony of drinking Panchgtvya must be performed in his presence. In the
Jind State, the Panches of the Agy;arwal, Chhimba, Khatri, Jat and Oswal castes
are appoii\ted by the State. In the territory adjoining Simla (forming a part
of tha Keonthal State), acquired by the Patiala State in 1815, cases
of infidelity of women are referred to the Devata (God) at Jnnga snd
decided through the intervention of the Raja wlio acts as his Minister. The
parties concerned go to Jimga and explain the facts of the case to the Raja
Vfho makes the declaration on behalf of the God as to whether the woman, if
excommunicated by the Panchayat may or may not be re-admitted, and if so,
what punishment should be meted out. No one but the Raja in person may
discharge this high office. If the Raja happens to be a minor or is away from
Junga, the cases must remain in abeyance. A few years ago, the Patiala Darbar
had occasion to take exception to the Raja of Junga (Keonthal) issuing summons
in writing in such cases to meii living in Patiahv territory. It was held
that the Raja cauld exort his influence on those people us the head of
their community, but could not command them as a ruler. In the case of other
Hill States such as, Dhami, Bhajji, ets., the cases relating to caste are also referred
to the Rajas, to whom the parties and a few leading men go for decision. No
record is prepared and the procedure is summary. The parties are asked to speak the
truth, and are, if necessary, sworn. The firm belief in the divinity of the ruler, pre-
vents the people from the very attempt to tell a lie. The decision given is verbal.
• " That welfare should roign in all the seven Angas (elements) of my state is a mattpr of course since you
are the averter of all the calamities, whether coming from gods or from men ". — Raghuvansa 1, 60.
" That my subjects live the full period of human life, are free from fear and are never visited by calamities
-is all due to (the virtue of) your spiritual powers." — Ibid. ti3.
t Manu, VII, 35. .;. .
Originof
aub-caetes.
Census Report, ]
428
CASTE AND SDB-CA8TE.
ChAPTEB:
Not only are cases relating to castes decided in this manner, but some of the
minor Chiefs employ the same method for the disposal of petty cases relating to
Forest administration, etc. Noticing the facilities which caste government
afforded for the settlement of petty disputes, Major (now Col.) Popham Young,
C.I.E., acting at the time as Settlement Commissioner in the Patiala State, drew
up an elaborate scheme for the decision of petty Civil cases by Panchayats and
had it sanctioned by the Darbar. It is said to be working successfully. Similar
measures have for some time been under consideration for introduction in British
territory. In deahng with the administration of a country, where the caste
system is so closely interwoven with the lives of the people, no ruler can help
undertaking t(' arbitrate in some of the questions relating to the institution. The
introduction of the Punjab Alienation of Land Act, under the provisions of which
none but a member of the agricultural tribes can purchase land from an agricul-
turist, although based upon agrarian and economic considerations, is looked upon
by the so called caste-ridden masses, as nothing more or less than a measure cal-
culated to enforce the traditional occupation of the most numerous castes in tha
Province. It has naturally stimulated, in almost all the castes, a tendency to
claim an aflBnity with one or the other of the castes declared by Government
as agricultural. The recent growth of the efforts to acquire the status of Eajput
is in no small measure due to the material advantage of being declared an agricul-
tural tribe and to the dignity which legislative support has given to that class.
Executive ofiBcers from time to time decide whether or not the claims of such
applicants arc admissible. In other words. Government undertakes to decide
"what individuals belong to agricultural castes and in a way to restrict, the occu-
pation of agriculture to them. That the Indian Ruling Chiefs should interest
themselves in caste questions even outside their territorial jurisdiction is nothing
uncommon. Quite recently the Mahtons of the Jullundur and Hoshiarpur
Districts enlisted the sympathy of His Highness the Maharaja of Jammu and
Kashmir who, as the head of the Rajput community of this part of the country, de-
clared them to be Rajputs, similarly to certain other sub-castes of that community.
But this is not all. People are already beginning to refer for the decision of the
officers of Government, questions relatmg to the status of castes. The Mahtons
above alluded to, after a great local controversy, applied to the Settlement Officer
of one of the districts, asking that they should be noted as Rajputs in the revenue
records, on the strength of the decision of the Rajput Prantik Sabha.
Caste and Sub-Caste.
571. Senart and others have held that the sub-caste ought really to" be-
regarded as caste, because that is the endogamous circle. This view is however
based, on the one hand, upon the impression that endogamy is the sole criterion of
caste and, on the other, upon the theory that function alone has been the cause of the
welding of separate tribes into groups which came to be called castes. An examina-
tion of the sub-castes, however, makes it clear that numerous processes of Bssionand
fusion have been at work in the formation of the groups now commonly known as
castes. In the Appendix to Table XIII, printed in Volume III of this Report, the
Machhi. sub-castes of fifteen castes, named in the margin, have beeni
Musaiii. tabulated, and in discussing these processes, I shall draw
Shefkh! upon the lists for illustration. For facility of referencse,
Sunar. striking examples for each caste have been put together
under the different heads implying the processes of formation of sub-castes, in
Subsidiary Table III appended to this Chapter.
With a view to-
illustrate the process
of formation of sub-
castes which will be
examined in the fol-
lowing paragraphs, I
give in the margin a
table showing in re-
spect of three func-
Aggarwal
Ahir.
Awan.
Biloch.
Brahman.
Chuhra.
Fakir.
Jat.
Khatri.
Lobar.
i
»
J
No. OP snB-OASTBS COMMON WITH
"S c
s
s'?
ja
Caste.
-a a
ca
Is
o
s
s
3
a
o
03
a
-3
.a
•a
.1
i
H
o
<5
<
<
cn
ca
>^
M
h5
a
<&
Lobar
1,44G
773
42
47
159
109
164
458
240
~
169
ZTl
210
Wichhi
Hi
396
21
32
100
99
84
270
132
ib9
200
12S
Snnar
«27
60*1
39
49
122
101
115
421
190
2)0
128
294
• One sub-caste being common to more ca s tea than one the total of the following columns will not agre»
-with those figures.
429
XI. CASTE AND 8UB-CA8TE. [ Punjab, jgn.
tional castes — viz., Lobar, Machhi and Sunar — the number of sub-caste names
whicb are identical with those classed under the other castes for which sub-castes have
been sorted. It will be seen that out of the 627 major sub-castes of Sunar 604 are
found in the other 14 castes noted in the table. The remaining names may also be
identical with certain sub-castes of other castes. For all practical purposes, there-
fore, the Sunar may be treated as a typically functional caste with no nucleus of
its own. The Machhis show 396 sub-caste names common to other castes and the
Lobars have 50 per cent, such sub-castes.
572. The nucleus of the sub-castes in all the Hindu castes are the Gotras Goti-as.
which unite individuals with one or another of the great ancient sages. Thei'e ai-e
e\ght principal Gotras, — J a madagni Dharadiodjah Vislnvdmitrdtri Gotamah Vasish-
thah Kasliijapdgastydh munayo gotrkdrindh. (Jamadagui, Bharadwaj, Vishwamitr
Atri, Gotara, Vasisht, Kashyapa and Agastya are the sages who originated the
Gotras). But altogether there are said to ba 42 such groups. "With the excep-
tion of Shudras, who are supposed to have no Gotra (although some of them
profess to own the Kashyapa Gotra), every Hindu is supposed to belong to one or
another of the 42 groups alluded to. The Gotra is hereditary and implies
lineal male descent. The Brahmans claim to be the descendants of the Rishis
to whose Gotras they belong, while the Rajputs, Kbatris, Aroras, etc., are believed
to be the descendants of the disciples of those sages. The real significance of
the Gotra has been the subject of much discussion. Some bold that the founders
of these Gotras, were leaders of large bands of Aryan settlers and that the whole
settlement was known after the natue of its protector. According to this theory
the priests, the warriors, the traders and the servile class should have equally
adopted the distinguishing name of the colony. But there are certain Gotras
which are only found among the Brahmans and some are peculiar to certain other
castes. The late Sir Denzil Ibbetson was of opinion that these were probably
tribal names. But if the Gotra originally signified a tribe or a settlement, the
group should have been endogamous and not rigidly exogamous as it actually
is. Assuming that some of the tribes got completely absorbed into
particular castes, these castes must necessarily have an earlier nucleus. But
we have so far not been able to trace any pre-Gotra divisions of the Varnas or
Jatis. No attempt has been made by the Sanskrit Grammarians, Panini, etc., to
explain the derivation of this term, but obviously it consists of two words Go =
laud and <ra = protect — j.«., it must have meant originally the designation of a
family which protected its lands. In the ancient days when the population
was mainly pastoral and agricultural, possession of land was of vital importance
to the very existence of a family, and succession being even in those days, by
lineal male descent, the propagation of the ancestral name was apparently the
surest guarantee to unquestioned inheritance. For the origin of Gotra, we must,
therefore, seek in the direction of ancestral relationship rather than tribal or
communal organisation. But we find that every one of the sages whose names
are mentioned in the Vedas or the other ancient books, did not find a Gotra.
And yet they must have left descendants. It is therefore difficult to hold that all
Brahmans are the descendants of the sages to whose names they attach themselves.
The only possible explanation seems to be that the Gotras were founded
by the more distinguished sages, who were not only advanceri spiritually but who
also had large foUowings in the way of disciples. I will take the case of, say,
Bharadwaj. His descendants were naturally called Bharadwaj, but nil his dis-
ciples also took pride in attaching themselves to his name, for the sake of
spiritual benefit, by virtue of its sanctity. And it is a well known custom in this
country that the disciples of the same Guru, who are known as Gur-hhdi, behave
in the same way as if they were real brothers. Consequently, the descendants
as well the disciples of Bharadwaj came to be known as Bhiiradwiijes and the
prohibition of inter-marriage between them, which originated in their spiritual
relationship soon welded them into an oxogamous group. Instances of spiritual
relationship in the Christian Church, e.g., God-father and God-daughter, 8tau<ling
in the way of marriage are, I believe, not uncommon. Disciples belonging
to the other Varnas, of course, formed such groups within their own classes, but
they were as closely knitted together as the descendants and the Brahman dis-
ciples of the great sages.
Census Report, ]
490
CASTS AND SUB-CiST£.
Chapteb
Sesidence is
» locality.
OccapatioD.
Panjiibi,
category
term is
573. In every caste there are gronpg which bear geographical names and
obviously signify that the residence of a section of a caste in a locahty some-
what removed from their main habitat isolated them into self-contained groups.
Among the Aggarwals the Baden sub-caste apparently implies residence
away from the stronghold of the caste. The Bawalia, Jangal, Thai, Qanauji, etc.,
similarly show the separation of certain sections of Aggarwals owing to residence
in the Bawal, Jangal, Thai or Kanauj territory. The Bagria, Gangawai, Gharwal,
Hi'iDsi, Phagwari, Aliirs ; the Bharochi, Chanawar, Jamwal, Jandial, Pakhral,
Pothwari, Sindhi, Axodns ; the Afgliani, Aapani, Bagdadi, Daryai, Isakheli, Kar-
nali, Kareri, Sindhi, Biloches ; the Dakhshani, Gangotre, Jamwal, Qanauji,
Maharashtra, Kashmiri, Pnshkarna, fhahmans ; the Bagria, Gaddi, Marhata, Mal-
tani, Mewat, Chuhras ; the Bukhari, Arbi, Mashhadi, Pothohari, Multani, Fakirs ;
the Bangru, Hariana, Shahpura, Hazara, Jhansi, Kandiwal, Godawari, Marhatta,
Pardesi, Kabli, Jafs ; the Burdwani, Marwari, Mathre, Gaddi, Qandhari,
Saharan, Kanoji, Gujrati, Kharar, Ropar, Mablog, Marahta, Khatris ; the Arbi,
Balkhi, Bagri, Gangotri, Jamwal, Kangii, Saharan, Qanauji, Sahiwal, Hansi,
Guler, Lohars ; the Jamwal, Multani, MandeiUi, Kangri, Machhis ; the
Kulachi, Kandhari, Lahori, Dakhni, Mmallis ; the Chambeal, Dharaial,
Indoria, Mandiwal, Marhata, Saugla, Dogra, Rajputs ; and the Ujaini, Multani,
Nagauri, Dehli, Bhera, Bangali, Snnars ; fall under the same
The Katoch Rajputs seem to show a curious case of fission, the
said to be derived from Kot Vich or Kotoch, because the younger
brother of an ancient chief of Kangra who had thrown his elder brother into a
well, while out hunting, installed himself as the Raja in Kot Kangra, but on his
elder brother, the Raja, being taken out alive, his dominions were confined to
the four walls of the fort, while the other brother ruled the countryside and estab-
lished himself at Goler. The descendants and followers of the elder brother
were thenceforward called Golerias and those of the younger brother Katoches.
In some cases, perhaps, members of a different caste and belonging to a par-
ticular locality came to reside with a caste into which they were gradually absorbed,
but instead of retaining the designation of the original caste they clung to the name
of their native place and founded a sub-caste known by that name. Such sub-castes
as Dogra (Awan) and Kashmiri (Biloch) point to the assimilation of the Dogras or
Kashmiri Muhammadans to Awans or Biloches, in consequence of prolonged
residence among the people. The existence of similar geographical names such
as Dogra, Kanauji, Kashmiri, Gangotr:, among the artizan castes as well as other
castes seems to point to the fact that while on the one hand the artizan castes
were formed locally by the adoption of the occupation by various castes, on the
other, the members of the artizan fraternity of one place were readily admitted
into the similar caste of another locality to which they migrated in search of
liveliliood, although they retained some of the social usages of their native place
which still form the distinguishing feature of the sub-castes. The above observa-
tions will show that the processes of both fission and fusion have been at work
in the formation of svib-castes falling under this head.
574. It has been noticed that with the growth of population and
the relaxation of Varndshrama dharma, it became necessary for members of each
Varna ti> adopt occupations other than the prescribed one. The estimate, in the social
scale, of the occupations adopted by individuals, formed the basis of a higher or
lower status inside the caste, if the change was not sufficient to exclude the persons
from the caste. The Jotshi Aggarwal who learnt astrology — the profession of
the Brnhman— ranked high, but the Tamoli (betel-leaf seller) Aggarwal who
adopted the work of Kunjras had to be content with a low place in the caste
gradation. Similarly, the zainindar or sodngar (trader) Aliir ranks high and
the Gawala, a little lower, while the Ajarwah (shepherd) Dhak-p\ichh (one who
taps Dhak trees for gum) and Jarah (the indigenous surgeon) are sub-castes near
the bottom of the scale. The functional sub-castes of Awans, such as, Cluirigar
(bangle maker), Ghosi (grass seller), Hajjarn (barber), Jandral (raillman), Bahishti
(water carrier), Bafiuda (weaver), Chamrang (tanner) are all low, except Zamindar,
Munshi (clerk) and Makhdiim (holy). The lower castes always attribute the
designation of their sub-caste to the adoption of the degrading professions, from
poverty ; but it is very likely that some of the members of the artizan castes
431
XI. CASTE AKD SDB-CA8TE. [ Punjab. 1911
of Lobars, Nais, etc., who resided in a homogeneous Awan tract, gi'adually merged
into the tribal organization and came to be looked upon as sub-castes formed by
fission rather than accretions from distinct functional castes.
The Acharaj are a low sub-caste of Brahmans, because they receive gifts
at the after-death rites. The Attar, Tamoh', and Teli-raja, are functional
groups which are less degraded, and the group of sub-castes known as Halwah *
(cultivating) Brahmans are looked down upon in Kangra, while Pujari, Padha,
Parohat, Jotshi are standard sub-castes. Tbe Talwaris probably acted at one time as
soldiers, and the Loliars acted in the old days as smiths. The name Gopal, per-
haps, signifies nothing more than keeping cows which every Brahman is supposed
to do. The Chuhras have functional castes like Chhapariband, Hajam, Loh-
tia, Untwal, Chirimar and Padhe, the last implying either an accretion
from Padha Brahmans as alleged by the people, or that of some ancestor
of the sub-caste had, at one time, taken to teaching CLuhra boys.
The existence of functional sub-castes amongst the Fakirs can only mean
the conversion into their order of members of such sub-castes of other
castes. Tho Jats have sub-castes with a wide functional range from Hall
(cultivater), Basati (shopkeeper), Dalai (broker), Gopal (cowherd), Ajali
(shepherd). Mistri (smith), Mashki (waterman), Pandi (weight carrier), Qanungo,
Qassai (butcher), Qazi, Ramal (fortune-teller), Hagi (musician), Untwal (camel
driver) to Pujari (devotee) , and nothing short of the dirty professions would
degrade them. The Khatris have also a large number of sub-castes formed
with reference to occupations, from Bazaz (cloth merchant) and Qanungo down to
Chirimar and Pandi. Besides the sub-castes named after the professions
pertaining to blacksmiths, the Lobars have Joshi, Pabde and Pandat. They are
found mostly among the Muhammadans and consist apparently of converts from
Brahmans of these functional sub-castes, who threw in their lot with the Lobars.
The Taksalia (meaning an employee at the mint) ia a high sub-caste. The Machhig
have Gandhi, Chirimar, Mahigir, Mashki, etc., and can even tolerate a sub-caste
of Chamrangs (tanners) , for after all fishing is not an occupation much superior
to tanning. No occupation can be too degrading for Musallis, and some of their
8ub-castes with superior names such as Teli are obviously accretions. Snake
catching is a favourite pastime in the Province and the Sapadha, Nag or Naglu
sub-caste, which is found in many castes including the Musalhs, points to dexter-
ity in the art, rather than to a tntemistic origin. The presence of such sub-castes
as Mahigir, Nain, Pandi, and Qassab among the proud Rajputs is somewhat
Surprising, but all these sub-castes exist among Muhammadans and seem to have
been formed by fission, owing to the relaxation of the functional restrictions
among the converts to Islam. The convert Sheikhs cover a wide
range of castes and consequently sub-castes like Bazaz, Bhand, Pandha,
Qanungo, Charam-farosh, Gadagar and Bahishti are found amongst them. But
the Qanungo and ottier Sheikhs of high status will not intermarry with the sub-
castes of a lower status.
One thing is clear from the above examination of sub-,castes — viz., that
most of the functional groups were formed at a time when certain re^-trictionshad
become rather lax and a diversity of occupations outside hereditary functions was
tolerated without severing the communal tie of the caste.
On the other hand, instances of accretions to castes by the adoption of
their traditional occupations are numerous. The Chopra, Bahri (Khatri), Dakhna,
Chawla (Arora), Biloch, Bania, Bhat, Bhatia, Bliojki, Bodla, Chogatta sub-castes o£
Jats are accounted for by the latter process which is at work even at present, in
the south-western Punjab (the Muzaffargarh and Dera Ghszi Khan Districts)
where every person cultivating land, whether Arain, Arora, Rajput or Daudpotra
is called a Jatand is treated as a member of that community only distinguishing
himself by the caste of his origin. Similarly Ahir, Aggarwal, Arain, Arora, Awan,
Bahri (Kbatri) Khokhar, Chauhau, Gujar, Chhatri, etc., sub-castes of Lobars and
Sunars seem to be due largely to the adoption by members of other castes and
tribes of the hereditary occupation of blacksmiths and goldsmiths.
675. The adoption of widow remarriage has been the cause of the transfer Variation io
. of many a group of the higher castes to Jats and other castes of the same status. "^9^^^^ ^'^'
* The Halwibs hare not returned IhemselTes as a sub-ca«te.
Census Beport,]
482
CABTE AND SUB-CABTE.
Chaptkr
Stains.
But such accretions have been completely absorbed. One instance of separation
of a group in this way is that of Mahtons, who had, mainly on account of the
introduction of this practice and partly to the cultivation of land, been degraded
from Rajputs to a separate caste, but have recently been re-admitted to the Rajput
community with, of course, a comparatively low status. The Graras of Karnal are
descendants of Muhammadan Rajputs by Karewa marriages. The sentiment
against widow remarriage is disappearing now, but it is said that till recently,
when a Muhammadan Rajput in that locality married a widow, his offspring was
not recognized by the caste and such children gradually formed into a separate
group.* The Barogras (probably equivalent to Bigra hud — mixed) of KuUu are
said to be the descendants of Thakkars or Kanets from Dagi women.
576. The prosperity or distinction of a family or group of families has
often led to the formation of a sub-caste with an artificial stutus. Instances of
sub-castes of this type are Barhia, Melitar, and Bahadar amongst the Aggarwals
(the sub-castes of Rajbans, Raj Kumar, Rajshahi, Thakar are quoted to trace de-
scent from Raja Aggarsen or Ugrasen, a leader of the caste, to prove the
Kshattrija origin of Aggarwals) ; Balwan (powerful), Chaudhri, Mukhia, Raja,
Shahzada among the Ahirs ; Mahar, Malak, Raja , Wazir among the Awans
(they have also sub-castes designated by nicknames such as Kamina (mean),
Khota (donkey), Tbag (a cheat) which indicate a low status); Hira, Bhushan, Rikhi,
Bhupal, TJttam, Mehta, Rajparohit among the Brahmans ; Naik-Badshahi, Bhupal,
Mehta, Malak, Mehtar, Pandit among the Chuhra3(Chandal, Kalank, etc., showing
a low status), and so on. It may also be noted that the same siib-caste has a low
status in one place where most of its members occupy an inferior position in
society and a higher social rank in another place if some of the members happen
t() be in affluent circumstances.
The Aroras have interesting examples of the influence of Pathan and Bi-
loch tribal terminology in designating families of distinction. In the Bahawalpur
State, the Mukbija Aroras have a group called Mehtani descended from an ances-
tor who was given the title of Mehta by one of the Nawabs of that State. They
now form practically a separate sub-caste, after the fashion of the Biloch clans.
Nandvani, Virmani, Juglani, Israni, etc., are other examples of groups named
after an illustrious ancestor. In the Mianwali District, on the other hand, the
Aroras have such sub-castes as Thakre-khel which means the descendants of
Thakaria in the same way aa the descendants of Isa Khan are Isa-khels and of
Taja Khan are Taje-khels.
577. The change of language consequent on prolonged residence in a
foreign locality, is also said to lead to the formation of sub-castes. The only ex-
amples which can be cited are the Patni+ Khatris and the Kochi Awans, but both
of whom are found in the western Punjab and cannot be connected with tracts
where the Himalayan dialects of Patni and Kochi are spoken, unless it be that
some Kl)atri3 and Awans who had occasion to reside in the Himalayas for a
considerable time and acquired proficiency in those languages were known by those
names on their return home.
Diyergenceol 578. The attachment to particular sects has also led to the creation of sub-
Tiews?*^ castes. The Aggarwals, for instance, have Vai.shnos, Jainis, Sfti-aogis, Nanak-
panthis, etc., constituted into separnte sub-castes. The Sultani, Dadupanthi,
Jainpanthi and Ramdasias have separate sub-castes among the Ahirs. Even the
Awans (Miihammadans) have a sub-caste of Nanakshahis. There are Ramanandi,
Nanakshahi, and Ramdeo Brahmans. The Chuhras have sub-castes called Bh 'g-
wan, Bhagwati, Hazuri, Somnath, Lanba, Nanakpanthi, and so on. This may be
due largely to the persons enumerated unwittingly substituting their sect for their
sub-caste. But there cati be no doubt about some of the namoa representing
geniuue sub-castes. The division of Jat, Khatri, etc., into Jat Sikh, Khati-i Sikh,
etc., as distinguished from the ordinary Hindu Jat or Khatri was till recently
looked upon as a social rather than a religious differentiation, and the process is
still at work in connection with thw introduction of new sects and reformed ideas.
Change of
laogosge.
*. Some people maintain that Gira was an epithet applied to all Muhammadan Rajputa because they
buried the dead, but the name is applied only to a particul ir section and so thii derivation seems to be incorrect.
t It it possible that Patni may be connected Tfith Patna and the designation may be due to residence at
that town.
433
XI. CASTE AND SUB-CASTE. [^ Punjab, 1911.
579. The creation of new castes by mixture of blood, alluded to in Manu, Accretions bj-
has practically stopped, although even now the son of a Eajput from a raaid-servant ^^^ ''"°'*"
is known aa Sartor a and not treated on the same level as Rajputs. But the idea
of transmission of the caste status by the father, irrespective of the wife (i. e.,
according to the seed, and not to the land, noticed in the Smritis) so prevalent
among the Muharamadans bas, probably owing to their influence, been gaining
ground, of late, among the Hindus, at all events in respect of alliances with the
next lower caste. In the Kangra hills, the son of a Brahman father and
Rajput mother is reckoned as a Brahman. But union with a caste considerably
lower in the social scale has generally resulted in the assimilation of the mem-
bers of a higlier with a lower caste. Traces of degradation from higher
iio lower castes by this process are abundant among the Chuhras and Musallis.
The Ahir, Arora, Awan, Babar, Bhat, Chopra, Dahra, Janjua, Jaswal, Jat,
Kamboh, Khatri sub-castes of the former and similar names among the Musalli
sub-castes, together with Biloch, Kashmiri, Mohana, Afghan, Pandit, are nothing
but accretions by degradation.*
580. The association of Brahmans with clients of one particular caste has Assooiatioa.
resulted in their distinguishing themselves by that caste name. This accounts for
the presence of sub-castes like Ag^arwal, Ahir, Bahri, Bunjahi, Khatri, Chohan,
Dahre (Arora), Janjua, Kayasth, Kharral and Khandelwal, among the Brahmans.
The existence of the Brahman sub-caste in sucli castes as Aggarwal, Khatri, Jat
and Chuhra may be due to similar reasons or to mixture of blood.
Change of caste owing to continued close relationship of some kind
•witb members of another caste or tribe should also, perhaps, be classed under
this head. This process is noticeable principally in the change of sub-caste.
A Virak Jat hving in a Sindhu Jat village gradually jidopta the latter name
and gives up his own. I have a servant — a Kashmiri Pandit — whose sub-caste
is Bat, but who, in consequence of long service with our family, is beginning to be
called a Kaul. But the effect sometimes extends to changing the caste as well.
The Tragt Jats in the Isakhel Tahsil of the Mianwali District living among Niazi
Pathans have begun calling themselves Kiazis. A Jat of Ludhiana left his village
in 1840 and wandered about with Labanas. On his re-appearance the Jats
refused to recognize him as a Jat and called him a Labana.
The above are some of the processes which appear to have led to the form-
ation of sub-castes, but the analysis is by no means exhaustive.
581. So far as regards the origin of the various types of sub-castes com- Intermar-
ing now to the rigidity of social rules, commensality is ordinarily the criterion of cowmen*
belonging to a caste, i. e., all sub-castes of a caste can eat together. But there are sa-lity be-
numerons exceptions to this rule in the higher castes, caused mainly by geographi- ^gtes. °
cal distinction, but nlso by sectarian and other difference^. For instance, a Gaur
Brahman will not eat with a Saraswat and a Kashmiri Brahman will eat with
neither. A Kahar of the United Provinces will not interdine with a Kahar
{Jhinwar) of the Punjab. Similarly, a Rajput of Rajputana will abstain from
mating with one from Kangra. Then again a Khatri of Delhi belonging to some
Vaishnava school will not eat with a Panjabi Khatri who eats meat. The re-
strictions are, however, more rigid in the eastern Punjab than in the rest of the
Province, where the Brahmans, Rajputs, Khatris, Aggarwals, Aroras and even
Tarkhans and Lobars all interdine somewhat freely. The Jliinwar too, is not
•excluded, for very few people object to eating kacha food from his hand.
As regards endogamy, the geographical and sectarian group limits con6ne
marital relationship to the homogeneous circle, but among the sub-castes belong-
ing to one locality, the only restrictions are those of a hypergamous nature.
The Khatris, for instance, have an elaborate graduated grouping of sub-castes. J
Similarly among the Aroras, a Dakhna and an Utradhi may not intermarry.
The endogamous circle is, therefore, narrower than the whole caste, but it includes
numerous eub-castes. Intermarriage between the various grades of sub-castes,
contrary to the rules of hypergamy, though considered undesirable, is yet a
* Numerous inatances of degradation exint at the present day. A Brahman has recently become a Koli
for having kept a Koli woman. I know a Brahman who has joined the Chamir caste for baTiog married »,
■Chamir woman.
t The Trags have not returned themselves as a Sub-oaeta.
t See Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, pp. 508—512.
Census Beport, 1
434
CA8T£ AND SUB-CASTX.
Chaptee-
matter of every day occurrence and does not lay the parties under the ban of
excommunication or social ostracism.
Organisation. 582. The question of caste government has been dealt with in paragraphs
551 — 570. In tracts where the Panchdyats are a living organism, there is no hard
and fast rule as to whether each sub-caste should have a separate tribunal or if
there should be one for the whole caste. It is largely a matter of convenience..
If one sub-caste is suflBciently strong in number, it may have a separate
Panchdyat, otherwise all the sub-castes of a caste residing in one locality will
have one governing body.
From the above remarks it will be clear that, although there are smaller-
groups within each caste with refei'ence to commensality, etc., yet it is by na
means possible to call a sub-caste an unit which is really the basis of caste dis-
tinction. Moreover, the" modern tendency is to slacken the restrictions dividing
one sub-caste from another so as to make social intercourse between the whole
circle of a caste free and unrestricted.
583. The division of a tribe into clans is based mainly on an ancestral or
geographical basis. But similarly to the Hindu sub-castes the clans of the present
day are also the outcome of varied influences. The Gardezi or Gilani Sayads are
geographical groups by origin, the Ahmadani, Ghazlani Biluches and the Niazi
or Zakko Khel Pathans signify descent from an illustrious ancestor, but there is
no lack of instances of accretion from other castes by some of the processes of
fusion above referred to. The weavers of Kalabagh and Mari (in the Mianwali
District), for instance, claim Pathan descent, and call themselves Turkhel, which
means gentlemen of the loom (7'wr = loom and A-/ieZ= group).
'J'he sub-caste table shows that in all the 15 castes of which the sub-divi-
sions have been sorted,.
Tribe and
clan.
No. OF SDB-CASTES.
No. OF SCB-CASTES.
Caste.
Caste.
1911.
1891.
1911.
1891.
1. Agparwal ...
286
703*
9.
Jat
4,473
11,161
a. Ahir
420
587
10
Khatri
1,559
3,086
3. Awan
1,013
2,249
11.
Lobar
1,868
3,0J7
4. Biloch
1.060
1,551
12.
Machhi
784
1,047
5. Brahman
1,484
2.173
13.
Rajput
8,686
5,723
G. Chuhra
2,3C5
3,916
14.
Sbeikb
1,068
1,697
1. Musalli
581
15.
Sunar
1,494
1,576
8. Faqir
927
1,022
Figutea relate to the Bania caste.
the number of sub-
castes has decreased in
comparison with 1891.
This would lead to the
conclusion that tha
modern tendency of
uniting tlie branches of
castes is overcoming
the processes of fission.
The number of sub-
castes of each of these
castes as calculated
from the Index to Sub-
1881, is compared in the
castes, compiled by Mr. Maclagan,t from the Tables of
margin with the number ascertained at the recent Census.
Functional |)84. The sub-castes showing the various processes of fission and fusion in
castes and gome of the castes have been noticed above. But within one and the same caste
sub-castes, there are groups at different stages of amalgamation. The artizan castes afford
the best illustration. Takiny; the profession of blacksmiths, there are Jats,
Khatris, Pathans, Rajputs who have taken to the profession recently but main-
tain their relationship with their own caste. These people have not yet come
under the influence of the functional caste of Loliar. The first stage of fusion is
visible in sub-castes belonging to Dhiman or Dhaman (wise) section of Lobars
such as Kamgarhia, Bedi, Bhardwaj, Bath, Gbattarora (or Ghattaura), Hanspal,
Lakhanpal, Khatri, Kalsi (or Kalse), Na'g (or Nagi), Pansir, Sohal, Sokhi,
Suri, and Vardi, on the one hand, who consider themselves superior to the
Khatis and neither iiiterdine nor intermarry with them, and lower orders like
Siqligar, Ratha (or Rathor), Nalband, Dagi, Barar, Changar, Dumna. Chuhra,
etc., on the other, whom the Khatis and their
Dhol, Atli, Kaler, Sindhu, Mahal, etc., will not
The second stage is noticeable in the endogamous
confreres the Manur, bahle>
admit to social equality. t
groups of Dhaman, Khati,
t Pnnjab Ceii809 Report. 1891, Vol. III.
J The 80cia) diBtinctinn between the Dbfiiiian and Ehati gronpa is forming the snbject of much disoassion.
The Khatis are trying to establish that the Dhimans are in ro way superior to them, »rhile the former maintain
they have from time immemorial held a much higher status.
435
XI. CASTE AND SUB-CASTE. [ Punjab, 1911.
etc., where several sub-castes professing different origin mix freely. There
are, of course, intermediate stages where interdining is allowed, but not inter-
marriage and the hypergamous grades within each endogamous group.
In the third stage the Lobars have forgotten their original sub-caste and
have adopted some nomenclature based upon consideration of locality, status,
etc. Hhupal, Baharla, Darwesh, Chakwal, Desi, Deswal, Jamwal, etc., are sub-
castes of this nature.
The fourth stage of complete absorption into the caste is represented
by persons who call themselves merely Lobars without being able to mention any
sub-caste or got, and who have been returned under the head ' Unspecified.'
Most of these cases are met with among the converts to Islam.
585. Altogether 238 (215 major and 23 minor) castes have been registered ^^w castes,
at the recent Census against 333 in 1881. The difference is not very great con-
sidering that several synonymous names have been clubbed together on the pre-
sent occasion. For instance, of the castes returned separately in 1881 or 1901,
Baghban has been included in Mali, Batera and Thavi in Raj, Brahman
Mohyal in Brahman, Charhoa in Dliobi, Chamrang in Khatik, Dogra in
Rajput, Darein in Mallah, Husaini in Brahman, Jarrah in Nai, Kuchband in
Sirkiband, Kutana in Musalli, Kamachi in Mirasi, Marth and Satiar in Jat,
Kanbai in Bhatiara, Palledar in Sheikh, Rangrez in Lilari, Reya in Rajput, Sehnai
in Dumna. The castes which appear in the present Table XIII, but did not appear
in the corresponding Table of 1901 are named in the margin. Of these, Bagri
and Churigar appeared in the 1881 Tables. Arya and
Khalsa are new castes and have been described m the
Glossary printed at the end of this Chapter, although a few
people had begun calling themselves Arya by caste in
1881. Leaving alone such castes as had appeared in 1881
under some other name, the discoveries of new castes
since 1881 are confined to Abdal, Bhil (a Rajputana
caste), Bot, Khalsa, Khushabi, Nar, Phiphra, Barah, Bari, Barogra, Bhumaj (a
caste of the United Provinces), Jad, Jaba, Kikan, Magh, Murai, Ramiya, Sbidi,
Singikat and Sodhan. All these castes have been described in the Glossary,
except Sodhan whose members (found in Rawalpindi) have returned themselves
as Rajputs.
586. It has been noticed in paragraph 248 that not only have caste pre- caste arnonff
judices survived among the converts from Hinduism to Islam, but that the immi- jiuhamma-
gi'ant tribes of Muhammadans have also come under the influence of the institution, ^^ns.
A hat of Muhammadan tribes which are in their origin foreign to this country
is given in paragraph 247. All Muhammadan tribes are, as a rule, endogamous,
although the restriction regarding marriage is not so rigid as amongst the
Hindus, and is usually confined to the selection of the first wife. The
validity of cousin marriage according to Muhammadan Law does not countenance
the formation of exogamous groups, but nevertheless some of the converts — e. g.,
the high caste Sheikhs — usually avoid near cousins and look with disfavour
upon the gradual disappearance of tlie restriction. The Muhammadan society
appears to have been divided originally into only two classes, the gentlemen
and the menials, but in India, diversity of occupations has led to the
formation of numerous exclusive groups, over and above the tribes and the
converted Hindu castes. I cannot do better than to draw upon an interesting
article in the Urdu Magazine, the « Sala-i-Am,' Delhi, for October 1912. The
Editor, Klian Bahadur Mir Nasir Ali Khan, quotes from a Persian work of Mirza
Qati], whom lie considers to be an authority on the subject.
" He divide'* the Muhammat^ana into Ashraf (ttie genteel) and Ajlaf (the lower orders),
and goes on t" say that in India the A bhraf class incluHes four groups, viz ., iSheikh, Sayad,
Moghul, and Piithan, provided that they preserve their purity ot blood i. e., if a Moghal
adopts the r)ccu|iatiiin of a Saqqa (water-carrier) for his livelihood, even though it may be
out of extreme necessity, he will no longer belong to the Ashraf class and his fraternity
■with the MoLfhals will cease. He can thereafter intermarry only with the water carriers.
Similurl), if a Sayad or Sheikli contracts matrinioninl alliance with some artizan group, he
■will have to asniniilate himself wiih that group and be called by that name The two
essentials of caste, namely, birth and occupation, are tliua recognized as the condition of
preserving the purity of blood, and the breach of one of these rules leads to degradation.
1.
Arya
10.
Nar
2.
Bigri
11.
Padhi
3.
Ctiurigar
12.
Barogra
4.
Gar4
13
Bhumaj
S.
Geiiari
U.
GAndhi
6.
Kh4l84
15.
Murai
7.
Mujiwar
16
Ramija
8.
Men
17.
Shidi
9.
Miana
18.
t'lBgikat
Census Report, ]
436
CASTE AND SUB-CASTB.
Chapter
Castes of
Indian
Cbiistians.
Of the lower ordt»rs, the nrtizans are distinguished as Bdziri which may be taken as
an equivalent of business man. The Attar (distiller, not of liquor) is reckoned the highest.
The engravers, trouser string weavers, book-sellers, cloth merchants are included amongst
the high class arts. The Halwdi (sweetmeat seller), Rangrez, Kunjia, Lobar and Kharddi
(carpenter) come next. Khidmatgdr (domestic servant), Farrdsh (servants who look after
the carpetting), and Chobddrs (baton bearers) rank next. The barbers and surgeons are
cousi()ered of equal rank and so are Rikdhdilrs (grooms), cooks and confectioners. The
Saqqa (whter carrier), syce, Degsho fmashdlchi) and Kah;lr rank lower. The musicians (the
dancing girl class), though not among the Ashrdf (genteel) class, claim the rank owing to
their association with the higher classes. The Dnms (mirasi) are not Sharif but call them-
selves Sayad and wish to acquire the title of Mir.
Kunjras and Bhatiaras would pass as Pathans. The former are called Nawdb S^bib
and the latter assume the title of Salim Shahi or Sher Sh4hi and consequently suflBx the
title of KhAn to their names. The Kambobs, Parachas, Khojas and Bohras are separate
castes who intermarry within their own circle, and not outside. It is noted that the dis-
tinction of Eash-Nasb (lineage) is more elaborate in the towns than in tho cities,
the inhabitants of the former thus gaining a superiority. The Editor notes that
the occupations appertaining to the Ashrdf class are changing and remarks that while
in the former case, service of tho State ranks high, commerce is now considered more
attractive, because it is the means of accumulating wealth. The marks of equality of status
among the castes are : — Eating from (1) one Dastarkhawdn, i. e. table, (2) association on the
same level and (3) intermarriage."
This account leaves little doubt as regards
tional groups in the castes of local Muhammadans.
ing bodies has been noticed under caste government, paragraph 553. But the
conditions are diametrically opposed to the ideals of Islam as shown in the
following quotation : —
the existence of func-
The question of govern-
" Tho law of IsUm does not recognise the apparently natural differences of race, nor
the historical differences of nationality. The political ideal of IslAm consists in the creation
of a people born of a free fusion of all races and nationalities. Nationality, with Isl^m, ia
not the highest limit of political development; for the general principles of the law of
Islilm rest on human nature, not on the peculiarities of a particular people. Tha inner
cohesion of such a nation would consist not in the ethnic or geographic unity, not in the
unity of language or social tradition, but in the unity of the religious and political ideal ; or,
in the psychological fact of "like-mindedness," as St. Paul would saj. The membership
of this nation consequently would n'lt be determined by birth, marriage, domicile or
naturalization. It would be determined by a public declaration of " like-mindedness," and
would terminate when the individual has ceased to be like-minded with others. The ideal
territory for such a nation would be the whole earth."*
In practice, however, the Muhammadan tribes and the converted Hindu
castes have grown into a body which, in many respects, differs little from the
caste-ridden Hindu society. But a reaction is no doubt setting in. Twenty years
ago, converts to Islam chose in many cases to retain the name of their original
caste e. g.. Brahman or Khatri Musalmaat ; but this tendency is disappearing
under modern influences, and a convert does not like mentioning his caste
now except in the case of agricultural tribes.
587.
The Indian Christians have generally given no caste, but a few of them
(ISpermille) stuck to
their traditions. The
marginal table shows
the detail of Indian
Christians by caste, ob-
tained by special sort-
ing. The caste most
prominent i a the
Ch libra, and the large
figures under that caste
are consistent with the
enormous proportion of
the converts to Chris-
■s
ja
ja
Caste.
M
Caste.
M
Caste.
■a
ID
a>
s
CO
m
is
CO
Ahir
1
Jaiswara
1
Pathaa
32
Arain
2
.lat
u
Kajput
63
Arora ...
2
Jhinwnr
2
Saini
1
Bharbhunja
2
Julaha ...
5
Savad
1
Biloch
3
Kakkezai
1
Sheikh
8
Brahman
4
Kashmiri
25
Sunar
1
Chamar ...
93
Kavaslh
3
Tarkh.in
2
Chuhra ..
2,698
Khatri
12
Nutive Christian
161,017
Dagi and Koli ...
1
Khoja ...
4
7
•>
Gujar
1
Aloghal
1
Total
1 3,994
tianity, which they represent.
* Extract from an article on
published in the Hindustan Review.
t See Punjab Census Report, 1891, paragraph 259.
Political Thought in Isliuj,' by Dr. Sheikh Muhammad Iqbal, M. A., Bar-at-law,
XI.
437
DI8TRIB0TI0N BY CASTE,
[ Punjab, 191L
■-
^ o ' M^ SHOWING DBTRIBUTIQN |
« or JATS
L
«
H
ari/^' ?^~^"^^^ ♦ '
»
h
<
/He 8 J ? ^^^
9
yi5
^^a
■» )
■ If'^O. — ^e4 ^
JTIl i-^^^^^^?\*'' " o"
- J
/i^E'' \?^"^$^B
K^i^i^ /^PPeX _' /
* /^
/HI V^^-.W^'"
t^B^fiW 1 ' ^ ^^ y o.
" / ea
/ IH <-^ /^ '•^ — J
^ ^^^^Ktm FM f> / - n.
^imy 1,
l-^^yfc '=:j
> / ^W>
/ J ^
" J ~/
SI ^y
N^H^^H^" »'■
^^ y'^ » "•"'j ^' u ■" T "
^.^"V|^v^J
\X\
■ C/sv^,;-
DISTRIBUTION BY CASTE.
588. The numerically strongest castes are Jat, Kajput, Cliamar, BraLman, Localdistri-
Arain and Chuhra. By far bution.
the most numerous are the Jat,,
Jats with a population of
close on 5 millions. Their
local distribution is indicat-
ed on the marginal map*.
The base of the black rect-
angles is proportional to
the total population of the
district or state, and the
height indicates the ratio
of the Jats to the total po-
pulation of the unit. Ac-
cording to the scale noted
on the map, the superficial
area of each rectangle is
proportional to tlie Jat po-
pulation of the unit con-
taining its base. Jubbal
(Simla Hill States) is the
only locality where no Jats have been returned. Throughout the rest of the Province,
the ubiquitous Jat is found in larger or smaller numbers. They are somewhat scarce
in the Attock District and the Himalayan Natural Division, the proportion being
lowest in Attock, Nahan, Mandi, Snket and Chamba, while the strength is small in
Kangra and Simla. The principal Jat tracts are Rohtak (34 per cent.), Ludhiana
(35 per cent.), Mianwali (34 per cent.), Miizaffargarh (36 per cent.), Multan (31 per
cent.), Loharu (43 per cent.), Maler Kotla (32 per cent.), Fai^idkot (36 per cent.),
Jiud (34 per cent.), Nabha (30 per cent.), and Patiala (29 per cent.). In other
words, the Jats are found in abundance on the banks of the Indus and in the east
central tract consisting of the Phulkian States and Ludhiana, the zone spreading
out towards Ferozepore and Hissar, on the one hand, and JuUundur and Amritsar
on the other. The central Punjab has a fairly largo Jat element, ranging from
27 to 24 per cent, in the Lyallpur, Gujrat, Shahpur, Gujranwala and Sialkot
Districts. Details by religion will be found in Imperial Table XlII, Volume II.
I'he Rajputs are distributed over the Province, as shown in theRajput.-
marginal map, which has
been prepared in the same
manner as in the case of the
Jats, except that the scale
of the height of the rect-
angles has been kept larger,
in consequence of the com-
paratively small proportion
of the Bajputs and other
castes to the total popula-
tion. The Rajputs are found
in every district and state
without exception, although
in Mianwali, Muzaffargarh
and Dera Ghazi Khan, their
proportion is infinitesimal.
The highest percentage of
Rajputs is found in Rawal-
pindi (21), Kangra (14),
Jhang (13) and Pataudi
• The numbers given on the map indicate the following nnits : —
1. Hissar, 2. Rohtsk, 3. Gurgaon, 4. Delhi, 5 Karnal, 6. Ambala, 7. Simla, 8. Kangra, 9. Hosluarpur,
10. Jullundur, 11 Ludhiana, 12. Ferozepore. 13 Lahore, 14. Amritsar, 15. Gurdaspur, Ifi. Sialkot, 17. Gujranwala,
18. (iujrat, 19. Shahpur, ao. Jhelum. 21. Rawalpindi, 22. Attock, 23. Mianwali, 24. Montgomery. 25. Lyallpur,
26. Jhang, 27. Multan, 28. Muzaffargarh, 29. Dera Ghazi Khan, 30. Loharu, 31. Dujana, 32. Palaudi, 33__ Kalsia^
34. Nahan, 35 to 4'. Simla Hill States, 42. Mandi. 43. Suket, 44. Kapurthala, 45. Maler Kotla, 46. Fandkot,
47. Cbamba, 48. Patiala. <19. Jind, 50. Nabha, 51. Bahawalpur.
f
' loflooo Riupirrs ♦
fiJIAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION
' OF RAJPUTS
CensnB Report, ]
438
DISTEIBDTION BY CA8TB.
Chaptkr
(11). Hindu Rajputs abouud in Kangra and Hoshiarpur and Muhammadans in
the isolated groups of (1) Rawalpindi,— Jlielura and (2) Montgomery,— Jhang,
(3) Bahawalpur, (4) Hissar, (5) Pataudi, and (6) Karnal.
Chamar, The Chamars have been returned from every district, as shown in the
marginal map. The propor-
tion is very low in the whole
of the western Punjab and
about one-half of the central
Punjab, i.e., west of Lahore
aud Amritsar. They are
thus confined practically to
the eastern Punjab up to the
Beas. The largest propor-
tion is found in the Ambala
District and Kalsia State
(14 per cent.), Hoshiarpur
(13 per cent.), Pataudi "(12
per cent.), Gurgaon (1 1 per
cent.), Jullundur, Ludhiana
and Maler Kotla (10 per
cent.). Where Cbamars are
not in abundance, their
place is taken by Mochis.
Brahman. The map in the margin shows the distribution of Brahmans, who are
found in every district and
state. In Dera Ghazi Khan
alone is their proportion in-
significant. The shortage
may to some extent be due
to the migration, cis-Indus,
of the Brahmans along with
otiier castes, owing to the
disappearance of the town
of Dera Gliazi Khan into
the river. The Himalayan
Natural Division is the
stronghold of the caste, ow-
ing to the preponderance of
the Hindu element. Next
to tlie Himalayas, they
abound in the districts and
[-(jjr- / \r ■r;7>'-=r»i \ I states of the eastern Punjab,
I V-— ^ ^~/ " » J ' « T * " * fil^^HBR ' I ''*2-' Hissar (5 per cent.),
*y \-^ ^° ^^ 1 liohtak (10 per cent.),
Gurgaon (7 per cent.), Dellii
(9 per cent.), Karnal (8 per cent.), Ambala (5 per cent.), Lohai-u (7 per cent.),
Dujana (9 per cent.), Pataudi (12 per cent.), Jind (U> per cent.), Patiala (6 per
cent.), Nahan (6 per cent.) and Hoshiarpur (8 per cent). The proportion de-
creases in the central districts which have 2 to 5 per cent, of them, and in the
western Punjab, the proportion sinks to 1 per cent., except in Rawalpindi, where
the strength of the Mohials raises the percentage to 3.
Arain. The Arains are an important agricultural caste of the plains, with a total
population of over a million. They are spread all over the Province, except the
small Dujana, Pataudi, Jubbal, Bashahr, Keonthal and Bliagal States. Their
strength in each district aud state is indicated on the map (see opposite page).
The great Ara.n centres are Kapurthala and Jullundur, where tliey represent 16
and 15 per cent, of the total population respectively. 'Ihe adjoining district
of Ferozepore has fewer Arains (6 per cent.). In Ljallpur, 12 per cent. o£
the population belongs to this caste and Lahore (with 10 per cent,), Amritsar
31.
439
DISTBIBDTION BY CASTE,
[Punjab, 1911.
^
KJAP SHOWING distribution!
■i
->y]
■
. OF ARAINS
C ei
h
«»
* ( / i
EO^A
->^_^
~A ^> — ^'
\ es v^
\ 'ai
/ '<■' S ^"\ *
* / / '°
/^
'^
Hfc^"^^^ e \
i:
/-\^
■kH
[^
IJk^^^ {«\ pj^ ^
i
^^^
"/ae ,
O 1 1
J H / —
/
r
"T^^^/ y
J P V
r A
^^
. r
The Cliubras are, as shown by the marginal
MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION
li OFCHUHRAS
not therefore signify any shortage of the traditional
The castes confined to certain localities are
the locality where they are mainly located:
(5 per cent.), Gurdaspur
(7 per cent), Sialkot (6
per cent.) and Gujranwala
(6 per cent.) form the
second group of Arain set-
tlements, while Montgome-
ry (7 per cent.), Multan
(5 per cent.) and Bahawal-
pur (6 per cent.) consti-
tute a third zone. They
are scarce in the eastern
Punjab, where Mails are
the corresponding caste.
In the Himalayas and the
western Punjab, where
Maliars do the vegetable
growing, the Araios are
few in number, and are
often treated as a sub-
caste of Jats.
map, to be found all over the Chuhra.
Province. The small Hill
State of Jubbal alone returns
no Chuhras. They belong,
however, mainly to the cen-
tral Punjab, being strongest
in Faridkot (13 per cent.),
Amritsar (12 per cent.),
Lahore (10 per cent.), Fe-
rozepore (10 per cent.),
Ly a 1 1 p u r (8 per cent.),
Gujranwala and Kapurthala
(7 per cent.) of the total
population. The Dhanaks
take their place in the
eastern Punjab, the Dagi
Kolis in the Himalayas and
the Musallis (inchiding Ku-
tauas) in the western Pun-
jab. The scarcity of the
Chuhras in those tracts does
scavengers.
ffiven in the table below with Castes
Caste.
Locality.
Caste.
Locality.
Caste.
Locality.
Ahir
Delhi Division and the
Ohulara (,GoIa)
Dera Ghazi Khan.
Khanzada ...
Gurgaon.
Phulkian States.
Ilali
Kanpra and Chamba.
Kliattar
Attock and Rawalpindi.
Arora
Multan and Rawal-
Janjua
Rawalpindi and Attock
Khushabi ...
Ambala and Patiala.
pindi Divisions and
Jhojha
Ambala and Kalsia.
LiUa
J|]e1iim.
Bahawalpur State.
Kachlii
Hissar.
Mahton
lloshiarpur and Jul-
A wan
Rawalpindi Division.
Kahut
Jhelum.
hindur.
Aggarwal ...
Delhi Division and the
Kanera
Mianwali, Muzaflar-
Marija (Maro-
Multan, Muzaflargarh,
Phulkian States.
garh and Dera Ghazi
cha).
Dera Ghazi Khan
Biloch
Dera Ghazi Khan,
Khan.
and Bahawalpur.
Muzaflargarh and
Kanet
Kangra, Nahan, Simla
Nar
Kangra.
Bahawalpur.
with H ill States
Pachadha ...
Ilissar.
Bhojki
Kangra.
Mandi, Suket and
Rahbari
Delhi Division except
Bishnoi
Hissar.
hills of Patiala.
Simla and the Phul-
ChaDRand Ghi-
Gurdaspur, Hoshiar-
Kan jar
Gurgaiin, Delhi, Kar-
kian states.
rath.
pur and Kangra.
nal, Ambala, Patiala
Rathi
Kangra and Chamba.
Daudpotra . .
Bahawalpur.
and Bahawalpur.
Ror
Karnal, Delhi and
Dhund
Rawalpindi
Kehal
Multan, Muzaflargarh
Jind.
Caidi
Kangra and Chamba
and Dera Ghazi
Satti
Rawalpindi.
GBkkhar
Rawalpindi and Jhelum
Khan.
Tegah
Delhi. Karnal.
confined to
certain
localities.
Census B«port, ]
440
DIBTEIBDTION BY CASTE.
Chapter
Comparison
with 1901.
NrHBER
Number
Number
IN (OOO'S
IN (OoO's
IN (OOO's
Caste.
omitted).
Caste.
OMITTED).
Caste.
omittsdV
1901.
1911.
1901.
1911.
1901.
1911.
Ahir
205
209
Rujar
632
HIO
Arain
1,007
978
Jat
4,942
4,957
Mochi
415
419
Arora
653
674
Jhinwar ...
460
360
Musalli ...
57
310
Awan
421
42i;
Julaha
657
635
Nai
376
350
Bania
452
404
Kamboh ...
174
172
Pathan ...
264
292
Biloch
468
532
Kanet
390
404
Qa,ssab ...
118
120
Brahman ...
1,123
1,018
Kashmiri ...
193
178
Qureshi ...
53
71
Chamar
1,208
1,129
Khatri
436
433
Kathi
38
98
Chhimba ...
152
129
Khokhar ...
108
60
Rajput
1,798
1,635
Chuhra
1,189
926
Kumhar ...
569
550
Saini
127
113
Dagi and Koli
155
175
Lohar
351
323
Sayad
238
239
Dhobi
147
156
Machhi
236
280
Sheikh ...
321
339
Dumna
59
79
Mali
113
104
Sunar
177
158
Faqir
38G
280
Meo
147
130
Tarkhan ...
681
646
Ghirath
170
171
Mirasi
247
227
Teli
322
296
contributing
tnille
589. Subsidiary Table II appended to this Chapter concpares the strength
of each of the castes
2 per
or more to
the total popula-
tion, ascertained at
each of the four
Censuses, The fi-
gures of 191 1 and
1901 are noted in
the margin for the
more important
castes.
The Ahirs
have increased 1*5
per cent, in spite of
the general de-
crease of population
in the tract where they are indigenous (Gurgaon and Phulkian States), but
it appears that the increase is confined to males, while the number of females
has actually gone down. This points to an enhanced immigi-ation of Ahirs from
the United Provinces, which appears to be a fact, as the number of Ahirs coming
up to the central Punjab for service as syces, milkmen, etc., is larger now than
it used to be sometime ago. The caste has developed 20"5 per cent, during the
past 30 years. The Arains have suffered owing to high mortality in the districts
to which they belong. The Aroras and Awans have increased in numbers, con-
sistently with the hygienic conditions of the western Punjab. Banias are really
the worst sufferers and the Brahmans come next to them. They have both sus-
tained serious losses from epidemics. Keither of them seems to be very prolific as
they have shown a net decline of 7*5 and 4-S per cent, respectively, during the
past 30 years. The Biloches have made a marked improvement in the past decade
and have exhibited a continuous development gaining 71*4 per cent, since 1881.
At the present Census, a few Jats of the Muzaffargarh District are said to have
called themselves Biloches owing to the higher status of the latter, but this has
apparently had little effect on their total strength. The Chamars have decreased
by 6"6 per cent, owing obviously to mortality from epidemics. Some of the
Chhimbas are said to have adopted the more respectable title of Dhobi. The
loss of the former has therefore been tlie gain of the latter. The Chuhras have
decreased 22 per cent, during the past decade, but against this is to be set off the
more than equal increase amongst the Musalhsand that amongst the Indian Chris-
tians. The Dagi-Kolis would appear to have progressed more tiian 13 per cent,
during the past 10 years, but this is not a fact, for, in 1901, some of these returned
themselves as weavers and Chamars, with reference to their occupation. The
variation therefore is due mainly to a difference of classification. The gain of the
Dumnas is more apparent than real, for, in the Gurdaspur District, they were re-
corded ir. 1901 as Dums and classified under Mirasis, who have now shown a
fairly large decrease. The Fakirs have diminished in consequence of the unim-
portant orders giving their real castes. The Abdals, Chishtis, Bairagis, Jogis,
etc., have now been returned as separate castes, while they were classed in 1901,
as Fakirs. The Jat population has remained practically stationary and the aspira-
tions of the lower castes to join the agricultural classes by assuming the title of
Jat seem to have nullified the effects of the losses from epidemics and the
tendency of some of the Jats to assume higher titles like Pathan, Biloch and
Rajput. Bat the Jats are doubtless prolific, for their present strength is 19
per cent, in exce.<i3 of that ascertained in 1881. The loss of 21-7 per cent, in
Jhinwars is ascribable to the Aluhammadan Jhinwars calling themselves Machhis
at the present Census. They have shown an increase of 18"3 per cent. The
decrease amongst the Kashmiris is due to a variation in immigration. The Kho-
kbars have none down 44 per cent, because in Jhang and Mianwali and probably
in other districts, they have been returned as a sub-caste of Jats. There is reason
to believe that part of the decrease under Lobars and Tarkhans may be due to>
441
XI. BACK. [ Punjab. 1911.
the assumption of other titles by some of the artizans of these castes ; for in-
stance, the Jangira Lohars appear to havd returned themselves as Brahmans.
The decrease of 8 per cent, in Malis is compensated by the Maliars who follow
the same occupation. The Meos have decreased 11-2 per cent, in spite of the fact
that the Mens found on the banks of the Sutlej have been wrongly classified as Meo
(see Glossary) owing obviously to high mortality in the Gurgaon District. The
strength of Nais has decreased similarly to that of Tarkhans and Lohars. The
Pathans have improved 1<)*8 per cent, owing partly to favourable circumstances
and partly to a larger immigration. The gain of the Qureshis is due
mainly to the- assumption of the title by members of lower castes such as
Khakha. The large increase among the Rathisis tlie lesult of a correct classi-
fication, particularly in Kaogra, of the members of the caste, who were formerly
included in Rajputs. But even irrespective of this change of classification,
the Rajputs have suffered losses from epidemics. No special cause can bn ascribed
for the decrease among the Sainis, except that in the Hoshiarpur District where
they are found in great strength, they have suffered from plague and fever. The
Sheikhs have gained 5*4 per cent, because Parachas, Khojas, and Niarias have
returned themselves under this title. The Sunars and Telis have decreased
nearly 11 and 8 per cent, respectively, partly because the former have been try-
ing to pass as Rajputs and Kbatris and the latter have in some places claimed
Moghal descent.
RACE
590. Sir Herbert Risley made a very elaborate classification of the Races Eace.
of India mainly on the basis of anthropometry, which is however now at a
discount. 'I'he measurements would certainly be a very reliable index of racial
distinction, were it not for the almost indistinguishable fusion of races in India
and the fact that customs based upon the ideas regarding beauty, result in the arti-
ficial shaping of the head and features and that the colour of the skin, as also the
fineness or coarseness of features is to a considerable extent influenced by envi-
ronments. As regards the former, the custom of Bandhna* which is almost univer-
sal in the western Punjab and which results in the flattening of the back of the
bead, practically destroys the chances of craniometry. I have seen most sym-
metrical heads flattened horribly at the back by this process, within the first few
montlis after the birth of the child. In other parts of the Province too, the
mother is expected to shape the head of a baby by gentle and continuous pres-
sure and 1 have noticed gross deformities of the head removed in this way. Then,
again, an aquiline nose is generally preferred to a flat one, and the mothers
keep pulling constantly at the noses of the babies with a view to beautify their
appearance. As regards the colour, it is a matter of everyday experience that a
hill mj>n of fair complexion living in the heat of the plains very soon darkens his
complexion and in one or two generations, he cannot be distinguished, so far as
the colour goes, from the other inliahitants of the tract, following the same pro-
fession. The Kashmiri Brahmans, for instance, are a very exclusive caste and
intermixture of blood has so far been out of the question ; nevertheless, ca^es are
in existence, in which some of the membeis of families which immigrated from
Kashmir half a dozen generations back and settled down in the United Provinces,
Bengal or Central India have become jet black in complexion, and there is not the
least difference between their ajipearance and that of the members of other local
castes. 'L'he Chuhras who are supposed to have the largest aboriginal element,
though generally black in complexion, nrobably owing to their exposure to the sun,
have got a fair proportion of pei'sons with features similar to those found in the
Biciias, and some of tiiom are quite fair in colour. Two sweepers happen to be in
my own employ, at this time, who, when neatly dressed, coidd easily pass for any
of the highest castes. On the oth^r hand, I had a KabrAr boy whom I had occasion to
turn out because he had fallen into evil ways, and I was surprised to find, after a
short time, that he had gone and settled down AVith a Cfauhra family merely to be
able to play with dogs whom he loved. He now calls himself a Chuhra, ajid his
• A small earthen platform about one foot square and 3 inches thick is prepared of a well beaten mixture of
clay and straw and three upright pegs are inserted into it siilhcicnily apart to admit the head of the baby between
them. Whenever the baby is not iu the mother's lap, it is made to lie on its back with its head resting on the earthen
platform, the arms are placed alongside the body and a sheet is wrapped round it to prevent it from changing posi-
tion. The back of the head thus receives constant pressure. This device is called Bandhna.
442
Census Report, ] race. Chapter
complexion being particularly dark, and his features coarse, he might be easily
taken for a typical f-pecimen of a negro element amoog the Chuhras. The accre-
tions from higher to lower castes have, moreover, been so large (see paragraph
579) that it would be by no means easy to apply a differeutial race-test based
merely on some arithmetical standard.
Bine patches. 591. Enquiries have been made about blue patches on children, from KuUu,
which is the only place where Mongolians are to be found in strength, and from
other places as -well. Mr. Coldstream, Assistant Commissioner, KuUu, reports
that the blue spot is a well known phenomenon in Lahul and is found equally in
pure Tibetans, in a mixture of Tibetans and Labulis, and in pure Lahidi
children. The mark, he says, is not universal and he quotes a local belief that, if
a pregnant woman steps over a frying pan or a hand-mill, her child is born with
the blue mark. He has also supplied information sent by the Revd. Mr. Hittarch.
of Labul, which I quote below : —
" Amongst the 15 — 20 people whom I asked, nearly all believeil that this mark is just
as well to be found with children in Kullii. N"t a single one could tell if all his children
had it or only some. They only know that this blue spot sometimes occurs. Even the few
pnre Tibetans who were asked did not think tliat this mark was a special Tibetan one.
I myself found the mark not only on the back but in one case on the limbs, too. Mostly it
13 to be found on the seat and lowest part of the back. In some case I saw a mark
covering nearly the whole of the back from shoulders to seat, not regularly, but looking in
shape like a large ink blot dropped from a certain height. Mostly I found it just below the
seat and back. No meaning is attached to it nor any importance at all. One saying which
I wrote in my last letter is this, " If a pregnant woman steps over the sauce-pan her child
gets the mark." This I heard from several people.
A Gurkha whom I met the othfT day said, " If a man in last birth had been an ibex
which was hit by a bullet, then he will have a blue spot in this birth on that part of his
body where the bullet hit him." Not a bad idea, but I heard it only from him, and as he
looked a clever man it may have been a made-up story for the occasion. It is not perma-
nent or at least not regarded to be so by the people, but vanishes sooner or later in child-
hood. Mostly it seems to disappear in the second or third year. But one mark (a large one)
was found on a boy at least 7 years of agt. Most children of the Bunan* talking population
have the mark and the type of this people is certainly a half Tibetan one. In th&
Chandra Bhaga valley, where the population is more of the Indian type, nearly nothing is
known of the mark. Amongst 6 little ones which I saw none had it. Nor did I find this mark
on the people from Bushahr the weavers who visit Lahul every year."
This does not seem to show that the blue patches are a peculiar feature
of the Mongohan race. On the other hand, enquiries made by Dr. A. G. Newell
of Lahore from a midwife who had observed 174 children with blue patches, at
Lahoi e, shows that most children of the Hindus and Muhammadans alike have
these patclies on them, and that there are several patches on the back and one
big patch about the region of the sacrum. She ascribed it to the placenta^
The Health Officer's own observations are : —
" These patches are due to the effect of pressure on the back of the child due to the
metliod of native women tying their skirts about the level of the umbilicus. There is
usually a knot in front and this may at times change its position. This presses against the
ba'ck of the child in utero and is liable to make the part pressed on unduly congested and
pigmented. It is more commonly prevalent in normal pregnancies because in normal
pregnancies some part of the back is towards the front, and is more likely to be seen about
the sacral region because the sacral region is the first likely to come under the pressure. la
Europeans this patch is not seen simply because European women wear corsets which dis-
tribute the pressure of the skirts and, if not wearing corset, they usually go in for a
loose gown which is kept up from the shoulder. This appears to me to be the cause of thfse
patches which are not pathologic and disappear usually in the first 18 months of the child's-
life. A few niinutes before writing I saw a child of one year with one patch on the sacrum
and two lesser defined patches a little further up the back."
The lady Doctor of the Amritsar Municipal Female Hospital, who had
several cnses under observatton, says that two or three children (not Mongolian)
in every hundred have these patches, u.^-ually on the back and over the sacrum.
She aods on the strength of the information received from midwives that
such patches are also found on the soles of the feet and on the calf. The popular
opinion, slie says, is that tbe spots are caused by the undue pressure of the
placenta in one particular spot.
My own enquiries show that a blue patch of a regular shape and
of varying size just above the sacrum is a very common phenomenon irb
• The dialect of the high hills.
XI.
443
BACB.
[ Punjab. 1911.
this" Province, particularly among the lower classes. The reason ascribed
by intelligent midwives is this. If the child is not covered up immedi-
ately on birth, the placenta usually drops on its back, just above the buttocks and
this contact produce.^ a blue patch
which lasts for a short or long
period, according to the length of
time for which the placenta remains
touching the body of the cliild. But
the reason given by Dr. Newell
appears to be a more scientiBc one.
The patches disappear invariably
sooner or later. In the margin, I
give the results of observations
made by vaccinators under the ar-
rangements very kindly m^ide by the
Sanitary Commissioner. Out of a
District.
g
•§•9
d ■=
go-
Is
25
District.
§
•Sg
d »
No. found with
blue patches.
Hissar
Bohtak
Delhi
Ambala
Hoshiarpur ...
Ludhiana
Lahore
Gurdaspur
Gujrat
13
. 434
l.l-iS
647
401
630
785
775
1,558
13
81
6
69
42
21
715
157
39
Shahpur
Rawalpindi ...
Attock
Montgomery...
Jhang
Muzaffargarh
Total
1,102
80
1,460
32
937
371
39
80
161
32
257
25
10,410
1,807
No. OP
No. OP
OHIIDKRN.
CBILDRBN.
.
o o
o o
Caste.
nd t
veblu
tches.
Caste.
g
nd t
ve blu
tches.
<s
3 ra rt
M
o.q O.
oA e.
H
fa
H
fc.
Qassab
65
7
Chamar
109
9
Gujar
18
3
Mochi
21
2
Jat
69
4
Mirasi
63
7
Sansi
56
10
totai of 10,410 children examined, 1,807, i.e., 17 per cent., were found to have one or
more patches, and not a single one
of these children was a Mongolian.
The result of these enquiries is that
blue patches, at, all events of the
type found in this Province, are not
peculiar to the Mongolian race. The
caste of the children examined was
not noted in every case, but the
figures of the Hoshiarpur District,
which are quoted in the margin, by
way of example, will show that the patches are found principally among the lower
and unclean castes.
592. Pigmented tongues ' known as melanoglossia ' are expected to afford Melanoglossia.
an indication of racial distinction. A
systematic examination was made
in this Province at the ho.spitals and
jails through the kind offices of the
Provincial heads of the Medical and
Jail Departments. The results, by
caste, are printed in Subsidiary
Tables IV and V appended to this
chapter. Altogether, 21,148 tongues
were examined at the hospitals of
which only 445 or 2 per cent, were
found to be pigmented and in only about half of them (?.«., 1 per cent.) the
appearance was congenital, the pigmentation in the other half being due to known
causes. Tiie castes showing the largest percentage of cases are named in
the margin. But the largest figures are found among the Jats ('hamars, and
Brahmans.
The proportion of pigmented tongues was found to be much larger in the
jails. The number of prisoners examined was 633 and 52 of tiiem were found
to have melanoglossia, while four had tongues pigmented from other causes.
The castes showing most cases of melano-
glossia are noted in the margin. The J its have a
small percentage, although owing to their numerical
superiority in the jails, they supplied mosL cases.
The general conclusion from the above statis-
tics would be that similarly to blue patches,
melanoglossia is most common among the lower
castes, but the presence of cases in all grades of
castes from the Brahmans and Rajputs down to the
Chuhras would preclude tiie association of the feature with race. The l.u-ge per-
centage among the Biloches might raise a presumption, but the number of cases,
examined is too small to justify a conclusion.
Caste.
2.3
Ml M
13 S
Caste.
" M
cj a*
d »
fe a
6 e
s s
^i
Oi
Z
Ph
Biloch
12
75
Musalli
25
64
Ghirath
30
37
Qureshi
3
67
Machhi
3
67
Jat
978
2
Mahajan
7
29
Chamar
410
4
Meo
3
67
Brahman
506
2
ilBLANO-
5ii-d
GL0S8IA.
Caste.
o g
o
— E
£3
O rt
d ®
o
S5
<
Dh
Jal
226
12
5
Chuhra
38
5
13
Sansi
24
4
17
Censns Report, J
444
GLOSSARY.
Chaptes
The Mendc-
lian LaiT.
Gloisary.
593. Efforts were made to collect iuformation bearing on the exiatence of
the Mendelian Law in crosses between different races. The only field for observa-
tion was the combination of Europeans and Indians. With this view, the
Principals of the Lawrence Military Asylum, Sanawar, and Lawrence Memorial
School, Murree, were addressed. They were, however, unable to supply any infor-
mation, owing to the difiBculty of ascertaining the nationahty of the parents of
children of mixed parentage. Nor did enquiries, made from other persons in a
position to give an opinion on the subject, bear f niit.
THE ETHNOGRAPHIC GLOSSARY OF CASTES.
59 i. In corapliance with the Census Commissioner's instructions, a brief
account of each of the castes returned in Table XIII is given below in the form
of an ethnographic glossary. The description of such csstes as have not been
fully dealt with l)efore, or in respect of wbicli eome additional information was
forthcoming, will be found to be somewhat fuller. References to the books con-
taining information about each caste have been quoted at the beginning of the
section relating thereto. The population of, and the religions professed by, the
members uf each caste have been printed in the margin, and the synonyms have
also been put together there.
No account has been given of the minor castes named on the title page of
the Table, which are insignificant in strength.
The words " Rosens Glossary " indicate " A Glossary of the Tribes and
Castes of tlie Punjab and North West Frontier Province," by Mr. H. A. Rose,
I. C. S., edition 1911 ; and " Crooke's Tribes and Castes" stand for " The Tribes
and Castes of the North West Provinces and Oudh," by Mr. W. Crooke, B. A.,
edition 1891.
The following abbreviations have been used in the Glossary : —
H=Hindu.
M=Muharutnadan.
S=Sikh.
J = Jain.
B=Budhist.
C. R. = Punjab Census Report.
1. Abdal.
Popnlation ..
UaleB
Females
(M.)
Agari (Agir).
Population ...
Males
Females
(H.M.)
Aheri (Heri).
ropulalion ...
Males
Females
(II. 8. M.)
467
234
233
1,453
Ahir.
Population
Males
Females
(H.S.J.
M.)
Syn.=Synonyms.
{Rose's Glossary, Vol. J I, page 1) —
Abdal is a small caste of Muhammndans found in the Kangra and Hoshiar-
pur Districts, and the Bilaspur, Chamba, Mandi and 8uket States. They are
Ijepgars and wandering singers, performing specially at Rajputs' funerals and
weddings. Thcj are quite different to a class of wandering Muhammadan fakirs
known by the same name.
3 Q27 [C. R. 1881, para. 638 ; Rose's Olostary, Vol. II, page 3 ; Crooke' t Tribes and Castes,
ii574 Vol. I, page 13) —
Agaris are all Hindus with the exception of 13 Muhammadana. They are
found chiefly in tlie Rolitak, Gurgaon, Delhi and Muban Districts. The occupa-
tion followed by them is salt making. The Agdris of the Gurgaon District claim
descent from the Rajputs of Chittor. Their social position is said to bo fairly
good, being above that of Lobars and below that of Jats.
(C. R. 1881, fcira. 576 j C. R. 1891, fara. 260; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 4j
Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. I, page 39) —
Aheris are found mostly in the Hissar, Gurgaon, Karnal and Ambala Dib-
tricts and the Patiala and Jind States. They are all Hindus, except in the Phul-
kian States, whore tliey follow the Sikh and Muhammadan religions as well.
1"hey generally work in roed and grass and move about in gangs in search of
employment as labourers or as reaper.s at- harvest time. In appearance and
physique they reseinble the Bawarias and live outside the main village home-
steads. In the Rchtak District, 320 Heris (146 males and 175 females), were by
mistake classified under Hesi. These figures have been included in the total
given in the margin.
208 5P4 l^* ^' 1881, pora. 493 ; Crooke's Tribes and Caste$, Vol. I, page 49 ; Rose's Qlossary,
116,380 Vol. II, page 4) —
' AniRs, ))iobably derived from Abhir [descendant of Brahman father and
Ambashta (Brahman father and Vaishya mother) motlier, according to Manu]
mentioned in the Bliagwat Purana, are a pastoral and agricultural caste, mostly
Hindus, found mainly in the Delhi Division, Ferczepore District and Dujana,
Pataudi and Phulkiau States. Their social standing is the same as that of the
19,505
10,508
8,937
XL
445
QLOSSAEY.
[ Punjab, 1911.
Jats and Gujars. They own land and have been declared an agricultural tribe in
the DeUii Division (except Simla) and the districts of Shahpur, Mianwali and
Multan. They also enlist in the army. The Jadubansis and ^fandbansis claim to
be of Rajput descent and are trying to separate tliemselves from Gawalbansis.
(C. B. 1881, para. 500; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 13)— 5.
Aeab is a purely Muhammadan tribe. Of the 969 persons, 958 have been
returned in the Bahawalpur State. They are reported to be the descendants of
two persons Bhikhu dnd Shadi Khan who came from Arabia and settled in the
State long ago. The caste is still mostly endogamous, but intermarriage with
the Jats is allowed in cases of necessity. The marriage customs are similar to
those of the Jats, and the group should apparently be considered a sub-caste of
Jats. They were, however, treated as a separate caste with reference to the pre-
vious Census returns. The entries include some of the 241 persons born* in
Arabia who gave their tribe as Arab.
(C. B. 1881, paras. 485 and 486 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 13) — 6.
Akains are mostly Muhammadans. They have been declared an agricultural
liribe throughout the Province with the exception of the Rohtak, Gurgaon,
Simla, Kangra, Jhelum, Rawalpindi and Attock Districts, where their number is
very limited. Apparently a functional caste with a strong nucleus of converted
Kambohs, some of whom still call themselves Kamboh Arains. There are still
1,186 Hindu Arains, mostly in Patiala (803) and Karnal (290), and the Kambohs
have a sub-caste called Arain. The term is derived probably from Rain or Rahin,
■equivalent to Eahak (tiller of soil).
(C. B. 1881, paras. 543 and 544 ; C. R. 1901, pages 302 and 307 ; Rose's Glossary, 7.
Vol. II, page 16) —
Aeoeas are mostly Hindus and Sikhs with only 286 Muhammadans. They
are scattered over the whole Province, but are found mainly in the Multan,
Eawalpindi and Lahore Divisions, the Ferozepore District and the Bahawalpur
State. Their traditional occupations are trade and money-lending, but some of them
own and live on land. The Aroras occupy very nearly the same social position as
Khatris. Their customs and traditions strongly point to a Khatri origin. The
Arora or Rora is evidently connected with Arorkot nearRori (Sukkur), the ancient
capital of Sindh. Pandit Radha Prasad has, in a recently published pamphlet,t
tried to connect the Aroras through Odra, one of the descendants of Arjun
(K^rtavirya), with the Chandra Bansi Rajputs. Odradesh, according to the Maha-
bharat and Bnhat Sam hita, was situated somewhere south or south-eastof the Punjab.
The Kshattriyas appear to have fled to this country from the persecution of Parshu
Ham and started work as artizans, giving up, in some cases, the sacred thread, in
order to conceal their identity. Odra may have become Rodra, giving place in
time to Ror and Aror or Rora and Arora. Odradesh is mentioned in the
Mahabharta (Sahdev Digvijaya) and the Odra caste is referred to as Kshattriya
degraded to Shudra, in Manu, X, 43 — 45. Pandit Radha Prasad has explained
that the degradation was temporary.
The Lohanas of Sindh, who are probably identical with Aroras, may represent
a functional division of the caste which worked in iron (Lo/i = iron) similar to
Lobar. They developed later on as a trading class and moved up through Aror-
kot, along the Indus, to the Punjab. Throughout the western Punjab, they are
known as Kirars which is probably a corruption of Kirat and would connect them
with the Keratdesh (Bikaner). It may be an earlier name than Arora. Their
division into Southern (Dakhna) and Northern (Utradhi) may possibly be due to
Budhist influence.
The figures of Aroras printed in Table XITI include 418 persons (214 males
and 204 females) returned in the Rohtak District who are really Rors. These
figurea have been excluded from the population given in the margin above.
The term Arya appears as a caste for the first time at this Census. A few
staunch members of the Arya Samaj who do not believe in the association of caste
with birth, refused to mention the caste in which they were born, and have return-
ed Arya as their caste as well as sect. The figures were reported from only five
districts. (For an account of the sect, see paragraph 178.)
[C. R. 1881, paras. 465 and 466 ; C. R. 1891, page 337 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II,
page 25) —
The AwANs describe themselves to be of purely foreign extraction, i. e., as
descended from one Kutab Shah, who was a descendant of Ali. The origin
of this tribe, formed at one time, the subject of a good deal of discussion. The
Arab.
Population
969
Males
548
Females ...
421
(M.)
Arain.
Population 977,601
Males ... 541,189
Females ... 436,412
(H. 8. J. M.)
Arora (Rora).
Population 673,665
Males ... 362,728
Females ... 310,937
(H.8.J. M.)
8. Arya.
Population
213
Males
135
Females ...
78
(H.)
9. Awan.
Population
425,931
Males ...
226,991
Females ...
198,940
(M.)
* The pure Arabs should in future be distinguished from Arab Jats.
■f Arorvansha Vyavastha, by Pandit Radha Prasad of Lahore, edition Sambat 1969 cA.D. 1912).
446
Census Report, ] glossary. Chapter
late Sir Denzil Ibbetson discussed the different theories, one of which, pro-
ponnded by General Cunningham, was that Awans as well aa the Janjuas
were Anuwans or descendants of Anu and that they held the plateaus which
lie nortli of the Salt Range, at the time of the Indo-Scythian invasion. Another
theory advanced by Mr. Thomson, Settlement OfiBcer, Jhelum, was that the
Awans were a Jat race who came from the north-west of Dera Ismail Khan, and
Major (afterwards Colonel) Wace was also inclined to give the Awans a Jat origin.
Sir Denzil Ibbetson was struck by the existence of Hindu names in the genealogical
trees of the Awan chiefs of Kala Bagh, such as, Rai Harkaran, immediately below
the name of Kutab Shah, and by the fact that the Awans employed Hindu Brah-
mans as family priests. The existence of Hindu names in the genealogical records
was au obstacle, not very easy for the advocates of the foreign origin theory to
overcome, and an ingenious story was put forward in 1891 (see quotation on
page 337 of the Punjab Census Report, 1891) in order to explain away the difiB-
culty by reference to the tradition, that the Awan descendants of Kutab Shah
were converted (reconverted) to Hinduism by a Jogi about a hundred years after
Kutab Shah's death, and that the miracles of one Sayad Abdur Rahman Nuri
restored them to the faith of the Prophet. The writer, however, seems to have
got mixed up about the conditions of Hindu society, for at the time of
the Muhammadan invasions, no conversion to Hinduism was permissible, nor
could any Hindus, proselytized into Islam, be reconverted. Apparently, fiction
affected the top of the genealogical trees, and the names of the ancestors imme-
diately preceding the conversion of the families to Islam could not be easily for-
gotten. The term is supposed to have been derived variously from A'awan (helper)
and Aman (trust). Mr. Rose favoured the former derivation and seemed to be
incUned to believe their origin and descent from Kutab Shah, but the identity of
the eponymous septs which looked like Hindu names did not fail to attract hia
attention. With duo deference to the opinions of those who have based their
conclusions upon extensive study and research, I venture to think that the
Awans are of purely local origin. The name Awan is the unalloyed Sanskrit term
Awan or Awan meaning defender or protector. I agree with Mr. Thomson
and the late Col. Wace, in thinking, that they were originally Jats and to this
day, we find a sub-caste of Jats called Awan, with a strength of over 21,000
souls, spread over the Rawalpindi, Multan and Lahore Divisions, the Ambala,
Kangra, Jullundur and Ferozepore Districts and the Kapurthala and Bahawalpur
States. They have probably, from time immemorial, been located in the tract,
north of the Salt Range, and appear to have received the title of Awan
in the Hindu times, owing to the successful defence of their stronghold againsb
aggression. At a much later date — i.e., after the Muhammadan invasions, they
seem to have been converted by Sayad Kutab Shah and owing to the feudal
system which prevailed in this tract till very recent times, the conversion
of the chiefs would appear to have resulted in the proselytization of the whole tribe
■without exception. The Awans then began to call themselves Kutab Shahis^
i.e., the followers of Kutab Shah, like the sect names of Ram Rai, Ram
Dasi, Gulab Shahi, Din Panahi, etc., which are still so common. A study of
the Awankari tract of the Mianwali District, which I have had the privilege
to make, places the Hindu origin of Awans beyond the shadow of doubt.
At a village called Nammal, which is one of the important centres of this
tract, a Bhat (bard) described in flowing terms how each of the clans {Varhis
or Munhis, as they are variously called) wore descended from the warrior chiefs.
The descendants of Sigh Singh were called Sighals, of Bhag Singh — Bhagwals
and of Hulach Singh — Hulchals, and so on. The whole tract bears traces of
Hindu names. For instance, a small hillock in the centre of the valley is
called Majhwan (Sanskrit Madhyaivan) because it is situated in the centre of
a level tract. The place is also strongly associated with the legend of
Raja Rasaloo and Sirkup and the ruins of a fort overlooking this
village are pointed as the residence of the latter who was a Rajput chief.
Another noticeable place of archasological interest in the Awan country is the
village called Amb, in the Salt Range, which was the capital of Kaja Amrik,
another Rajput chief. The style of architecture in the ruins points to something
like 1,000 A. D. and the tradition of the Awans seems to connect them with this
period. Moreover, this tribe still retains strong traces of Hindu customs. Most
Awan families, for instance, still have Bhats (bards) as their retainers, who act
as regular genealogists. Some of the Awan cliiefs weigh themselves with
Satandjd (seven grains) on their birth-day anniversary, like the orthodox Hindus,
and give away the grain in charity. The wearing of small gold ear-rings (called
Birbalis) still disringuishes the well-to-do Awans. The tribe has strong endo-
gamous tendencies, wnd possesses numerous other unimportant customs which
are similar to those of the Hindus. A comparison of the sub-castes makes it
Bimply impossible that the Awans should be an Arabian tribe who came in as
XI.
447
GLOSSAEY.
[ Punjab, 1911.
Sub-castes of
Castes in which
Sub-castes of
Castes in which
Awan.
also found.
Awan.
also found.
Ahir
Ahir, Jat, Rajput.
Kang
Jat.
Baryal
Jat, Rajput.
Karual
Jat, Rajput.
Bhat
Brahman, Jat, Khatri.
Katwal
Jat, Rajput.
Bhatti
Jat, Rajput.
Khattar
Jat, Rajput.
Chand
Jat, Rajput.
Khokhar
Jat, Rajput.
Chauhan
Jat, Eajput.
Langah
Jat, Rajput.
Gang
Jat.
Mahar
Jat, Rajput.
Hanjra
Jat, Rajput.
Mandial
Jat, Rajput.
Harpal
Jat.
Mohial ...
Brahman, Jat.
Janjua
Jat, Rajput.
Nahar
Aggarwal, Jat, Rajput
Jaspal
Jat, Rajput.
Nanak Shahi ...
Brahman.
Jaswal
Rajput.
Naru
Jat, Rajput.
Jat
Jat, Rajput.
Pan war
Jat, Rajput.
Jatala
Jat, Rajput.
Rajput
Jat, Rajput.
Jhammat
Jat, Rajput.
Ranghar
Rajput.
Kahut
Jat, Rajput.
Sahotra
Jat, Rajput.
Kakar
Jat, Khatri, Rajput.
Sial
Jat, Rajput.
Kalar
Jat.
Sindhu
Jat.
Kalial
Jat, Rajput.
Vains
Jat, Rajput.
invaders or
followed in the
wake of one of
the Muham-
madan con-
querors. Of
the 710 major
sub-castes of
Awans, 241
with .340 per
mille of the to-
tal population
are common,
with Aggar-
wals (9), Ahir
(16), Biloch
(40), Brahman
(59),Jat(181),
Khatri (67)
and Rajput
(152). I give
ia the margin,
a few instances of sub-caste names which are common with those of the castes
mentioned above, 'fhe details will be found in Appendix to Table XIII (Part III
of this Report).
The enormous number of such identical terms can only be possible if the
Awans were descended from a common stock or originally formed part of one of
the larger castes. The similarity is most marked with the Jat and Rajput sub-
castes. The theory of their Jat or Rajput origin, therefore, seems to be the most
plausible. The Jats themgelves, as explained under the proper head, have a
large mixture of Rajput blood, for Rajput is after all a status designed originally
for the descendants of warrior chiefs, and the Rajputs, Khatris and Jats have a
certain proportion o£ degraded Brahraans amongst them. This would account
for the occurrence of identical sub-castes amongst the different castes above
alluded to. The above i^, however, a theory which I have put forward on the
basis of my own observations, and 1 trust that it may be confirmed hereafter by
archseological research.
(C. B. 1881, para. 594 ; Base's Glossary, Vol. 11, page 32) —
Badddns are Muhammadans, with the exception of 4 persons who have
returned themselves as Hiudus. They are a Gipsy tribe returned chiefly from the
tracts lying between the Sutlej and Ravi. The men work in straw and make
pipebowls while the women bleed by cupping. They also lead about bears.
(C. E. 1881, para. 563 (a) ; Base's Glossary, Vol. 11, page 33)—
Bagris are mostly Hindus and have been returned chiefly from the Multan
Division. This is a geographical term meaning one from Bagar or the prairies of
Bikaner. They are also sometimes called .Marecha or Marija. In many cases
they have given their real castes, which usually belong to the touchable classes.
They come into the Punjab for work on canals, etc., as labourers.
(C. B. 1881, para. 529 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. 11, page 34)—
Bahedpias are mostly Sikhs and have been returned chiefly from the
Gujrat District. Bahrupia means a disguised man, i.e., an actor or mimic. It is a
functional caste made up by accretions from other castes. The Bahrupias of
Sialkot, for instance, have returned themselves now as Rajputs, having been de-
clared so by order of the Deputy Commissioner and have consequently merged in
the agricultural tribes.
(C,B. 1881, yara. 489; Base's Glossary, Vol. II, page 34)—
Bahtis are mostly Hindus, and have been returned principally from the
Nahan State. They are cultivators and labourers and are considered to be
degraded Rajputs.
{C. B. 1881, para. 521; C. B. 1891, page 122; C. R. 1901, page 130; Base's
Glossary, Vol. 11, page 35 ; Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. I, page 112)^
Baibagi is a Vaishnava religious order, scattered almost all over the Pro-
vince, but found in large numbers in the eastern Punjab. Although belonging
to an ascetic order, many of them have formed into an endogamous caste. In
the Karnal District they hold large villages. Information regarding the Grihasti
(householder) Bairagis was noted on the Sorter's tickets with reference to the
entry of occupation and it has been ascertained that only 13,994 (males 8,935,
10. Baddnn (Badu).
Population 1,630
Males ... 878
Females ... 753
(M. H.)
11. Bagri.
Population 1,262
Males ... 751
Females ... 50»
(H. S. M.)
12. Bahrupia.
Population 841
Males ... 44&
Females ... 396
(8. H. M.)
13.
Bahti.
Population
4,212
Males ...
2,335
Females ...
1,877
(H. S. M.)
Syn. — Chang, Oh
rath.
U-
Bairagi-
Population
37,979
Males
22,529
Females ...
15,450
(H. 8, M.)
Census Report. ]
448
GLOSSARY.
Chaptee
16- Bangali.
Population
1,130
Ma es
631
Females ...
499
^H. S. M.)
16. Bania-Aggarwal.
Population 373,622
Males ... 202,180
Females ... 171,43(5
(H. J. S. M. B.)
Sjn—Baqqdl, Vaish.
17.
Bania-Saralia.
Population
7,45G
Males ...
4,236
Females ...
3,220
(H.S.J.>
18.
Bania-Oswal.
Population
5,662
Males
3,012
Females ...
2,650
(H. J. S.)
19. Bania-Mahesari
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. J. 8.)
females 5,059) belonged to the religious order or lived on begging. The females
are really ordinary beggars who have assumed the title of Bairagins. But there
are 23,985 Grihasti Bairagis who lead a married life like ordinary householders.
These persons returned themselves as Bairagi by caste and Sanatan Dharmi by sect.
Besides the figures noted in the margin, there were 3,443 (Hindus 3,316,
Sikhs 125, Muhammadans 2) persons who gave their caste as Fakir and sub-
caste as Bairagi. These obviously belong to the religious order as distinguished
from the householders.
(C. R. 1881, para. 585 ; C. E. 189\, j^age 291 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. 11, page 56j
Croohe's Tribes and Castes, Vol. I, page 143) —
Bangalis (mostly Hindus) are a vagrant tribe who wander all over the Pro-
vince and eat all kinds of vermin. They keep dogs and donkeys and exhibit
snakes. Their women dance and sing. They are quite distinct from Bengali,
a geographical tenu, meaning a native of Bengal.
(C. B. 1881, paras. 532 and 533 ; G. R. 1891, page 291 ; C. R. 1901,pa5fe 327; Rose's
Glossary, Vol. II, page 59 ; Crooke'a Tribes and Castes, Vol. l,page 174) —
Bania is the Hindu commercial class, and the term which is a functional one
is of very old standing. Nevertheless there are distinct groups included in the
term, of which Aggarwal is one. Notwithstanding clear instructions to the Enu-
merators to enter names of distinct groups, 9,952 mules and 5,192 females i-eturn-
ed themselves as Bania, chiefly in the Jullundur and Lahore Divisions and the
Patiala State. Sufficiently full accounts of the traditions regarding the origin of
Aggarwals have already been given. A few points may, however, be added. The
distinction of Dassa and Bisa evidently signifies Djisa, i.e., Dasi Sut (son of a slave
girl or handmaid) and Vanshya (belonging to the family). Such distinctions are
even now in vog^e among the Rajputs who call the son of a wedded Rajput wife
a Mian and that of a maid-servant a Sartora. ' Dd,s^ ' got corrupted into Dassa
(having 10) and Vanshya was probably modified into the relative term Bisa
(having 20). Whatever the derivation of Aggarwal may be, the custom of wor-
shipping arms and a horse on Diissehra, prevalent among the members of this
caste and the notable fact that they worship their Bahis (account books) on the
Dussehra, instead of the DewaU like the purely trading classes (Marwaris and
Bhatias of Bombay), are a strong indication of their Kshattriya (warrior) origin.
(C. R. 1881, para. 533 ; C. R. 1901, page 327 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. 11, page 59) —
Saealias are mainly Hindus and are found chiefly in the Ambala District and
the Kalsia and Patiala States.
(G. R. 1881, para. 533 ; C. R. 1901, page 327; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 59;
Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV, page 97) —
Oswals are almost all Jains and live mostly in the Hissar, Ambala, Ferozepore,
Lahore, Amritsar, Sialkot, Rawalpindi and Multan Districts and the Patiala State.
They have a separate tradition from Aggarwals, and, although they also claim a
Kshattriya origin, the probabilities are that they are descended from the trading
class of the ancient town of Os.
(C. R. 1881, para. 533 ; C. R. 1901, page 328 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 59 ;
2,105 Croohe's Tribes and Castes, Vol. Ill, page 407) —
1,032 Mahesaeis are almost all Hindus found chiefly in the Hiasar, Rohtak, Gurgaon
^•^^^ and Delhi Districts and the Patiala State. Mahesari is obviously a religious term
signifying a sect. The worship of Shiva probably attracted some Vanijyas
(Banias), who formed into a separate group, from the other members of the caste
who were staunch devotees of Vishnu.
120. Bania-Khandelwal. ^
^1.
(C,
Population
148
Males
70
Females ...
78
(J.)
Banjara-
Population
8.G31
Males
4,800
Females ...
3,834
<H. 8. M.)
. Barar.
Population
6,119
Males
3,300
Females ...
2,819
Syn.— Dhai.
(H. S. M.)
R. 1901, page 137 ; Croohe's Tribes a7id Castes, Vol. Ill, page 225) —
Khandelwals are all Jains returned from Hissar, Jullundur and Sialkot.
It is a geographical term meaning one who belongs to Khandela (north of Jaipur).
They also claim a Kshattriya origin but the legend given by Grooke is a feeble one.
{C. R. 1881, para. 54:7 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page ()2 ; Crooke's Tribes and
Castes, Vol. I, page 149) —
Banjaeab belong to all religions — viz., Hindu, Sikh and Muhammadan, and
are found in almost all parts of the Province. They are itinerant traders and
carriers and go about, piercing noses and ears of children, and selling ear and
nose rings and other cheap ornaments. The Musalman Banjaras are pedlers. The
BanjaraH of the eastern Punjab are allied to the Labanas of the western districts.
(G. R. 1881, para, 655; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 64 ; Crooke's Tribes and
Castes {see Basor), Vol. I, page 222) —
Barars (Dhai), who are chiefly Hindus, are found in the Ambala, Karnal,
Kangra, Hoshiarpur, Jullundur, Lahore, Amritsar and Gurdaspur Districts and
the State.s of Nahan, Simla and Patiala. They are basket makers and bamboo
workers, and belong to the low castes of the hills.
XI.
449
GLOSSABY.
[ Punjab, 1911.
(C.
652; C. B. 1891, page 291; Rose's Glossary, Vol. //, 28. Barwala.
Population 63,666
Males ... 34,830
Females ... 28,836
Syn.—Batioal, ChauTcidar.
(H. S. M.)
Population 21,991
Males .. 11,970
Females ... 1C,021
Svn. — Barwala,
(H. S M)
25. Bawaria (Baoria).
Population 32,868
Males ... 17,495
Females ... 15,373
(H. S. M.)
R. 1881, para
page 66) —
Babwala are mostly Muhammadana, returned cliiefly in the Lahore Division
and the Lyallpur District. They are a low caste and work as watchmen, make mats
and perform other menial duties. They are akin to the Batwals of the higher hills,
(C. R. 1881, para. 652; C. R. 1891, page 292; Rose's Glossary, Vol. I/,24. Batwal
2Mge 66) —
Batwals are mostly Hindus, found chiefly in the Sialkot, Lyallpur and Kangra
Districts. They are a low menial caate who occupy much the same position as
Chamars, but do not work in leather. Their occupations are the same as those of
Barwalas of the plains.
Under Batwal have been classed Karawaks or Karaunks returned in Keonthal
(179) and Palampur (76). The word is probably a corruption of Karawar,* of
Manu, who was descended from Nishad and Vaidehi and was Charmkdr (leather
worker) by profession. Later books assign the profession of carrier (Chhatrdhdr,
Narwahan, etc.) to him. Karawars evidently took up the work of watchmen and
messengers, got mixed up with Batwals of their profession and began to be treated
more or less as a sub-caste of the latter. In Keonthal they are still treated as a
separate caste and are said to be descended from aKanet who was excommunicated
for removing a dead calf from his house. Their status is better than that of Kolis
and Badis and similar to that of. Batwals.
(C B. 1881, para. 575 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 10 ; Croohe's Tribes and
Castes, Vol. I, page 228) —
Baw ARIAS are mostly Hindus, returned in the Hissar, Gurgaon, Ferozepore,
Lahore, and Lyallpur Districts and the Faridkot, Patiala and Bahawalpur States.
They are a criminal tribe which lives mainly by hunting. They also make articles
of grass, straw and reed aod are sometimes employed as field labourers and even
cultivate land as tenants. To the three derivations of the name given by Crooke,
should be added that from Banwar or Wanwar meaniag a rope net made for
catching pig. The term Wanwaria is still used indiscriminately in the central and
western Punjab for Mahtam, Labana or even Biloch hunters who net pigs.
(C. R. 1881, para. 588 ; C. R. 1891, page 337 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 79 ;
Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV, page 56) —
Bazigaes who are mostly Hindus are scattered all over the Province. They
Gipsy tribe of vagrant habits who wander about practising acrobatic
They are also known as B^di and are akin to the Nats.
jR. 1881, para. 573 ; C. fi. 1891, page 311 (see Ods) ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II,
page 79 ; Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. I, page 237) —
Beldaes, mostly Muhammadans, are found in the Lahore, Gurdaspur and
Hissar Districts. Hindu Beldars have been returned principally from the Hissar
District. This is an occupational term, the name being derived from Bel
" mattock" and denoting all those who work with it.
(C. B. 1881, para. 538 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 80) —
Bhabras are generally followers of the Jain religion and belong mostly to the
Bania class, being traders by profession. They are found mainly in the Jullundur
and Lahore Divisions and the Patiala State. The Muhammadans (69) have been
returned from the Maler Kotla State alone.
(C R. 1881, para. 530; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 83 ; Crooke's Tribes and 29. Bhand,
Castes, Vol. I, page 256)— ' Population
Bhands, chiefly Muhammadans, have been returned mainly in the Rawal- Females ...
pindi and Multan Divisions. They are clowns and actors who amuse people with (H- S. M.)
their comic performances. Syn.-Basha, Kanal.
(C. R. 1881, para. 654; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 84) — 30 Bhanjra.
Bhanjeas, mostly Hindus, are found mainly in the Hoahiarpur and Jullundur M^Ses^ '°!!.
Districts. They are bamboo workers and much tlio same as Dumna. Females ...
(H. 8. M.)
are
feats
(C,
26. Bazigar.
Population 86,354
Males ... 19,631
Females ... 16,723
(H. M. S.)
Syn. — Nat, Badi {in Delhi
and Ambala),
27. Beldar.
Population 1,099
Males ... 5U
Females ... 685
(aM.)
Syn.— Od, Odh.
28. Bhabra.
Population 11,898
Males ... 6,578
Females ... 5,320
(H. S. M. J.)
835
400
435
1,264
697
567
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. 8. M.)
(C. R. 1881, para. 523; C. R. 1891, pages 135 and 292; Rose's Glossary, Vol. 77,31. Bharai/Bharain)
page 84) —
Bhaeais (Bharain) are met with almost all over the Province. They are
mostly Musalmiins, but a few of them are still Hindus. They are a class of
beggars who go about beating the drum. The Musalman niondicants of Sakhi
Sarwar are also known by this name. They beg in the name of Sakhi Sarwar,
singing songs to the accompaniment of a drum.
♦ Manu, Chapter X, 36.
58,400
32,166
26,23i
Census Report,]
450
QLOSSAEY.
Chapter
82. Bharbhunja.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H.M.)
C.017
3,345
2,672
33.
Bhat (Rai, Bhatra).
Population 87,130
Males ... 19,678
Females .. 17,452
(H. a M. B.)
Si
Bhatia.
Population 22,047
Males ... 11,882
Females ... 10,165
(H. S. il. J.)
"35. fihatiara.
Population
7,930
Males ...
4,U8
Females ...
3,812
(H. M. S.-)
Syn. — Nanbai,
Tabdkhi.
26 Bhatra.
Population
938
Hales
■ 473
Females ...
465
(H. S. J.)
Syn. — Ararpopo,
Bojharu,
87. Bhil.
Population
234
Males ...
105
Females ...
129
vH.S.M.)
88. Bhojki.
Population
1,551
Males
811
Femaes ...
740
(H.M.)
[C. R. 1881, para. 620; C. R. 1891, page 292 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 86 ;
Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. II, page 13) —
Bhabbhunjas are mostly Hindus. They are found mainly in the eastern
districts and states. They are grain parchers by profession. It is really a func-
tional term applied to Jhinwars or Bhatiaras who subsist on this industry.
(C. R. 1881, para. 526; C. R. 1891, page 327 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 94;
Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. II, page 20) —
Bhats are mostly Hindus. Muhammadan Bhats number only 1,524, of whom
522 are found in the Loharu State alone. They are found almost all over the
Province, but their number is large in Nahan, Hoshiarpnr, Hissar and Sii»lkot.
They are genealogists and family bards.
There appears to be much confusion about Bhats. Bhat and Rai were
originally honorific titles given to Brahman scholars, philosophers and poets of
distinction such as Kumaril Bhatt, Kulluk Bhatt, Nageshwar Bhatt ; but there
was also a mixed caste descended from Kshattriya father and Brahman mother
whose occupation was that of bard or panegyrist. — Kshattriya vipr kanydyam
bhatto jato nuvdchakah. This latter caste was of a lower status than the
Brahmans. The association of the title Bhatt with the Brahmans who made a
speciaUty of poetic composition or of panegyrics, and the fact that ordinary
priests had to keep charge of the genealogical tables of their clients, as they
still do in places where there are no bards, appear to have led to the two classes
being mixed up. The Brahman Bhattas, however, never acted as minstrels,
unless they degraded themselves to the position of the mixed caste. It was
the latter which on conversion to Islam was treated more or less similarly to the
Mirasis, because having lost the respect which panegyrists enjoyed in the Hindu
society with reference to their Kshattriya-Brahman origin, their avocation of living
upon the gifts of their clients at ceremonial occasions, when their praises
were sung, could not but reduce them to the grade of menials. On the
other hand, the mixed caste of Bhat degi-aded into Bhatras, who made a
profession of fortune telling and begging. To this day we have the Bhat caste
as well as a Bhat or Rai sub-caste of the Brahmans, who claim descent from
illustrious poets, etc., and are treated on equal terms by other Brahmans. The
other bards rank lower even in the Hindu society but not quite so low as Mirasis.
In the north-west Punjab, the diSerence between the Muhammadan Bhats and
Mirasis is still marked. A bard will not go singing ai.d begging like minstrels.
He receives his dues annually or at festive occasions, when he recites eulogies of
the family concerned. His services are also requisitioned in connection with
marriage. But the distinction is fast disappearing and in many places the Muham-
madan bards, who intermarry freely with the Mirasis, are known by that name.
(C. R. 1881, para. 542; C. R. 1901, pages 302, 30? and 308; Rose's Glossary,
Vol. II, page 90 ; Crooke's Iribes and Castes, Vol. II, page 37) —
Bhatias are Hindus and Sikhs with 18 Muhammadans and 10 Jains, and
are found mainly in the Lahore, Rawalpindi and Multan Divisions. They are
a class of Hajpats who originally came from Bhatner, etc., but have taken
to commercial pursuits. Bhatias are in this Province engaged for the most part
in petty shopkeepiiig.
(C. R. 1881, para. 620; C. R. 1891, page 293; Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol.
II, page 34) —
Bhatiaeas are all Muhammadans, with the exception of 18 Hindus and 1
Sikh. They are found mainly in the Delhi Division (except Simla), the Muzaffargarh
and Dera Ghazi Khan Districts and the Patiala State, and are bakers and sellers
of cooked food, probably of Jhuiwar origin. The term is evidently functional.
(C. R. 1881, para. 552 ; C. B. 1891, page 293 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 93) —
Bhatbas are both Hindus and Sikhs, with the exception of 2 Jains and have
been returned mostly from the Jullundur, Lahore, Gnrdaspur, Gnjranwala,
Lyallpnr and Multan Districts and the Patiala State. They claim Brahman
origin, but are evidently degraded Bhats. They receive offerings at eclipses,
tell fortunes and go about begging in the garb of Sadhus,
{Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. II, page 47) —
Bhils are all Hindus with the exception of 16 Sikhs and 6 Muhammadans
returned chiefly in the Karnal and Delhi Districts and Bahawalpur State. They
are immigrants from the central India and work as labourers in tbis Province.
(C. R. 1881, para. 514; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 107)—
Bhojeis are mostly Hindus. The Mahammadaos have been returned from the
Jullundur, Lahore and Amritsar Districts and the Kapurthala State, and enquiries
show that they were originally converts from the Bhojkis of Kangra. Hindu Bhojkis
JSI.
451
GLOSSAEY.
[ Punjab, 1911.
are confined mainly to the Kangra District and the States of Bhagal and Nalagarh.
They act usually as priests at the temples of the Goddess Jwala. In Bhavishya
Puran and other Sniritis Magbas, Sui"yavipras and Bhojkis are mentioned
as synonyms. It is therefore likely that Bhojkis may be coDnected with
the Suryadwija or Shakadwipa Brahmans who are supposed to be identical
with the Maghas of Shakadwipa. The latter are supposed to have been
invited as sun-priests by Samba, son of Krishna, and it is probable that while
one section took charge of the Sun temples, another, viz., the Bhojkis, took
to fire worship as the votaries of Jwala, the goddess of fire. Being Shaktikas,
they are not averse to the use of liquor. Even in Shakadwipa (Persia), the
Maghas seem to have been addicted to drinking as the great Persian poet Hafiz
once said ' Bamai Sajjiidah raiigin ktm garat pir-i-Mughan goyad (colour your
prayer carpet with wine if the priest of Mughas (evidently Maghas) tells you
so), and consequently the mere fact of their taking liquor should not, as thought
by the late Sir Denzil Ibbetson, disprove their Brahman origin. Their Shaktika
tenets evidently account for their connection with Jogis. Suryadvijas
(appearing now as a sub-caste of Brahmans) have similarly been sometimes
mixed up with Kayasthas owing to the existence of a Gotra of this name
amongst them. Apparently, however, Suryadvijas and Bhojkis are Aryan priests
of Shakadwipa who were on their immigration given the status of Brahmans,
but did not , owing to their foreign origin, get quite absorbed into that
Varna, maintaining their separate identity. Suryadvijas trace the account of their
origin to Rigveda X, 61 — 19, instead of the Purusha Sukta X, 90 — 12. They
are supposed to have sprung out of Surya's body* instead of Brahma's mouth
and have therefore a clearly different origin to that of other Brahmans. Maghas,
known as Magas, are still found in Karnal and Ambala, but they seem to have
got confused about their origin (see account of Magas). They were recognized
as Brahmans in Bhavishya Puran.
{C.B.iSSl, paras. 372-389 ; C. i?. \89],pageii 293,324 and 342; C. R. 1901, 39. Biloch.
pages 161 and 322; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 41 ; Crooke's Tribes and Population 5S2,499
Castes, Vol. II, page 101)—
BiLOCH is a Muhammadan tribe found almost all over the Province except
the Himal ayan tract. Their chief abode is in Dera Ghazi Khan and the other
districts of the Multan Division. They are graziers, cultivators, breeders of camels
and traditional soldiers. The Biloches of Ambala and Kamal, Giloi Biloches
of Lyallpur and Nur Mahram and Akla Hayat Biloches of Jhang form a
•criminal community (they have returned themselves as Jatoi Biloch). The Jatts
or camel drivers of the western Punjab, who probably form a link between the Jats
and Biloches, have also been classed with the latter, with whom they have got
assimilated.
Males . . 289,611
Females ... 242,888
(M.)
Syn. — Jatt, Sarwan.
{C. R. 1881, paras. 242 and 561 ; C. R. 1891, page 139 ; Rose'i Glossary, Vol. II, 40.
page 110 ; Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. II, page 120) —
BisHNOis are a purely Hindu caste, found chiefly in Hissar, Ferozepore and
Bahawalpur. They are originally a Vaishnavasect, now forming an endogamous
caste. They are generally cultivators and have been declared as members of an
agricultural tribe in the Hissar District, where their number is very large.
(C. R. 1881, paia. 519; C. li. 1891, pages 294, ■\Z1 and 342; Rose's Glossary, Vol. il-
II, page 114) —
BoDLAS are all Muhammadans, with the exception of 9 Hindus. They are
found mainly in the Hissar, Ferozepore and Montgomery Districts. It is a section
of Wattu Rajputs who now claim Quroshi origin from Abu Bakr Sadiq. They
are agriculturists and graziers by occupation and have been declared to be an
agricultural tribe in the Ferozepore ami Lahore Districts.
(C. R. 1881, piara. 535 ; C. R. 1891 , page 338 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 115; 42.
Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. II, page 140)—
BoHBAs are mostly Hindus returned in the Delhi, Karnal and Simla Districts
and the Mandi, Suket and Simla Hill States. The Muhammadans (136) were re-
turned from Rawalpindi alone. Brahman money-lenders from Mai-WHr are known
as Bohras in the Delhi Division, while in the hills, any money-lender is known
as such. The Muhammadan Bohras belong to Bombay.
(G. R. 1881, para. 251 ; C. R. 1891, page 295)— 43.
BoTS are all Budhists, with the exception of 3 Hindus and 1 Muhammadan.
They have been i-oturned in the Chamba State alone. Botis no caste. It ia a
geographical term apparently meaning a native of Bhutan, although it is used
indiscriminately for up-country hillmen.
Bishnoi.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H.)
Bodla.
Population
Males
Females
(M. H.)
Bohra.
Population
Males
Females ...
<M. H.)
19,416
10,509
8,907
2,912
1,S28
1,384
3,751
1,989
1,762
Bot.
Population
598
Males
298
Females ...
300
(B. H. M.)
» Bhavishya Puran 1, 145, 2.
452
Census Report, ] glossary. Chaptbr
14. Brahman. (C. B. 1881, para 512 ; C. R. 1891, page 296 ; G. R. 1901, pa^e 310; Rose's Glos-
Pop^iUation l.W,743 ^^^^^^ p-^,; 2j^ ^ag,g 1 16 j Croofe's Tribes and Castes, Vol. II, page 1 43)—
Females ... 455,707 Beahmans — (the priestly caste of the Hindus)— are scattered all over the Pro-
(H. s. M. J. B.) vince. They now follow various professions from priesthood, teaching and
Government service, to cultivation and menial service as cooks. Brahmans belong-
ing to certain localities are enlisted in the army.
45. Chamar. (C. B. 1881, paras. 607 and 608 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 147 ; Crooki's
Population 1,128,704 Tribes and Castes, Vol. II, page 169)—
Males ... 013,671 > ir v /
Females ... 515,033 Chamars, mostly Hindus and Sikhs, are found all over the Province. They
(H.S. M. B. J.) are tanners and leather workers and act as field labourers and menials of the
Bjji.~ Ramdasia. villages, particularly in the East. They rank higher than the Chuhras for, as a
rule, they abstain from scavenging. Tlie caste, which is, in its origin, functional,
ia of very old standing. Charmkdr (worker in leather), a degraded Shudra, is
mentioned in Manu and the other Smritis. Representing the lowest stratum of
society, it has received accretions by degradation continuously from the higher
castes ; and this has led to various stories about their degradation and common
origin with Banias, etc. One of these shows that Bano and Chano were two brothers,
that the descendants of Bano were called Banias and those of Chano, who had .
been degraded by removing a dead calf, were known as Chamars. Another
account says that the ancestor of the Chamars was a Brahman, one of four brothers
who could not requisition the services of a scavenger to remove a dead calf.
The youngest of them was ordered to do so and was promised to be puriBed, but
on having obeyed the orders was excommunicated. These are, however, mere in-
ventions, which are the outcome of the general tendency to aspire to a high origin.
46. Chanal. (^- ^- ^^^^> P^^''^^- ^49, 650, 657 and 658 ; Base's Glossary, Vol. II, page 151)—
Population 12,448 Chanals are chiefly Hindus. These are low class menials in the hills
F^ales GOGS corresponding to the Chamars of the plains. The caste is of old standing, as
(H. S. li.) ' the term Chandal (son of a Shudra father and Brahman mother) is found in the
old Hindu books.
47. Chang. {C. B. 1881, para. 439 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 146) —
Population 0,373 Changs are chiefly Hindus, returned mainly from the Gurdaspur District
Females '.'.'. 2',557 and the Kapurthala State. They are an agricultural class and appear to be
(B. S. M.) identical with the Bahti and Ghirath.
48? ChTn'Sr!' ^''"'""'' (C -B. 1881, para. 574 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 153)-
Population fi'^'^Z Changaes are generally Muhammadans, but 40 of them have returned
Females ... 18,'359 themselves as Hindus against 60 in 1901. They are found mainly in the Jullundur
(H. M. si) ' and Lahore Divisions, and the Shahpur, Montgomery and Lyallpur Districts, and-
the States of Kapurthala and Bahawalpur.
They are a low caste supposed to be of aboriginal descent, who, according to
tradition, were converted to Islam long ago by Shamas Tabrez of Multan. They
are a vagrant tribe of the Gipsy type (the resemblance of the name Changar to
Ziigner and Kanjar is noticeable) who wander about in search of work, but have
settled down in the neighbourhood of large towns. They take up all kinds of
labour but are principally employed as reapers or on making baskets.
49. Chhimba. {C. B. 1881, para. 642 ; Bose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 166 ; Crooke's Tribes and
Population 129,335 Castes, Vol. II, page 222, Chhipi)—
Females ... 57,744 Chhimbas belong to all religions, viz., Muhammadan, Hindu and Sikh, and are
.^^i^f'^'ohb- found almost everywhere. They are cahco-printers and dyers in madder, but
NamahZ'si. " ' Seldom act as village menials, except as washermen. They are also called Nama-
ba7iii.
50. Ohirimar. (C. i?. 1881, para. 5634)—
Males ... 453 Chibimass are mostly Muhammadans returned mainly in the Gurgaon, Delhi^
Females ... 309 Karnal, Ambala, Ferozepore, Lahore and Gujranwala Districts and the Kalsia State.
Byn— Ban^i Shi Baibn Chirimar is a functional term meaning bird catcher, but the small group has
Baxdar, Mirshikar. ' come to be recognized as a separate caste. Though small in strength, the caste
has shown no sigu of absorption by another caste. Indeed the total number has
increased from 466 in 1901 to 762. The group appears to have been recruited
mostly from the low castes.
51. Chishti. (C. B. 1881, para. 518 ; C. B. 1891, page 193 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 171 ;
E''"°° til* Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. II, page 228)—
Females ... 1,900 Chishti is a purely Muhammadan caste. It is really the name of a sect o£
^"•^ Sufis, but the descendants of celebrated Chishti saints, such as Baba Farid of
Pak Pattan claim the title by birth, thus converting the religions order into a
caste. They are held in much respect. But only a limited number of them
now act as preceptors (Pirs), the others having taken to agriculture and other
professions.
453
XI. GLOSSARY. [ Punjab, 1911.
(C. R. 1881, para. 597 : Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, -page 182 ; Orooke's Tribes and 52, Chulira.
r^ . -rr J T orODL •\ ropulatlOn 923,535
Castes, Vol. I, page 259, Bhangt)— M^^^g ...510,776
CsoHRAs are scattered all over the Province. They are the sweepers and ^r^s^m't ^*'^*''^'
scavengers. According to the instructions, all Chuhras not professing Christi- Sya.—Bha'ngi, Mehtar,
anity or Islam were to be entered as Hindus, for tlie purposes of classification, Rang'reta, Khdkrob, Vatal
but the returns show 789,857 Hindus, 51,549 Sikhs and 84,128 Muhammadans. [Kashmiri Ghuhra).
The relic'ion of the Chuhras (who worship Balinik or Lalb?g) is a very Bexlble
one. They are supposed to be of aboriginal descenf, but accretions by deiJfrada-
tion have, in any case, been so large that it is impossible to distinguish Aryan from
aboriginal blood amongst them. They are the sweepers and scavengers, and as
such hold the lowest position in the social scale, even lower than the Charaars,
Chanals, etc. Chuhras are now taking to agriculture as tenants and farm servants.
(C. R. 1881, para. 640; Rose's Olossary, Vol. II, page 214; Gronke's Tribes and 53. Churigar.
Castes, V.l. Ill, page 2S0)- P^f''". ''m
Chubiqars are Muhammadans and Hindus, and have been returned mainly Females ... 836
in the Hissar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Kangra, Sialkot, Gujrat and Shahpur Districts, ava—Wanriaar
They are makers of bracelets of glass, lac or bell-metal, and are also known as
Bangara, Maniar and Kachera.
(C. R. 1881, para 610; Rose's Olossary, Vol.11, page 215; Grooke'a Tribes ani 54. Dabgar.
Castes, Vol. II, page 255)- P^t'"?.. Ill
Dabgaes are all Muhammadans, with the exception of 16 Hindus, and have Females ... 312
been returned mainly in the Hissar, Karnal, Gujrat, Montgomery and Jhang ^^- ^-^
Districts. They are makers of raw hide jars in which oil and ghi are carried and
stored. Dabgar is, however, a functional term, and the occupation is followed
generally by Khojas, Chamars and Chuhras.
(C. R. 1 88 1 , paras. 488, 61 1, 649, 650, 651, 657 and 658 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, 55- Dagi and Koli.
^„„, oU\ > > > > > HI > Population 175.014
page 217)— ^^^^^ __ 90503
Dagi and Koli are mostly Hindus, and are found in the eastern Punjab and the Females ... 84,511
Himalayan tract. They are low class hill menials corresponding to the Chuhras ( . . M. a.
of the plains. They are an agricultural tribe in the Kangra District.
(C.R. 1881, para. 636 ; Rose's Olossary, Vol. II, paqe 222)— 56. Daoli (Daola).
T-v 1 Vr- 1 o , • ^ Population 1,617
Uaolis are mostly Hindus, round in Kangra, Hoshiarpur, Riiaspur, Nalagarh Males ... 890
andMandi. They area low caste of about thH same status, as Dumna. In the Females ... 727
higher hills, they are known as Sansoi. They are goldwashers in the hills, Syn — SaLo*
{G. R. 1881, para. 563a; Rose's Glossary, Vol. IF, page 222) — 57. Darugar.,
Darugars are almost all Muhammadans, found mainly in the Ambala and Males ... 319
Sialkot Districts. The name is obviously functional and it is applied to a man who Females ... 236
makes gunpowder and fireworks. He is also known as Atishbaz and Barutsaz. Svn—Atiahb
Members of this group really belong to other castes.
(C. R. 1881, para. (^4^y ; Rose's Glossary, Vol.11, page 223; Crooke's Tribes and 58. Darzi.
Castes, Vol. IF, page 2b3)— Population 35,827
J X ? . Males ... 18,79(>
Darzis, who are mostly Muhammadans and Hindus, have been returned from Females ... 17,037
almost everywhere. The term is purely functional, but has crystallized into a (H. S.M.J.)
regular caste, although the persons who have taken to the profession recently, ^°~ °KMylt" '"' *^'
retain their caste names.
(C. R. 1881, para. 473 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. IT, page 224) — 59. Daudpotra.
Daudpotr&s are the dominant family in Bahawalpur, claiming Qureshi Males 11737
(Abbasi) descent. Females ... 9|493
(M.)
(C R. 1881, para. 601 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 235; Crooke's Tribes and 60. Dhanak.
Castes, Vol. II, page 271)— Population 83,256
^ ^^. . ... Mules ... 44,220
Dhanaks are mostly Hindus, found in the Delhi Division (except Simla), Females .. 39,03S
Ferozepore District, Loharu, Dujann, Pataudi and Phulkian States. It is a low caste ^^- ^- ^)
of scavengers and weavers. The difference between a Dhanak and a Chuhra is
that the former, while doing general scavenging, will not remove nightsoil.
(C. R. 1881, paras. 626 and 651; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 239)— 61. Dhaugri.
Dhogris or Dhaugris, are a purely Hindu caste, found in Kangra, Mandi and Males ... i.'oig
Chatnba. Thev are iron miners and smelters of the hills and possess the same Females ... 1,925
status ns the Chamar or Dumna. '^-^
(C. E. 1881, paras. 642 and 643; Rose's Glossary, Vol.11, page 239; Croofte's 62. Dhobi.
Tribes and Castes, Vol. II, page 288)— Population 156,046
' f » / Males ... 84,642
DnoBis are mostly Muhammadans. They are found all over the Province ^'^(T^S^M) '^'*''*
and nro washermen by profession. Tlioy are known in some parts as Chhimbas Sy^.—Chhimba,
or Charhoas. Oharhoa, Ntimabansi.
454
Census Report, ] qlossaey. Chapter
63. Dhund. (C. ft. 1881, para. 453 ; C. B. \ 891, page 342 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 240)—
Pupuktion ^g'^'JI DauKDS, apparently of Rajput origin, are all Muliammadans, with the ex-
Females .".'. ll',5S»7 ception of 14 Bindus. They have been returned mainly in the Murree hiUs of the
(M. a.) Eawalpiudi District, where they have been declared an aj^ricultural tribe.
64. Dhusar. (C. R. 1881, para. 534; Rose's Glossary, Vol, II, page 8S ; Crooke's Tribes and
Population 1,225 Castes, Vol. II, page 301) —
Feinalea ... 624 ]")husau8, also called Bhargavas, are all Hindus, found chiefly at Rewari in
(H.) Gnrgaou. They are mostly clerks and merchants by profession. They seem to
occupy a ])08ition midway between Banias and Brahmans, but are striving hard
to establish the status of the latter. They allege that their ancestors acted as
priests to successive Hindu kings and trace their descent to Bhrigu Rishi (son of
Manu). It is, however, noticeable that at the present day, the Dhusars have no
priest of their own caste and are, as a rule, clients of Gaur Brahmans. On the
other hand, they do not, as a ru'e, iuterdine orj intermarry with the Brahmans, while
in some places they are clearly regarded as a branch of the Bania grnup of castes.
They are now largely adopting the Brahman customs, but some peculiar features
of the marriage ceremony, which are still retained, seem to prove that they are a
distinct class. For instance, they often do not invest a boy with the sacred thread
till the time of marriage, a custom found amongst the Kayasthas, some Banias and
the Pari Khatris, A 13rahinan receives his sacred thread long before his marriage,
and the former is the more important ceremony being in no way dependent on the
matrimonial alliance. Then again the formula of the description of one's origin
used at Dhusar marriages, is " Dhosi uparmidya Nddo nikdsdya, Shdhjahdnpur,
Rewaii sickhvds divydya amuk gotrdya, etc., etc. (Attached to Dhosi, of Mado
(probably Nadol in Jodhpur) origin, native of Shahjahanpur Rewari, of such and
Buch gotra, etc.) or the like. The custom of mentioning Nikds (origin), etc., ia
peculiar to the Banias and Ka)'a8thas, and does not prevail among the Brahmans.
Similarly among the Dhusars, the Bardt arrives at the bride's house, a day before
the weddiag, like the Banias fexcept Aggarwals), and not on the same day like
tbe Brahmans. The Dhusar bridegroom uncovers his right arm at the ritual con-
nected with marriage, a custom peculiar to that caste. Then again, the Gotrdchdr
is not read at the reception of the bridegroom,
as amongst the Brahmans, but at the Pheras
(circumambulation of the sacnficial fire) alone,
as is done by the Banias, etc. A number of
them have, however, succeeded in returning
themselves as members of a Brahman sub-caste
{see margin).
65. Dogar- [C. R. IUSI, paras. 474i and 475 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 244; Crooke's
Population 68,473 Tribes and Castes, Vol. 11, page 310) —
Females ... 30*443 DoGARs are a semi-pastoral and semi-agricultural tribe, supposed to be of
(H. S.M.J.) Rajput origin, often classed with Gujars whom they resemble in habits. They are
mostly Muhammadans, but a few of them are still Hindus. Dogars are found
mainly in the Delhi, Juilundur and Lahore Divisions and the Kapurthala, Faridkob
and Patiala States. The name is quite distinct from Dogra — a geographical term
applied to Ra3put8, etc., of the Kangra and Jaminu hills. But the similarity of
names and the traditions of Rajput descent would point to some sort of connection
between them.
66 Dosali (Dasali). (C. ii. 1881, para. 660; G. R. ]89\,page3S8; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 247) —
Males °° 23fi DosALis are all Hindus, returned chiefly in the Kangra and Hoshiarpur Dis-
Females ... 222 tricts and the Chamba State. They aro an impure hill caste but are considered
(H.) higher than Sarera. They make cups and platters of leaves, used at Hindu
weddings, and also used to act as torch-bearers before the introduction of lanterns.
67. Dtinma (Domra). iC R- 1881, para. 586; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 250) —
M^es'**^'""^ 42000 DuMNAs are almost all Hindus and are found in the Kangra, Hoshiarpur,
Females "... 36652 Gurdaspur and feialkot Districts and the Nahan, Mandi, Suket, Chamba, Patiala and
(H. S. M.) Simla Hill States. 'ITie name of the caste is Dum in Chamba. They are scavengers,
Byn. — Bhanjra. bamboo workers, etc., of the hills. When a Dumna confines himself to tamboo
work and gives up scavenginer, he appears to be called ' Bhanjra ' in the lower hills.
Dumna is probably derived from Sanskrit Dum to sound. In the Puranas
Dum is regarded as a mixture of Chandala and Letd (of the same status as
Shvapaka). He was probably a minstrel in the earliest days.
68. Fakir. (C. R. I88\,para. 520; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 253) —
M^es^ ""* 164'237 Fakirs are scattered all over the Province. Fakir is a class name designat-
Females ... 115,485 ing religious mendicants and beggars and consequently embraces diverse castes
(H S. M J.) and sects belonging to different religions. An attempt was made to find out the
^^'~8dih'sddhu^'^^'"'' '^^^^^ °^ ^^^^^ °^ every beggar ae far as possible, but where the caste had merged
Caste.
Sub-castes.
Persons.
Brahmans ...
Dhusar ...
Bhargava ...
181
416
XI.
455
GLOSSARY,
[ Punjab, 1911.
69. Gadaria.
Population
21,9«
Males
12,393
Females ...
9,558
(H. S M.)
Sjn. — Ajri {in western
Punjab).
70. Qaddi.
Population
27,618
Males
13,420
Females ..
14,198
(H.)
,71.
Gadi (Garri).
Population
Males
Females ...
(M. H.)
72.
into a religious order or tlie person enumerated did not know liis caste, etc., but
belonged to the class in question he was put down as fakir. The figures, there-
fore, include persons from ascetics and holy men down to professional beggars.
(C. R. 1881, para. 614; Roue's Glossary, Vol. II, page 255 ; Crooke's Tribes and
Castes, Vol. II, page 3(31) —
Gadakias are chiefly Hindus and have been returned mostly in the Gurgaoa,
Delhi, Karnal, Ambala, Lahore Districts, and the Kalsia, Nahan and Patiala States.
They are the shepherds and goatherds of Hindustan, who have taken largely to
blanket weaving.
(C. R. 1881, para. 498 ; C. R. 1901, page 119 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 255;
Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. II, page 370) —
Gaddis are all Hindus, found chiefly in the Kangra District and the Chamba
State. Gad'ii is a generic name applied to Brahmans, Khatris, Rajpute and Rathis
of the mountainous country lying on both sides of the DhauU DhAr Range
between Kangra and Chatnba. They are a semi-pastoral and semi-agricultural
people. They keep flocks of sheep and goats, are almost all shepherds and have
a language of their own (Gildi). In the Kangra District Gaddis have been
declared as members of an agricultural tribe
(C R. 1881, paras. 498 and 592 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 255 ; Crooke's
Tribes and Castes, Vol. II, page 370) —
Gapis are all Muhammadans with the exception of 1 Hindu female. They
are found mainly in the Karnal and Delhi Districts. The entry of 64 persons in
the Chamba State is probably a mistake. These are obviously Gaddis and should
have been ruturned as such.
Gadia closely resemble the Gliosis and are, perhaps, a sub-division of the
Ahirs, being hereditary milkmen. In Karnal, where they are most numerous, they
have settled down as cultivators, own several villages and are recognized as an
argicultural tribe. The term is sometimes pronounced as Gaddi, but the caste
has no connection with the Gaddis of the hilk, nor should the term be confused
with Gadhi, a sub-caste of Biloch.
(C. R. 1881, p)ara. 581 : Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 273)—
Gaqras are both Muhammadans and Hindus with only 10 Sikhs, and have
been returned mostly in the Lahore Division. They wander about catching and
eating vermin, but their hereditary occupation is that of catcl)ing, keeping and
applying leeches, and for this reason, they are often called Jukera.
(C. B. 1881, para. 463 ; Rome's Glossary, Vol. II, page 274)— 73.
Gakkhaks are almost all Muhammadans, only 335 of them being Hindus and 4
Sikhs. They are found chiefly in the Rawalpindi and Jhelum Districts, and their
principal occupation is agriculture or state service. They have been declared as
members of an agricultural tribe.
(C. R. 1881, para. 595 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 278 ; Crooke's Tribes and 7*
Castes, Vol. II, page 385)—
Gandhilas are mostly Hindus and are found chiefly in the Ambala, Jullundur
and Gajranwala Districts and the Patiula State. They are a low vagrant tribe,
and wander about bare-headed and bare-footed, begging, working in grass and
straw and doing odd jobs.
(C. E. 1H81, para. 498; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 279 ; Crooke's Tnte* a?id 75- Gara
Castes, Vol. II, page 391)—
Gaeas are all Mnhammadans with the exception of 1 Hindu, and have been
returned mainly in the Ambala and Karnal Districts. The turm Gara denotes a
cross breed, and is applied particularly to the issue of a Muhammadan Rajput
by a wife of another caste. In Karnal and Ambala the descendant of a Rajput
by a widow (of his own or any other caste) is called Gara. Members of this caste
observe 'purda/i' and marry within their own community. Although separated
from the parent caste, they follow the traditional occupation of agriculture and
have been declared an agricultural tribe in the Ambala District. It has, however,
been ascertained from Jagadhri that Muhammadan Hajputs are now dropping the
prejudice against widow remarriage and that the offspring of such alliances is no
longer styled 'Gara' or excommunicated from the Rajput fraternity. Another
theory about the origin of the name is that convert Rajputs were called Garas,
because they buried their dead.
(C. R. 1881, para. 592; C. R. 1891, pages 301 atid 338; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II,7S. Garri,
page 280)— Population
Garris, all Hindus, found chiefly in the Sialkot District, are a poor caste of
Gagra-
Population
Males
Females ...
(S. M. S.)
Syn — Juicer a.
Gakkhar.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H.M. S.)
Gandhila.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. S. M.)
Population
Males
Females ...
(M. H.)
4,068
2,234
1,834
3,155
1,680
1,476
27,841
13,770
1*,071
779
422
357
369
194
175
travelling actors, minstrels and nioiintobanks, with their headquarters at Jammu.
They generally visit the Kajput villages in the Sialkot and Zaflarwal Tahsils about
Males
Females ,
(H.)
S5S
^86
270
Census Report, ]
456
GLOSSARY.
Chapter
77. Gedri.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H.)
800
167
133
78. Ghai
Population
2,498
Males
1,391
Females ...
1,107
(H.M.)
79. Ghirath.
Population
171,129
Males ...
88,778
Females ...
82,851
(H, S. M.)
Syn. — Bahti, Chang,
Ohosi.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. M.)
3,014
1,629
1,385
81. Ghulam (Gola).
Population 3,865
Males ... 2,194,
Females ... 1,671
(M.)
83. Gosain.
Population 11,701
Males ... 6,941
Females ... 4,760
(H. S. M.>
83. GTyar.
Population 610,472
Males ... 338,813
Females ... 271,659
(H. S. M. J.)
84.
Gurkha.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. S. M.)
8,297
5,587
2,710
the time of the Kharif harvest, and sometimes also at Rabi. The Garris of Karnal
and Delhi are quite a separate caste and have been classed with Gadis.
{Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 299) —
Gedris* are all Hindus and have been returned mainly in the Bahawalpnr
State. They are allied to Sansis, are professional hunters and eat carrion, being
particularly fond of eatinj? jackals, from which they obviously derive their name.
Thoy are irumigranis from Bikaner and as a foreign element are looked down
upon by the Sansis of the Province. They will undertake any kind of labour but
as a rule make baskets, cages, fans, etc., sell country-made knives, needles and
imitation jewelry. They speak a language of their own known as ' Gedri.'
(C. R. 1881, 2Mra. 662; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 283;—
With the exception of 72 persons who are Muharamadans, Ghais are Hindus
and have been returned chiefly from Simla, Kangra, Dera Gliazi Khan, Bilaspur,
Nalagarh, Patiala and Bahawalpur. They cut grass and engage generally in other
kinds of labour. In the Kangra District, they are said to ply mashaks (inflated
skins) in the Beas river. It is a functional term and is equivalent to Ghosi.
{C. R. 1881, para. 489; G. A'. 1891, page 342; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II,
page 287) —
Ghiraths are mostly Hindus and are found in the hills especially in the Kangra
and Hoshiarpur Districts. They are said to be of Rajput descent by mixed
marriages or illegitimate relationship. They are fine agriculturists and have been
declared an agricultural tribe in the above mentioned districts. The caste is
identical with Bahti and Chang. All the three castes intermarry freely.
(C. R. 1881, para. 497 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 297 ; Grooke's Tribes and
Castes, Vol. II, page 419) —
Gbosis are mostly Muhammadans and Uve in the eastern Punjab. The term
is often applied indiscriminately to any Musalman cowherd or milkman, whether
Gujar, Ahir or of any other caste, in the same way as Gawala is used for a Hindu
cowherd. The Ghosis are a purely pastoral class in the Punjab.
(C. R. 1881, para. 509 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 298)—
Gholams, who are all Muhammadans, have been returned mostly in
Dera Ghazi Khan. They are said to be the descendants of captives in war, who
were made slaves. They are employed chiefly in domestic service and are gene-
rally attached to their hereditary masters, though some have taken to shop-
keeping and other occupations.
(C. R. 1881, para. 521 ; C. R. 1891, ^^agre 124; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page
303 ; Grooke's Tribes and Gastes, Vol. II, page 469) —
GosAiNs are mostly Hindus, found chiefly in the Delhi Division, the
Kangra District and the Patiala State. Goaain or Goswami is really a re-
ligious title given alike to certain Sanyasia and to the devotees of Vishnu
presiding at temples dedicated to Shri Krishna. The latter is, however, not a
celebate order and, like Bairagis, has formed into a separate caste.
(C. B. 1881, paras. 480 <o 482 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 306 ; Grooke's
Tribes and Gastes, Vol. II, jxige 439) —
GoJARs are mostly Muhammadans and Hindus and are found scattered
all over the Province. They are an important agricultural and pastoral tribe
and enlist in the Army.
(C. R. 1881, para. 559 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 321 ; Grooke's Tribes and
Cuates, Vol. II, page 468) —
GoEKHAS are almost all Hindus and are met with in the hills. They are found
mainly as soldiers in the army.
Gurkha is a geographical term meaning an inhabitant of Gorakhpur or a»
suggested by Crooke, a protector of cows (from Go — cow and Raksha — protector).
But in the Punjab the term is applied generally to all the classes from which the Gur-
kha Regiments are recruited. An effort was
made to 6nd out the castes of these people,
but notwithstanding clear instructions to
this effect, the Kangra Census Officials
classed the members of the Gurkha Regi-
ments, stationed at Dharmsala, under the
general name, with the result that for 4,907
persons the term Gurkha remained unspeci-
fied. The castes of Gurkhas returned at
the Census are detailed in the margin.
Cattei,
Ale
Bohra
Damai ..
Gbarti ..
Gurung ..
Khaa ..
Khawas
Magar (.Mangar)
Nagar KoU
Pun
Rana
Persons.
Castes.
Persons.
... 27
Thapa ...
... 697
... 122
minor
... 171
Burathoki
... 9
... 51
Ghalo ...
... 13
... 922
Ghirat ...
... 3
... 349
Karke ...
... 2
... 151
Limba ...
... 3
•) 365
Rae
... 6
... 217
Rawat ...
... 1
... 84
Sahi
... 5
... 173
Sarke ...
... 19
• Keturned for the first time as a separate caste.
XL
457
GLOSSABY.
[ Punjab, 1911.
Hadi.
Population
431
Males
234
Females ...
207
(H.)
Hali.
Population
21,067
Males
10,779
Females ...
10,288
(H. S. B.)
Syn. — Sept.
Hami.
Population
3,380
Males ...
1,798
Females ...
1,58a
(M.)
Hesi.
Population
1,475
Males
751
Females ...
724
(H. B.)
89. Hijra.
Population 259
Males ... 114
Females ... 13S
(H. M.)
Syn. —Khusra,
Muhhannas, Khawajaaara.
{C. R. 1881, para. 661 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 323)— 85.
Hadis are a hill caste of Hindus, found in the Kangra District only. They make
bricks, work as general labourers and are similar to the Kumhar of the plains.
(C. R. 1881, i^aras. 657 and 658; C. B. 1891, ^^agre 300; Rose's Glossary, Vol II, 88.
page 324) — ■
Halis are all Hindus, with the exception of one Sikh and one Budhist.
The caste is found chiefly in the Kangra District and (Jhamba State. It is a low
caste engaged in menial woik, particularly in the fields. In the plains it is a
functional term, which means a ploughman.
(C. R. 1881, para. 583 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 327)— 87.
Haeni is one of the notorious criminal tribes, being addicted to burglary
and highway robbery. The Harnis are found in the JuUundur Division
(except Kangra), the Gurdaspur and Sialkot Districts, and the Patiala State.
They are all Musalman, and claim foreiufn descent, but have a large Jat and
Rajput clement in their gots which points to their progenitors beinw a band
of outlaws, as the term Harni (thief, from Sanskrit Ear— to take away) signifies.
(C. R. 1881, para. 591 ; C. R. 1891, page Zil ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II,pageB30)—QQ,
Hesis are almost all Hindus (only 42 Budhists), and have been returned
from the Kangra District and the Nahan, Bilaspar, Mandi, and Suket States.
They are low caste professional musicians and dancers of the high Himalayan
valleys. They are generailj beggars, but sometimes engage in petty trade.
The entry of 320 persons (males 145 and females 175), opposite Rohtak
under Hesi in Table XIII, is a mistake caused by Heri being read during Compila-
tion as Hesi. The figures really belong to the Ahir caste and have not been
included in the strength given above.
(Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 331 ; Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. II, page 495) — 89.
Hijeas are eunuchs, mostly both Hindu and Muhammadan, returned from differ-
ent localities. They maintain themselves by dancing and begging pai'ticularly on occa-
aiona of male births or weddings. They are shaved and usually dressed in female
attire. They have a strong trade guild, which has divided the Province into beats,
for the purpose of begging, and none of them can trespass on the beat of another.
In the city of Lahore they have a system of begging by rotation on specified days of
the week. Enquiries from an eunuch show that Hijras may be of either sex,
viz., male or female. The former has an undeveloped male organ without testicles and
is generally gifted with a beard and moustache which he shaves. The females, on
the other hand, are generally devoid of hair on their face and body like the fair
sex, and some have even suflBciently prominent breasts in youth. The genital
organ is totally absent either in male or iu female form, except an aperture
for the passage of urine. The males are in some places known as ' Hijra,' and the
females as ' Kanch. ' Enquiries made from the Pasrur, Nawashahr, Rawalpindi,
Amritsar, Batala, and Gugera Tahsils corroborate the above statement.
Eunuchs by birth become, sooner or later, the property of the Hijra caste, are
initiated into the class and taught dancmg and singing. The parents of such
children are naturally reluctant to part with their flesh and blood, but the Hijras
of the place are very besetting and obstinate in their demands and generally
succeed in obtaining possession of them. The eunuch who gave the information
stated that she got hold of a child after he was seven and that all this time she was
after his parents who were loth to part with him. The Hijras assume male or
female names according to convenience.
Poor people of different castes often join the Hijras for livelihood. They
assist the eunuchs at their exhibitions, playing upon the Khanjri (tamb-
ourine). They wear ordinary male costume and receive and carry the gifts made
to the party, which they share with the eunuohs, who are sometimes so
attached to them that they arrange to get them married at their own cost. The
offspring of these people also generally go by the name of Hijras and are known as
jholi-chuk or jholi-cha (bag carriers).
(C. R. 1881, para. 063; Rose's Glossary, Vol.11, page 349)—
Jaiswakis are almost all Hindus (only 61 Muhnmmadans, 13 Sikhs and 4
Jains). This is a Purbia menial class who came to the Punjab with troops and are
found chiefly in the cantonments and cities, in attendance upon horses as grass
cutters or grooms, though they frequently take up service as bearers.
(C. R. 1881, para. 454 ; C. R. I891,par/e 338 , Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 353)— 91. Janjua.
jANJOAsare almost all Muhamraadans (only 4 Hindus and 5 Sikhs) and have Population 3,570
been returned mainly from the Rawalpindi and Attock Districts. In some districts Fem'alei '.!! l',63a
Janjuas have been returned aa a sub-caste of Rajputs. Their chief occupation is (M. H. S.)
agriculture.
90.
Jaiswara.
Population 11,237
Males ... 6,750
Females ... 4,487
(U. M. S. J.)
Census Report, ]
458
OLOSSAET.
Chapter
92.
J at.
Population 4,956,536
Males . 2,803,551
Females . 2,147,985
(H. a M. J.)
(C. R. 188], paras. 420 to 440; C. R. 189), pages 838, 339 and 342; C. R. 1901,
pages 324 to 326 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 357 ; Crooke's Triheit and
Castes, Vol. Ill, page 25) —
Jats are Hindus, Sikhs and Muharamadans (only 38 Jains) and have been
returned from all parts of the Province (with the exception of the Jubbal State),
It is a dominant agricultural tribe and supplies excellent soldiers to the army.
The origin of the term Jat has formed the subject of much learned discussion
and I can hardly add to the literature above alluded to, from the ethnological
point of view. I will therefore content myself with stating some of the local
opinions and offer them for what they may be worth, until they are corroborated
by archffiological or other antiquarian research. The Jats are supposed to be a
Scythian tribe, who entered the Punjab about the beginning of the Christian era or
say 2,000 years ago. It is also held that the tenuis identical with Jarafa/i found
in the Mahabharta, but the latter term would in Sanskrit mean "old or weak'
which would be anything but appropriate to the characteristics of the Jats, the
present day or at any time withiu the historic period. We may therefore have
to seek for a derivation in some other direction. Jat or Jdt may be derived from
Sanskrit Jatto collect. We still have two words derived from this root, viz., Jati
(plaited hair) and Jathd (a united group). The term may therefore have been
applied to a combination of warrior castes or tribes. In my opinion the word Jat
originally signified not one tribe but a group, probably of mixed castes, (Mishra
Jatis), and a probable explanation would be that the Jats originally formed a J4ti
(class) as distinguished from Varna (caste). We find the term Jatt used in the
western Punjab for the camel-driver, who usually claims to be a Biloch, but is
probably Jat by origin. The co-osistence of Jat and J^t seems to point to the
possible correction of Jatior Jd,t into Jdt or Jatt. The Muhammadan Historians
have made repeated references to Jats as warriors and highway robbers indis-
criminately and mentioned them as occupying various tracts from the banks of
the Indus to tracts further east and south. The Arabs called all Hindus, Jats
(Elliot, 1,104). The Gipsies were called Zatts or Ziits and are referred to
as having emigrated from north-west India, The fact of the same term being
applied to castes of varying status from the warriors and robbers down to
minstrel Gipsies, seems to strengthen the belief that Jat was not a tribal name,
but was a group including Jdtis of various status. The lower strata of this group
emigrated through Afghanistan and Persia until they reached Europe as
Gipsies. The Ja.ts have been found at this Census to include sub-castes (see
Appendix to Table XIII, Part 111 of the Report) varying in nometiclature, from
Brahman titles to Dunma (or Dom) who probably represent the type of emigrants
known as Gipsies- The latter seam to have dropped the generic name of Jati,
but stuck to their functional appellation of Dom in its corrupt form Rom (of the
European gipsies).
93- Jhabel (Chabel). [C. R. 1881, para. 579 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 330) —
7'85g Jhabels are almost all Muhammadans (only 1 male Hindu) and have been
6,190 returned mainly from the Ferozepore, Multan and Muzaffargarli Districts and the
Bahawalpur State. It is a tribe of fishermen and boatmen, mostly living cm the
banks of river. They resemble the Mors and Kehals in habits, but have customs
like that of Jhnlka* common with Mens. They profess to have been degraded
from higher caste.
■94. Jhinwar. (C R. 18SI, para. 617 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 381; Crooke's Tribes and
Castes, Vol. Ill, piage \92) —
Jh IN WARS are Hindus, Sikhs, Muhammadans and Jains (only 4) and are
found all over the Province. Jhinwar, who is also called Kahdr and Mehra, is the
^hZ^I"^MehrI' UdcM^i ^"^^ village menial, who carries water, palanquins and burdens, and is also a cook
(Uulmmmad^), ""^ * in the Central and western Punjab, When a Muhammadan, he is called Mdchhi.
Some Mehras claim to be of Rajput origin.
95. Jhoja [Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. Ill, page 57) —
jiaies i:j5 Jhojas are almost all Musalmans and have been returned chiefly from the
Females ... 127 Kharar Tahsil of the Ambala District and the adjoining Basi Tahsil of the Kalsia
(M. II. J.) State. Their occupation is agriculture and labour. The Jhojas trace their descent
from the Rajputs of Jaisalmer and support their claim by tlio identity of sub-castes
such as Cliauhan, Taoni, Bargujar and Barah. They are, however, despised by the
Rajputs, witli whom they cannot intermarry. Jhojas practise widow-marriage
and are largely endogamous but have no objection to marrying non-Muslim and
low caste women in cases of necessity.
Males
Females ...
(M.E.)
Jhinwar.
Population 359,864
Males ... 198,667
Females ... 161,197
(H. a M. J.)
* Se« note on page 468,
XI.
459
OLOSSABT,
[ Punjab, 1911.
(C. R. 1881, paras. 521 and 528 ; C.
page 388) —
R. 1891, pa^e 113 ; Rose's Glossarii, Vol. 77,96. Jogi.
Population 54,968
Males ... 30,671
Females .. 24,297
(H. 8. M )
JoGi is really a religious order of ascetics (see paragraph 149, Chapter IV).
Some Jcgis, however, lead a married life. Jogi-Rawals who are a separate group
or caste were at the past Census mixed up with Jogis. An attempt has been
made on the present occasion to distinguish between them, and the figures noted
in the margin relate to Jogis proper, so far as the entries can be relied upon.
They include 24,829 Grihastis (mslea 12,856 and females 11,973) who are not
celibate and live on other occupations than begging. The rest (17,815 males
and 12,324 females) are Fakirs, i.e., they live on charity. A large number of
persons other than strict adherents of the religious order have called themselves
Jogi by caste and Sanatan Dharmi by sect. In the Nabha State 415 persons
who returned themselves as Jogi by caste were erroneously included in Fakirs,
Altogether 1,484 Jogis have appeared in Appendix to Table Xlll as Fakir by
caste and Jogi by sub-caste. Whether householders, ascetics or miscellaneous
mendicants, all persons who have been classed as Jogis claim connection with or
descent from, ancestors belonging to the religious order,
{C.R. 1881, para. 528) —
There has been a good deal of confusion between the terms of Jogi-Rawal
and Jogi. So far as I have been able to ascertain, Jogi-Rawal is a mixture of
two distinct castes or groups. Rawals are distinctly of Rajput origin. Rawal, appa-
rently derived from Sanskrit Rav (to make noise) was probably the equivalent
of ' roarer' and was a chivalrous title of Rajput warriors such as B^pa Ritwal, the
founder of tho house of Sessodia chiefs at Oodeypore. It gradually formed into
a sub-caste which still exists among the Rajputs as well as the Jats, with a
strength of 289 and 2,378 respectively.
The town of Rawalpindi is said to have been founded by Rawals as a smal
village (Pindi, miniature of Pind^^village) and there is also a village called Rawal-
pindi in the Kapurthala State. Some of the Rawals who were converted to
Islam appear to have gradually drifted away from their traditicmal occupation
and taken to trade, astrology, medicine, etc. At the same time the Grihasti
Jogis who were converted to Islam and had no traditional occupation, or the
Muhammadan disciples of Muhammadan Jogis who also called themselves by
the same name, seem to have taken to similar pursuits and the two castes appear
to have been drawn together by functional ties, resulting in marriage. The
combined caste seems to have been given the name Jogi-Rawal. Traces of the
Jogi element have become so indistinct by the lapse of time, that the Jogi-Rawal,
Jiow call themselves by the name of Rawal alone. Education has, moreover,
altered the state of affairs considerably, and the remarks of the late Sir Denzil
Ibbetson and the subsequent Census Superintendents, regarding tho character of
the caste are now strongly resented. From a representation made to me by the
Rawals of Hoshiarpur, it appears that they are not homeless people but are
enterprizing traders and adventurers who have earned plenty of money by travel
in Europe, America, Java and Australia. They have traders large or small
amongst them and also pedlers, but they are said to own fairly largo com-
mercial concerns in Malaya, Singapore, Sumatra, Celebes, Borneo, Australia
and Burma, and some of them are engaged in pearl fishery in the Malay Islands.
Many of them are oculists although their art is hereditary and more or lees
crude. Some of them are stated to have achieved much reputation as
experts in the treatment of eye diseases, iu Australia and other foreign countries.
They also own a certain amount of land but have not given up their traditional
occupation of astrology. Amongst their gio/s they have such names as Bhatti,
Khokar, etc., which point to their Rajput or Jat origin. There is a class of Muham-
madans in the central districts who call themselves Jogii, wear saffron coloured
clothes (which they are gradually giving up now) and are regular pedlers.
They have formerly been classed as Jogi-Rawals but are known merely by
the name of Jogis. Enquiries show that they were originally Kashmiris and got;
the title of Jogi by becoming disciples of a Muhammadan Jogi of that class, Tho
tendency, however, appears to be to give up the caste names altogether. At the
next Census, probably, most Jogi-Rawals will return themselves either as Rawals
or Jogis, with a large percentage of those who will try to attach themselves to
some more well known caste.
Jogi-Rawals are tnostly Muhammadans. Hindu Rawals have been returned
principally from the Lahore Division, the Rawalpindi District, and the Chatnba,
Patiala and Bahawalpur States. Tho entry of 1,619 Jogi-Rawals in
Chamba has been found to be a inistako for Jogis, Tho Muhammadan
members of the caste are also most numerous iu the Lahore Division, but
the Julhindur Division has a large number and the Rawalpindi Division
has 2,287 persons. Although tho Riiwals of Hoshiarpur and JuUundur
97. Jogi-Rawal.
Population 28,444
Males ... 14,216
Females ... 14,228
(H. M.S.)
Census Kepoit ]
460
GLOSSARY.
Chaptkk
Kabirbansi, Kabit
panthi, Kasbi, PaUi,
Sufedhdf (in Multan).
Eachhi-
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. M.)
100
101
Kahut.
Population
Males
Females ••
(H. M. S.)
Eakkezai.
Population
Males
Females ...
(M.)
399
246
154
10,648
5,566
have taken to various lucrative professions, yet the majority of Rawals and Jogi-
Rawals of other places are still itinerant astrologers.
j^laha. (C. R. 1881, jyara. 612 ; C. R. 1891, page 306 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 413 j
Population 635,044 Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. Ill, page 69) —
Females .. 289,752 Jdlahas are Musalmans, Hindus and Sikhs (only 42 Budhists) and have
(H. 8. M. B.) ' been returned from almost all parts of the Province. Julaha means weaver pro-
8yn.— Bona, Bond-Kabir, jjably from Sanskrit jttiaj/a* (J!t=motion (to go) and Zi=to join) referring obviously
"^' to tlie constant motion of the shuttle and the perpetual mending of the threads,
which are two very noticeable features of the indigenous weaver's work. Julaha
was originally a purely functional term which has crystallized into a caste. He
is called Paoh in the western Punjab and is an important artizan there, especially
because no weaving is done by the leather working or scavenger castes. The
Julaha is despised not only on account of his proverbial stupidity, but also because
of his amphibious life, the indigenous handloom necessitatiug work with the lower
half uf the body in a pit, which accounts for the following description of a weaver:
Nimtan dar gor bashad nimtan dar zindagi. (Half the body remains in the grave
and the other half in life). He is reputed to be a coward of the worst type. A
western Punjab proverb ' PtioZi charhe shikar Allah khair guzdre (The weavera
have started ahunting, may God maintain peace) conveys an idea of the value
set on his pluck and aptitude for sport.
99. Kachhi. {C. B. 188], para. 491 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 4,20 ; Crooke's Tribes and
Castes, Vol. Ill, page 77) —
Kachhis are almost all Hindus (only 43 Muhammadans) and have been return-
ed mainly from the Hissar District. It is a small group of cultivators belonging
to the United Provinces and generally engaged in the cultivation of waternnta
and similar produce. They are also known as Lodhas or Singhlris.
(C. R. 1881, para. 454; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, pageiBb)—
Kahdts are all Muhammadans except 86 Hindus and 3 Sikhs, and have beea
5 082 returned mainly from the Jhelum District. It is an agricultural tribe obviously
of Rajput origin who once dominated the tract of which Kahuta was the centre.
(C. /y. 1881, pom. 648; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page iB8)—
^5*^^ Kakkezais are Muhammadan by religion and have been returned from the
7955 Lahore Division aud the Ferozepore, Gujrat and Jhelum Districts. They are an
influential and enterprising community of traders. Up till 1901, Kakkezais were
included in Kalals. In the Census of 1901 they were shown as a separate caste,
but in Volume II of Rose's Glossary of Castes, recently printed, he says :^
"They claim to be by descent Afghans of Seistan, sprong from Kakka, a son of Karn, and the
nucleus of the class may well be a pure Pathan class. But the sections of the Kakkezai include such
names as Bhursi, Malak, Kethale, Kasoliya Shaikh, Vansaie and Nakhasria, and, in Sialkot Bale,
Bhagarath, Chandi, Handa, Khoria, Wadrath and Wanjotra, which hardly point to an Afghan origin,
and lend colour to the theory that the Kakkezais were, like the Khojas, Hindus converted at an early
period of the Uuharmnadan invasions and affiliated to a Pathan class."
Mr. Ibbetson in para. 648 of his Census Report of 1881 writes: —
" The caste (Kalal") was thus raised in importance, many of its members abandoned their hereditary
occupation (of distilling liquor), and its Musalman section also grew ashamed of the social stigma con-
veyed by the confession of Kalal origin. It accordingly fabricated a story of Pathan origin, and adding
to the lirat letter of the caste name the Pathan tribal termination, called itself Kakkezai. The name
was at fir^ only used by the more wealthy members of the caste; but its use is spreading, and the
cultivating owners of a village in Gujrat entered themselves as Kalal in the first and as Krtkkezai in the
second settlement. The well known Sheikhs of Hoshiarpur are Kalals, who while claiming Pathan
origin, call themselves Sheikhs and forbid widow marriage."
In view of representations made by the Kakkezai community, I have examin-
ed some of the Settlement Records of the Lahore District dating as far back as
1855 relating to landowners of the caste and find that they bear out the late Sir
Denzil Ibbetson's remarks. Moreover the description of the Kakkezais given at
page 560 of T^rikh-i-Makhzan-i-Piinjab, by Mufti Gbulam Sarwar Kureshi (edition
1877) supports the same view. Much therefore as I sympathise with their natural
desire to elevate their status, I am afraid it is difficult to controvert facts and'
in face of the entries in some of Settlement Records of the Lahore District, above
alluded to, it is not possible to say that the late Sir Denzil (then Mr.) Ibbeton's
remark-, were without foundation.
102. Kalal. (C. R. 1881, para. 648 ; C. R. 1891, page 339 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 438)—
17823 Kalals are Hindus, Sikhs, Muhammadans and Budhists (only 4) and have
14,438 been returned almost all over the Province. Their traditional occupation waa
distilling :ind selling of spirituous li(]Uors, which they have abandoned now. They
Kalal.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. S. M. B.)
8ja.—Ahluwaho, have taken to other pursuits, such as agriculture, service — both Civil and Mihtary,.
Kalwal, Kaluar, Karat, "" , , . ^, it- i i ° i ■ >^ t lu • i ji- _ i
jfcl,^ trade, shop-keeping, etc. Kalals are now trying to disown their traditional occupa-
tion of distillers and to trace their descent variously to Rajputs, Jats, etc. Indeed'
* The Punjabi word for the weaver is Julahiya and in Polhowari it is still pronounced as Julayi
instead of Julaha.
XI.
461
GLOSSAST.
[ Punjab, 1911.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. M.)
Kamboh.
Population
Males
Females ...
CH. S. M.)
1,77»
946
833
172,434
95,004
77.430
Population
Males
Females .,
(H. M.)
Feminine— ffan^W, Ram-
jani, Rcndi, Tawaif,
5,979
2,437
8,54a
106.
Kanera.
Population
Males ...
Females ...
(H. M. S.)
2,825
1,5S0
1,245
several influential members of the Ahluwalia section of Kalals have actually
returned themselves as Bhatti or Ahluwalia Rajputs.
{C. R. \b8\, para. 628 ; Hose's Glossary, Vol. II , jiage 44,2 ; Croohe's TriZ^es and 103. Kamangar.
Castes, Vol. Ill, page 118)— " "
Kamangaes are mostly Mohanimadans (only 96 Hindus) and are found in all
Divisions of the Province and the Malerkotla and Phujkian States. They were
originally bow makers, but havw now faktn to wood decoratinij. It does not
eeem to be a distinct caste but only a professional name used for MUch Tarkhans
(carpenters) who engage in the special art.
(C. B. 1881, fara. 492 ; Rome's Glossary, Vol. II, page 442 ; Crooke's Tribes and 104
Castes, Vol. Ill, page 118) —
Kambohs are Hindus, Sikhs and Muhammadans and have been returned
mainly from the Disti icts of Karnal, Amhala, Jnlkindur, Ludhiana, Ferozepore,
Shahpur, Wontgon^ery, Lyallpur and Wultan, the Lahore Division and the
Kapurthala, Malerkotla, Phulki.in and Bahawalpur States. It is one of the best
cultivating ctstes in the Province.
((7. i?. 1881, jaras. 563 anfi 5Q0 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol.11, page 4b4 ; Croofee's 105- Zanchan (Kanjar)
Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV, page 3t54) — ' '"
Kakchans are almcst all Muhammadans (only 169 Hirdns) and have been
returned from all parts with the exception of the Districts of Simla, Attock,
lUianwaii, Lyallpur, Di-ra Gbazi Khan, and the Loharu, Dujsina, Nalagarh, Mandi,
Suket and Chaniba States. They live by piostitution, dancing and singing.
Kanchan is a term pfcnliar to the eastern Punjab, its equivalent in the central
and western tracts being Kanjar. (These should not be mixed with the vrandering
tribe of Kanjars found in the eastern Punjab, who have been registered as a
separate caste.)
(C. B. 1881, para. 615; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 456) —
Kanekas are by religion Muharnmadans (only 50 Hindus and 1 Sikh), and
have been returned mainly from Mianwali, Muzaffargarh and Dera Ghazi Khan
Districts. It is a low caste of workers m grass and reed^ but has now taken to
weaving as well. Where Kaneras have taken to agriculture, they are reckoned as
a snb-caste of Jats. They are, however, quite distinct from the Kandera (Penja)
of Delhi.
(C. B. 1861, paras. 487 and 488 ; C. B. 1891, pope 340 ; Base's Glossary, Vol. II, W. Kanet
page 456; Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. Ill, page 133) —
Kanets are Hindus, Budhis's and Sikhs, there being only ] 1 Muhammadans.
It is a cultivating caste of the eastern Himalayas and the adjoining Sub-Himalayan
tract, returned chiefly from the Districts of Ambala, Simla, Kangra, Hoshiarpur,
the Nahan, Mandi, Snket, Patiala and Simla Hill States.
Kanets are said to be of mixed origin. It is obviously a degraded Rajput caste,
but it is difiBcult to tell exactly, how the formation of the caste occurred. One
explanation often given is that they are descended from Rajputs by wives of lower
castes. It is well known that the warrior castes, particularly their chiefs, took a
number of slaves (Ddsis) of inferior caste in wedlock along with the principal wife.
The descendants of these slave girls were not recognized as Rajputs and holding
an inferior status gradually formed a separate class of their own. According to
this theory Kanet might be a conuption of Kanisht (Sanskrit) meaning younger, a
term which could have been used appropriately to designate the sons of an in-
ferior status. Then again Kanet may be derived from Kunit meaning ' Trans-
gressing the rule.s ' and may be an epithet used originally for the oflspring of
irregular marriages (including widow marriage). The epithet Kunit might also
have been applied originally to aborigines who were hostile to the established
religious and social usages, or to a class of outcastes at a later period. The sub-
castes mentioned hy Mr. Rose on page 459 of his Glossary of Castes, Volume II,
would indicate that, at all events, a portion of the Kanets is descended from Rajputs
and Brahmans. Sir Alexander Cunningham* identifies the Kanets with the Kun-
nindas or Kulindas of Brihat Samhiia (by Varaha Mihra) but the presence of
Kanets in the tract ruled in ancient times by the Kunnindivs seems to be a pure
coincidence.
(C. R. 1881, para. 553 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 474) —
Kangars are almost all Muhammadans fonly 60 Hindus) and have been re-
turned mainly from the Lahore Division (except Amritsar), the Lyallpur District
and the Bahawalpur State. The Kaiigar is a travelling hawker who confines his
traffic to small articles of earthenware such as pipes, bowls and especially to
earthen images which amuse children.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. S. B. M.)
403,815
207,202
196,613
108. Kangar.
Population
935
Males
615
Females ...
420
(H.M.>
• Sir A. Cunningham's CoioB of Ancient India, pages 70-71.
Census Report. ]
462
GLOSSARY.
Chapter
109. Eanjar.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. M.)
110. Kapri.
Population
Mailes
Females ...
(H. J.)
Byn—Mangld
III. Karal.
Populatiou
Males ...
Females ...
(H. S. M.)
1.12 Kashmiri.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. M. S.)
2,4S2
1,234
1,258
375
179
113. Eathia
Population
Males ..
Females ...
(H. M.)
114. Kayasth.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. M. S.)
115.
116.
117.
Eehal
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. M.)
Ehakha.
Population
Males.
Females ..,
(M.)
Ehalsa.
Population
Males
Females ..
(as.)
(C. R. 1881, para. 590; C. R. 1891, page306 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 474;
Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. Ill, page 136) —
Kanjars are both Hindus and Muhamnmdana. They have been returned
cliiefly frum Gurgaon, Delhi, Karnal, Ambala, Patiala and Bahawalpur. They are
a vagrant tribe who live on vermin-catching, grass-work, &c. The term is
quite distinct from the Kanjar of the central Punjab meaning a pimp or prostitute.
The corresponding term oi the eastern Punjab is Kanchan.
(C. R. 1881 , para. 563a ; C. R. 189 1 , page 307 ; Rose's Glossaiy, Vol. II, page 475)—
Kapbis are almost all Hindus (only 8 Jnins) and have been returned from the
196 Delhi Division (except Simla) and the Phulkian States. These people claim
Brahman origin and manufacture artificial flowers and cheap ornaments made of
talc, tinsel, and the like worn by bridegrooms and brides. In Delhi they also a<3t
as priests in Jain temples. They also oflSciate as Bhats at weddings.
Kabals are Hindus, Sikhs aud Muhammadans. Tbey have been returned
'g05 mainly from the Lahore Division, Jullundur, Ferozepore and Rawalpindi Districts
621 and the Chamba State. The name appears to be identical with Kalal, of which it
is apparently an earlier form.
(C R., 1881, para. 557 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 478) —
95,891 Kashmiri'? are by religion moitly Muhammadans (only 536 having been re-
82,350 turned as Hindus and 10 as Sikhs). The Hindus are Kashmiri Brahmans known
as Kashmiri Pamiits, who together with Kashmiris (895) and Kaul (31)
returned as sub-castes of Brahmans, give a total of 1,462 Kashmiri Pandits for
the Province. The Kashmiri Sikhs are Brnhmans of the valley degraded by in-
termarriage and interdining wit;ti the Panjabis who frequented Kashmir during
the Sikh ascendancy and settled down in the lower reaches of the hills. Kashmiri
Muhammadans who contribute the bulk of the figures are met with almost every-
where, but their number is large in the Lahore and Rawalpindi Divisions. It is a
geographical term meaning native of Kashmir, and includes many distinct
castes, such as Bat, Sheikh, Wain, Mull, Shdlbdf, Khand-vdo, &c. The term
when used without any qualification connotes a Muhammadan Kashmiri.
The chief occupation of the Muhammadan Kashmiris is weaving, dyeing (of
shawls and similar fine fabrics), labour, shop-keeping and trade.
{C. R. 1381, para. 472; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 482; Crooke's Tithes and
40 Castes, Vol. Ill, page 178) —
*2 Kathias are both Hindus and Muhammadans and have been returned
from Hissar and Bahawalpur only. It is a tribe of Rajput origin probably Panwd,r.
They have on the present occasion returned themselves mostly as Rajput and
hence the figures have fallen from 2,099 in 1901 to 82.
(C. R. 1881, para. 560; C. fi. 1891, pag^ 340; Ros-i's Glossary, Vol. II, page 4^36 ;
Crooke's Tribes and Cast's, Vol. ill, page 184) —
Kayasths are mostly Hindus (only 42 Sikhs and 71 Muhammadans) and are
found almost all over the Province, but their number is large in the Delhi Division,
the Lahore District and the Patiala State. It is the well-known writer class of
Hindustan. The Kayastha of the Smritis was a caste of mixed origin from a Vaideh
(Vaisha father and Brahman mother) father and Mahishyji (Kshatriya father and
Vaisha mother) mother. His profession was that of a writer and his status was of
Adham Shudra. The present Kayasthas appear to have a strong Kshatriya
and Vaisha element welded into the group, apparently oi; account of the occa«
pation. Their present status is not much inferior to that of Khatris.
(C. R. 1831, mra. 580; C. R. 189/, pages 307 and 340; Rise's Glossary, Vol. II
l%l page 486)-
887 Kehals are almost all Muhammadans (only 23 Hinlus) and have been
returned from the Multan, Muz=iffargarh and Dera Ghazi Khan Districts. They
are a vagrant tribe of fishermen and boatmou in the south-west of the province
and are also known as Mors.
(C. R. 1881, para. 541 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 489)—
118 Khakhas arc converted Khatris and have been returned mostly from the
79 Gujrat, Jhelum and Kawalpindi Districts. They live purely by trade.
Khalsa is an old term, which denotes the trae followers of Guru Gobind
16,610 Singh, but in the past, it has b^en used merely to signify the persuasion of
10,481 members of various castes who belonged to the orthodox Sikh religion. It has
been returned for the first time as a caste, i. e., ai the name of a social group.
The advocates of the Khalsa or Tat Khalsa movement, which has been described
in paragraph 220 of Chapter IV, disregard the restrictions of caste and inter-
dining and aim at establishing an universal brotherhood amongst the Sikhs.
They have preferred to call themselves by the common title Khalsa, instead of
13,374
7,477
5,897
6,129
XI.
463
GLOSSABY.
[ Punjab, 1911.
stating the caste to which they belonged. The result is that in discarding their
old caste, they have adopted a new one, much in the same way as several other
castes which were formed similarly in tha old days, owing to the adoption of a
Bet of doctrines. When receiving his Pahid (initiatioa), a Sikh is instructed
to regard Gara Gobitid Singh as his father, Mai Sahib Devd,n as his mother,
Patna Sahib as his birth place and Sodhhans as his caste; and following
the last instruction, some members of low castes have succeeded in calling them-
selves Sodhhans or Sodhhans Khalsa by caste. The strength of this new
body is, however, not large, the entries ajrgregating only 16,610 in the whole
Province. Most of the entries come from the Fatiala State (7,773), the districts
returning the largest number iu British territory being Jullundur (2,829), Lahore
(1,3)5), Shahpur (particularly Hargodha 1,043),
Lyallpur (848), Gujranwala (Colony portion)
467 and Ferozepore (415).
It may, however, be noticed that a
few low caste Hindus gave their caste as
Khalsa, though calling themselves Hindu by
religion. The largest number of such entries (26)
was returned in Ladhiana, but two persons at
Jullundur, one at Shahpur and one at Mont-
gomery also foUowe.l the same course. The
total appeariflg under the Khalsa caste
includes the entries named in the margin.
493 : Crooke's Trihis and.
Akalii Singh KhAlea
11
Bh4ik4Kh4lga
23
Diwan Khale4
980
Kartiri Singh Khalsa ...
2
Khalsa Brothers
1,218
Khaisi Panthi
318
Nawan Singh Khalsa
15
NihangKhilsi
2
Sikh Khilsa
. 2,205
Sikh Khalsa Nanak Panthi ..
1
Singh Sabha
64
Sodhhans Kh41s4
61
TatKhilaa
2,549
Total
7,451
{C. B. 188 1 , para. 479 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page
Castes, Vol. Ill, page 233)—
Khanzadas are Muhammadan by religion, and are fouu'l chiefly in the Gur-
gaon District, where they have been declared as an agricultural tribe. The
term denotes an honorific title amona: the Rajput converts to Islam who probably
came trom Mewar. These people call themselves Jadubansi and in Gurgaon are
known as Khangurwah.
.(C. B. 1881, para. 563 a)—
Kharasias are almost all Muhamraadans (only 5 Hindus) and have been
returned from the Karnal District and the Patiala State. It is really a functional
.term, for a man who works a flour mill is chilled a Kliarasia.
(C R. 1881, paras. 470 and 471 ; C. B. 1891, page 307 ; Rosa's Glossary, Vol. II,
page 495) —
Khaeeals are all Muharatniilans (except 39 Himlus) and have been
returned mainly from the Montgomery, Multan, Jhang, Lahore and Ferozepore Dis-
tricts and the Bahawalpur State. They are clearly Rajputs by origin, as m*ay as
16,010 Kharrals (Muhammadan) having returned themsalve-i as Rajput by casta
and Kharral by sub-caste. There are also 105 Hindu (and 1 Siktj) Kharral Rajputs.
They are aa agricultural tribe.
^C. R. \88\,para. 602; C. R. H91, ptgei 307 a/ii312; Bwe's Glosmry, Vol. II,
paje 500; Crooke's Tribes aiii Cistes, Vol. Ill, page 257) —
Khatiks are both Hindus and Muhammadans (only 44 Sikhs) and are
found almost all over the Province. The Hindu Khatik is a Purbia immigrant
.and is usually a pig-keeper while the Muhammadan Khatik is a tanner.
(C. i?. 1881, paras. 539aad510; C. R. 1 S91, pajres 335 andUi; C. B 1901,
pages 302 to 308, ; Ros-i's Gloss try, Vol. II, p%ge 501 ; Crooke's Tribes and
Castes, Vol. Ill, page 264)—
Khateis are Hindus and Sikhs (only 45 and 232 Jains an i Muhammad ms
respectively) and are found almost all over the Province.
It is a Wdll-koown caste of high status among the Hindus, Their chief
occupation is trade. But many of them tako up Government a'ld private service.
Sodhi, Bodi and certain other sub castes of EChitris act ai priests aril Guru^ of
the Sikh?.
ffi. B. ^88\,para. 467 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 532) —
Khattars are all Muhamm ulans and have bjen returned mainly in the
Districts of Attock and Rawalpindi. The origin of the tnrm is still in the
douiitful stagfl. The tribe is held by soma to be of Rajput origin ; others
consider it akin to the Awans and somg are of opinion that tha white section is
of foreign extraction while the black one is local. Whatever the real origin may
be, so much seems certain, that tho letters Kk and t are clearly Indian and this
coupled with the similarity of some of the Kliatfcar customs to those of the
Hindus, makes their Indian origin more probable. The tribe has been declared
to be agricultural.
118- Ehanzada.
Population
3,662
Males
2,001
Females ...
1,661
(M.)
Syn. — Khang arwah,JadiC'
banei.
119. Eharasia.
Population
31S
Males
175
Females ...
I3S
(M. H.)
120. Eharral.
Population
34,655
Males
18,650
Females ...
IS.OOS
(H. M.)
121. Khatik.
Population 23,061
Males 12,855
Females 10,223
(il. S. M.)
Syn. — Chamrang.
122. Ehatri.
Population 432,727
Males ... 238,707
Females ... 194,020
(H. 8. M, J.)
123.
Khattar.
Population
Males
Females ...
(M.)
14,817
7,733
7,08*
Census Report, J
464
GL08SART.
Chapter
124
Eboja.
Population
Uaies
Females ..
(ii. H. 8.)
Byn. — Paracha.
125- Kholhar.
Population
AlaJes
Females ...
(M. H. S.)
128.
Ehnmra.
Population
Males
Females ...
(M.H. 8.)
127.
Ehnshabi.
Population
Males
Females ...
128. Kori.
Population
Males ...
Females ...
(H. 8. M.)
[C. R. 1881, para. 545 ; C. R. 1901, pages 150 and 310 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II,
33;f35 r<^9e 536)-
2P,53-i With the exception of 5 persons (4 Hindus and 1 Sikh) all the khojas
aie Wnhammadans who are supposed to have been converted from Hinduism,
The nienibers of the caste are mostly traders and have been returned more or
less from all parts with the exception of the Himalayan tiact and some of the
eastern districts and states.
The o persons (Hindu and Sikh) noted above have been retnrned in the
Districts of Gnrdiispur, Lahore and Amritsar, and are apparently Khoja Muham-
madans reconverted to Hinduism by the Arya Samaj.
Eunuclis also sometimes call themselves Khojas (perhaps from £"^10^0= beard-
less, a Khwajasara= Keeper of the haram).
c«o=P (C*- -K- 1881, paras. 468 and 469; C. R. 1891, page 340; Rui^e's Glossary, Vol. II,
59,956 c n/.\
32,666 P"?" 53i») —
27,290 KeoKHARs are all Muhammadans (except 14 Hindus and 3 Sikhs) and have
been chiefly returned from the Ferozepore, Lahore, Gujranwala and Sialkot
Districts, the Rawalpindi and Multan Divisions and tlie Baliawalpnr State.
They are good agriculturists and claim kindred origin with the Kajputs, Jats,
Awans, &c.
561
282
282
(C. R. 1881, vara. 631 ; C. R, 1891, pa^e 308 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 551 ;
Crooke's Tribes and Cattes, Vol. Ill, page 278) —
Khdmras are almost all Muhammadans (only 5 Hindus and 4 Sikhs) and have
been returned mainly from the Gnreaon, Karnal and Ambala Districts and the
Patiala Stnte. It is a low caste of Hindustanis, who go about selling and chop-
ping mill stones. They have a peculiar device for carrying the stones. An axle
is passed throutjh them and a buffalo is yoked to the ends of the axle. The
whole lot thus forms a roller and can be easily dragged, along a road by one
buffalo or buffalo-bull.
Khdshabis are all Muhammadans. It is a geographical term meaning a native
j^gOf Khushdb (a tahsil in the Shahpur District). The entries come from the
127 Rupar Tpshil of the Ambala District and the Sunam town in the Patiala State.
They are immigrants from the Khushab Tahsil who have settled down permanently
in the said tracts. It ia stated that these people came round originally about a
century ago a^ a vagrant community, acting as caiTiers, but characterized
with criminal propensities. ITiey used to carry lime, &c., on their pack animals
from the Pinjour side to Patiala, where the fort was then under construction, but
they did not scruple to angmetst their licit income by thieving and plunder. The
Patiala State authorities alloted a site to them to the north of the town of Sunam
(where they still reside), so as to stop their depradations. They have now taken
to agriculture, tonga driving, camel hirin?, &c., and call fhemselve.s Khu?habi by
caste. They generally marry within their own caste, but in cases of necessity,
do not mind intermarrying with the Jats.
{C. R. 1881, pora. 663; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 557 ; Crooke's Iribes and
J^.050 Castes, Vol. Ill, j.uge 316) —
6,472 KoRis are Hindus with the exception of 25 Sikhs and 28 Muhammadans.
They are found chiefly in the cantonments. It is really a sub-caste of Purbia
Chamdrs. '1 hey seldom work in leather but confine themselves to weaving and
general labour. They serve largely as grooms.
(C. R. 1881, parn. 632 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 562 ■ Crooke's Tribes and
299,738 ^'''^''' ^"'^ ^^^' P"3^ ^'^^^-
250,712 Kdmbars are Hindus, Sikhs and Muhammadans (only 1 Jain male). They
are found almost everywhere, and are the potters and brick-burners of the Province.
„ ,. ,. ri... „^-^ Thev are indispensable to aefriculture, in the well-irrieated tracts of the western
PaiMowagar, Giipar, Giisas, and central Tunjab, where they supply earthenpots fir the well gear, In other
jpathera, Oilband, Kulal. parts the demand for earthen pitchers, &c., keeps them engagaged to a certain
extent, although they are beginning to seek employment in other branches of
industry.
129. Kumhar.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. S. M. J.)
Byn.—Kundgar, Kuzagar.,
130. Kunjra.
Populalion 4,505
Males ... 2,458
Females .- 2,047
oa. u.)
(C. R. 1881, para. 554; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 571 ; Cooke's Tribes and
Castes, Vol. Ill, page 345) —
Kunjras are almost all Muhammadans (there being only 80 Hindus). Tliey
have bfen returned mostly from the Delhi Division (except Simla), the Hoshiar-
pur, Jullundur, Ludhiana, Sinlkot, Jhang Districts and the Dujana, Pataudi and
the Pliulkian States. It is really a functional term meaning green grocer (Sabzi-
farosh).
XL
465
OLOSSABT.
[ Punjab, 1911.
(C. R. 1881, para. 663 ; C. R. 1891, page 341 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. II, page 572 ;
Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. Ill, page 346) —
KoEMia are mostly Hindus (only 4 Sikhs and 6 Muhammadans) and have
been returned chiefly from the Delhi, Karnal, Ambala, Lahore, Gujranwala,
Rawalpindi and Lyallpur Districts and the Patiala State. It is a caste of Purbia
cultivators who genei-ally work in this Province as menial servants.
{C. R. 1881, para. 548 ; C. R. 1901, page 338 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 1)—
Labanas are Sikhs, Hindus and Muhammadans and are distributed almost
all over the Province, the largest figures being returned from Hoshiarpur (3,418),
Ferozepore (2,661), Lahore (3,601), Gurdaspur (4,877), Sialkot (7,490), Gujran-
wala (8,517), Gujrat (7,996), Muzaffargarh (3,218), Kapurthala (2,022) and
Patiala (2,011).
Labanas are carriers and hawkers, associated with Banjaras, although they
do not pierce ears or sell nose-rings, etc. They have settled in many places as
rope manufacturers or cultivators and have been declared an agricultural tribe in
the Ambala and Gujrat Districts and the Jullundur (except Kangra) and Lahore
Divisions. They Live a good deal on hunting.
(C R. 1881, para. 643 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 33 ; Crooke's Tribes and
Castes, Vol. IV, page 229)—
LiLARis are Muhammadans and Hindus (only 11 Sikhs) and are met almost
everywhere (except in the Simla District and some of the States attached thereto).
It is a purely functional caste including the traditional dyers of the Province.
{Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 34) —
LiLLA is a small agricultural caste (all Muhammadans) returned in the
Jhelum District. They possess the same status as Jats.
[C. R. 1881, para. 491 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 35 ; Crooke's Tribes and
Castes, Fol. Ill, page 364) —
LoDHAS are mostly Hindus (only 163 Muhammadans and 6 Sikhs) and have
been returned chiefly in the_ Delhi, Karnal, Ambala, Ferozepore, Lahore, Amritsar,
Shahpur, and Multan Districts. It is an agricultural class of the United Provinces,
generally engaged in the cultivation of water-nuts and also known as Kachhi
and Singhari.
(C. R. 1881, para. 624 ; C. R. 1,891, page 342 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 36 ;
Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. Ill, page 372) —
LoHAES are followers of the Hindu, Sikh, Muhammadan and Budhist
religions. They are scattered all over the Province. It is a functional caste
with the traditional occupation of blacksmith. The Lobars work largely as
village artizans and take up cultivation and field labour. They are allied to
Tarkhan and Raj.
Bhubalid — Oneof the Lobar sub-castes, OTZ.,Bhubali^, deserves a passing notice.
Only 31 persons (all Hindus) were returned under that name from Gurgao'n, Delhi
and Dujana. The term seems b) be derived from ' Bhubal' meaning warm ashes.
Bhubalias are said to be nomad blacksmiths who wander about in the eastern
Punjab, carrying their goods and chattels in peculiarly built, strong bullock-carts,
but always stay outside the villages. They claim to be descendants of Tunwdr
Rajputs, but the latter do not admit their pretensions. The Bhubalias allege that
at the fall of Chittor their ancestors took a solemn pledge not to build a house
anywhere or to wear a turban till they recovered possession of the fort. The
ruling family of Oodeypur observes a similar pledge whereby the chief may not
twist his beard, nor enjoy the luxuries of sleeping on a bed or eat from gold or
silver plates. The custom is to spread a little straw under the bed and under the
silver and gold plates, which signifies sleeping on grass and eating on the ground.
The Bhubalias speak Marwiiri and are said to be better workmen than the viUage
blacksmith.
(C. R. 1881, para. 619 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, jmge 41) —
Machhis are almost all Muhammadans (only 14 Hindus) and have
been returned from all parts of tho Province (except Karnal, Simla, Loharu,
Dujana, Pataudi, Nalian, Simla Hill States, Mandi, Suket, Malor Kotla and
Chamba). The Machhi of the western Punjab is apparently a counterpart of
the Jhinwar and the former caste consists largely of converts from the latter.
But it is also associated with thn Men or Meun and other castes engnged in
fishing. Tho term Machhi is purely functional, being derived from "^Sanskrit
Matsya or Machh and Panjabi Machhi ^?[h\\. But tho caste known by that name
ia distinct from Men and differs from it in customs. Besides following the occa-
131. Kurmi.
Population
Males
Females .'.
(H. 8. M.)
1,107
748
359
132. Labana-
Population 57,805
Males ... 31,330
Females ... 26,475
(H. S. M.)
Syn, — Banjara.
133- Lilari.
Population .. 31,540
Males ... 17,007
Females ... 14,533
(H. M. S.)
Syn.— Nirali, Nilari,
Nilgar, Rangren,
Patrang, Paungar {in
Multan) , Pharera (in
Kangra).
131. Lilla (Lalla).
Population
Males
Females ...
(M.)
135. Lodha.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. M. S.)
Syn, — Kachhi, Singhari,
1,744
946
798
9,413
5,159
4,254
13t5. Lobar.
Population 323,477
Males ... 176,191
Females ... 147,286
(H. S. M. B.>
Syn. — Ahingar, Lohia,
Salhand,
137. Machhi.
Population 279,666
Males ... 152,502
Females ... 137,104
(M.H.)
Syn. — ilachhera,
Mahigir, Mashki, Saqqa,
CO.;
466
Census Report, ]
OLOSSABY.
CHAPTEtt
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. S. M.)
139. Mahajan.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. S. J. M.)
Syn. — Kirar (in
Kangra).
140. U ahtam.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. S. M.)
Syn. — Raesibat,
lU.Mahton.
Population
Uales ,<,
Females .„
^as.)
pation of a Jhinwar, the Machhi is a Ddyd (accoucheur) and tho women act as
midwives and wet nurses.
Maghs who are almost all Hindus (there being only 52 Sikhs and 26 Muham-
*-^ madans) and were named Makhs in 1901, were returned from the Ambala and
206 Karnal Districts, but by a mistake in compilation have beeu included in Meghs.
It is apparently an old caste identical with Magha Brahmans and belongin)^
to the same stock as Shaka Dwipa, Surya Dvija or Bhojki Brahmans referred to in
Bhavishya Purdua in the legend of the immigration of a representative of each of
the 18 Magh families from Shaka Dwipa (see note on Bhojkis) for worship
at the Sun temple erected by the said Samba at a place called Sambhalpur
(in the United Provinces) after his name. It is interesting to note that in Shaka
Dwipa there were four varnas (castes) known as Mag, Magas, Manas and
Mandag, which corresponded to Brahman, Kshattriya, Vaish and Shudra of the
Jamboo Dwipa respectively (see chapters 133-135 of Parti of the Bhavishya
Purdna).
The people now seem to have forgotten their Brabmanical origin and claim
to be Kshattriyas, tracing their descent from Mukesar, a Rajput king of Kela-
garh (in Mewar).
They are generally zamindars and have been declared an agricultural tribe
in the Ambala District. Their social position is said to be above that of the Jats.
A Brahman can take pakka (cooked in ghi) food from their hands, while other
Hindus eat and drink freely with them. A few of them wear tho sacred thread,
while others do not. Owing obviously to their intimate association with the Jats
of the tract, they allow widow remarriage, and this is said to be the cause
of their degradation from the higher status. The caste is endogamous but
unlike the higher classes of the locality they prefer marrying in their own
residential village. Marrying in one's own got is prohibited, but iu some villages,
two, three or four gots are also avoided.
A few of the main sub-castes returned by them are cited below : —
Jaind (which may be a remnant of Zend), Mahti, Chauhan, Puniri, Shiv-
bansi, Bargate, Maral, Kukhe, Niman, Gouhan, Dhar, Khamire, Dhanwd,n, Umar,
Surajbans, Kanher, Jadubans, Bhatti, Badgujar, Kachwihe, Tuuwar, Chandar-
bans, Gill, Nimbar, Kanira, Madahar, Sital, etc., etc.
(C. R. 1881, pora. 536 ; C. B. 1901, page 328 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, pageii)—
15',004 Mahajans are mostly Hindus and Sikhs (only 26 Jains and 6 Muhammadans)
13,117 and have been returned chiefly from Kangra, Gurdaspur, Sialkot, Rawalpindi,
Lyallpur and Chamba. It is said to be a mixed caste which has sprung from
intermarriage between the immigrants belonging to the Bania and Kayasth
classes from the plains. These people are generally employed as traders or clerks.
They are also known as Kirars. The term is really functional, but has now come
to be recognized as a caste name.
(C. R. 1881, para. 494 ; G. R. 3891, pages 309 and 841 ; C. R. 1901, page 340;
l\^^l Rose's Glossary, Vol, III, page 49)—
38,209 Madtams are by religion Hindus, Sikhs and Muhammadans. They are met
with mostl)' in the Ferozepore, Lahore, Amritsar, Sialkot and Gujranwala Districts,
tho Multan Division (except Jhang) and the Kapurthala and Bahnwalpur States,
1'hey are partly vagrants and hunters, and partly agriculturists. They have been
declared an agricultural tribe in tlie districts of Ferozepore, Lahore, Montgomery
and Multan. Tlie llalitain is also known as Rassibat. The status of the caste is
low. The Mahtons of Hoshiarpur and Jnllundur are quite distinct from the
Mahtams with whom they were classed in 1901.
(C. R. 1881, para. 494 ; C. R. 1891, ya^e 309 ; C. R. 1901, page 340 ; Base's Qloa-
a'jei *"'^' ^'''" ^^^' ^"'^^ ^'^"~
2,980 Mahtons have been returned from the Jullundur, Hoshiarpur, Ferozepore
and Lyallpur Districts. Their real home, however, is in the Jullundur and Ho-
ehiHrpur Districts. Besides the number noted in the margin 1,7('3 persons (931
males and 772 females), in the Jullundur Tahsil have given Rajput as their caste
and Mahton as their sub-caste. In 1881, the Mahtons were clubbed together with
the Mahtams owing to the similarity of names, but in his Report (para. 495 the
lato Sir Denzil Ibbetson expressed l)is doubt about the identity of these names.
In 1891 too, the figures of Mahtons were amalgamated with those of the Mahtams,
but Mr. Maclagan, on page 309 of his Census Report, remarked that they too
were distinct castes.
At tho Census of IPOl, the Mahtons were again grouped with the Malitams
and in paragraph 49, Chapter VIII of his Report, Mr. Rose observed that there could
be little doubt as to the identity of these two names, although subsequently in the
Glossary of Castes and Tribes, he ha-5 held that Mahtons were regarded as Rajputs
and were distinct from Mahtams. The examination of the revenue records of
467
XI. GLOssAET. [ Punjab, 1911-
some of the Mahton villages in the Jallundur District, has shown that they are
entered in those records as Rajputs, and in a civil suit relating to that district, the
Chief Court held Mahton to be ' a small Rajput tribe standing somewhat low in
the scale of Rajput tribes, but still recognized as Rajputs (Punjab Record 44 of
1905). By their incessant eSorts, the organization of the Mahtons, called the
Mehta Rajput Sabha, has succeeded in having the Mahtons declared to be Rajputs
of a low status, similar to those of Manhases, etc., by the Rajput Prantik Sabha,
under the presidency of His Highness the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, al-
though it is stated that on certain objections being raised by an adverse party, the
• above resolution has been held under abeyance. Similarly a decision obtained by
the Mahtons from the Settlement Collector of Hoshiarpur ia which they have been
declared as Rajputs is pending consideration by the higher authorities. My
enquiries, however, leave little doubt that the Mahtons ware originally
Rajputs of a fairly high status, and that the term was one of distinction
equivalent to Mehta, but that they lost the Rajput status sometime ago in con-
sequence mainly of the adoption of agriculture as their occupation, in preference
to military service and the introduction of widow remarriage, which is to
this day vigorously tabooed by high class Kajputs, not only among the Hindus
but also among the Muhammadans. They were thus degraded into a separate
group or caste. They have been enumerated as a separate caste at this Census
although, as noted above, a number of them have iu the JuUundur District
returned themselves as a sub-caste of Rajputs. Whether the efforts of the Mahtons
to regain the level of their parent caste and be recognized by the Rajputs as
belonging to their fraternity and treated on an equal footing will succeed, remains
to be seen.
(C. R. 1881, para. 484 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page bl ; Crooke's Tribes and UZ. Mali.
Castes. Vol. Ill, page 452)- Sf°l. ^S^
Females ... 46]316
Malis, who are a class of cultivators and gardeners in the south-eastern (H. 8. M.)
-districts and states of the Province, are mostly Hindus, there being only 1,122 Syiu—Baghban, lialiar.
and 955 Sikhs and Muhammadans respectively. The term, strictly speaking,
•is confined to the Hindus, a Muhammadan gardener being known as Kunjra in
the south-east and Arain, Baghb^n or Maliar, further west.
{G. R. 1881, para. 485; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 57)— 143. Maliar.
^ " > 1- » I Population 89,93
Maliaks are almost all Musalmans there being only 8 Hindus and 2 Sikhs ; ^^^^. — *7,778
and have been returned mainly from the Rawalpindi Division. They are culti- ^(M H S) ^ '^^^
vators and gardeners and are the same as Mali or Baghbau. There is little Syn.— .JfoJi:.
• difference in the western districts between Maliar and Arain.
{C. R. 1881, para. 621 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. III. page 62; Crooke's Tribes and 144. MaUah.
Castes, Vol. Ill, page 460)— ' Population 77,837
' ' r » I jjales ... 41,693
Mallahs, also known as Mohana in the western Punjab and Taru or Darein ^(h^'m sS ^'^'^**
in the Kaugra hills, are mostly Muhammadans, there being only 6,619 Sya.— Darein
Hindus and 11 Sikhs. They have been returned from all the divisions Mohana, Kishtiioan, :iaru.
(except the Districts of Rohtak and Simla), and from the Kapurthala and
Bahawalpur States. They are boatmen, perhaps of Jhinwar origin. Mohana
is probably derived from mukh or munh (face) and the term was apparently,
at one time, applied to the boatswain. The terms Taru (swimmer) and Darein
(one who swims with the inflated skin of cattle) are peculiar to the Himalayan
tract. In the turbulent streams of the hills, swimming is by no means easy, and
so the occupation is important enough to designate a class.
iC. R. 1881. para. 551 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 68 ; Crooke's Tribes a?id 145. Maniar
Castes' Vol. Ill, page 473)— Fopulation 7,275
' r ;; / Males ... 3,949
Maniaus are both Hindus and Muhammadans, and have been returned chiefly Females ... 3,327
from the eastern districts and states as also from tho Hoshiarpur, .Jullundur, (H. M.)
Gurdaspur, Sialkot and Attock Districts and the Phulkian States. The
Maniar is one who works in glass and sells glass bangles, generally hawking
thorn about the villages. He is also known as Churigar. The term which is
a functional one, is also used generally for a pedler " Manidri hechnd " being
tho common designation for tho occupation of carrying about petty hardware, etc.,
for sale.
(C. R. 1881, para. 503 \a.)— 146. Marija (Mareclia).
Makijas or Maekchas are almost all Hindus (only 30 Muh.ammadans) and Males '°!!. I'oir
have been returned chiefly from the Multaii, Muzaffargarh and Dera Ghazi Khan Females ." 'jus
Districts and tho Bahawalpur State. It is a class of wandering beggars who come (U.M.)
from Uajputana and Siudh, and are now employed as labourers chiefly on canal
"works, etc.
468
Census Report, ] glossary. Chapter
m. Mazliabi. (C. B. 1881, para. 598 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 75)—
Males ^ 12,192 Mazhabis are almost all Sikhs (only 58 Hindus and 22 Muhammadans)
Females ... 9,499 and have been returned mostly from the Delhi, Karnal, Ambala, JuUundur,
„_^^„^-**-^, Ludhiana, Ferozepore, Lyallpur, Shahpur Districts, the Lahore Division, and the
B7n,-Ranghreta. F^ridkot ^ndNabha States. ^ .
Mazhabis are Chuhras converted to Sikhism. They refuse to touch night-
Boil, though performing all the other traditional functions of the Chuhra
caste. They have taken to husbandry and have been declared as a separate
agricultural tribe in the districts of Gujranwala and Lyallpur. They make very-
good soldiers and a large number of them serve in the army.
148. Megh. (C. R. 1881, para, 653; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 77)—
Males ... 21988 Meqhs are practically all Hindus, there being only 639 Sikhs and 37
Females ... 18,032 Muhammadans. 'I'hpy have been returned mainly from the Lahore, Gurdaspur,
(H. 8. M.) Sialkot, Gujranwala, Gujrat and Lyallpur Districts.
Megh is a low caste considered untouchable by the orthodox Hindus, but the
Arya Samaj has purified numerous members of the caste and raised them to
the status of touchables. By occupation, the Meghs are largely weavers, but
they also follow other pursuits, e.g., service as field labourers, grass-cutters, etc.
(The figures noted in the margin exclude entries in the Karnal and Ambala Dis-
tricts, which have been classed by mistake under Megh, but really appertain to
Magh, a different caste.)
149. Men. {C. R. 1881, para. 619 ; C. R. 1891, jmge 309 {Muchhis); Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill,
PopulaUon 24,173 p^ges 41 (Mdchhi) and 86 (Meun ) —
Males ... 12,881 r a \ ) \ i
Females ... 11,292 Mens are also called Meun and the latter term has been confused with Meo.
(M, H.) Ferozepore \ Enquiries have shown that the Meos returned
Lahore } in Table XlII from the districts and states
Gurdaspur Lg jjgjj other than Hissar (Hissar Tahsil, males 123,
Montgomery \ females 98), Gurgaon, Delhi and Nabha are
* Lyallpur ' really Meun and should have been classed as
Hissar (except Hissar "i such. The total of such entries comes up to
^J^^'^ 5,171 (2,905 males and 2,266 females) and has
Karnal been included in the strength noted in the
Ambala ^as Meo. margin above. Mens are by religion almost
"'^K^'^^a DiS ^^^''^^' l' all Muhammadans (only 31 still Hindus).
Dera Ghazi Khan I They have been returned mainly from the
Kapurthala I districts and states named in the margin. Men
^^'^^^ J though derived from Sanskrit i/m=fish,
similar to Mdchhi, and originally a functional term, is a caste quite distinct,
on the one hand, from Machhi, and on the other, from the Meos who
are said to have come from Mewat. They are an endogamous group, and do not
generally intermarry with the Mdchhis. They observe the peculiar custom of
Jbulka* and restrictions regarding the use of the milk and curds of a recently
calved cow, also found among the Jhabels. Ihey live mostly on the banks
of rivers and their traditional occupation is fishing. They have taken to various
other occupations, such as, plying boats, agriculture, weaving, well sinking, carry-
ing water, grain parching, selling vegetables and labour in general.
150. Meo (Mewati). (<?• R- 1881, yara. 478; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 79; Crooke's Tribes and
Population 124,993 Cables, Vol. Ill, page 485)—
Females '.,. 58614 Meos are all Muhammadans except 12 Hindus. Their chief occupation is
(H. M.) agriculture and thoy are treated as an agricultural tribe in Gurgaon and Delhi.
The Meos, also called Mewatis, belong to the Mewat country consisting of Alwar,
Gurgaon and Bharatpur. It is believed that the tract was named after the Meos,
Mewat being tlie plural, in Persian, of Mev, and meaning the country of the Meos
or Movs. But it is also stated that Mewat is a corruption of Mina-vati, an ancient
name of a tract situated more or less in the same place as the former. Mina-vati
would mean abounding in fish and would lend colour to the story that Rajputana
was at one time a large inland lake. The word Meo is also pronounced as Mean
which differs little from Men (the fishermen tribe). The Meos are moreover asso-
ciated with the Minns, who also seem to owe their name to same sort of fish and
it appears possible that the Meo, the Men and theMina may have a common origin,
connected in varying degrees with the occupation of fishing. The Meos are found
in the Gurgaon and Delhi Districts, the Hissar Tahsil and the Bawal portion of tho
Nabha State which adjoins Gurgaon. The similarity of the names Meo and
Meun appears, from local enquiries, to have resulted in the latter tribe being
returned in Karnal and other places, as Meos, while they really are Mens. Such
figures have, therefore, been excluded from the statistics given in the margin.
* A custom in which the son-ia law of the family must set light to the furnace used at weddings.
Roee's Olossarj', Volume III, page US.
XI.
GL0S9AEY.
[Panjal.Wli.
The mistake was discovered after the compilation of Table XlII (Caste). The
Meos, though Muhammadana, etiU observe several Hindu customs (see paragraph
248, Ohapter IV).
\C. R. 1831, para. 505 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 110)— 151.
MiANAs are all Mahaminalans and have b^ea returned ■ mainly from the
Districts of Sialkot, Gujrac and Shahpur. la the western Punjab, Mian is a
title of holiness and the descendants of holy persons, to whatever caste or tribe
they may have belonged, style themselves Miana. They are now recognized as a
separate caste. IVIost of them are Imams of Masjifls ^ad teach the Koran. They
were consequently classed by Mr. Maclagan with Ulema^. Bat there are also
families of landowning Mianas of considerable importance, such as the Mianas of
Shahpur, who clearly belong to the Awan or Jat stock. On the other hand, the
tendency to give up the honorific title and to assume the name of some caate or
tribe, is evidenced in such cases as the Mianas of Mianwali, who were once known
as Sheikhs bat now call themselves Qureshis and are anxious to be recognized
as Sayads.
(C. R. 1881, para. 582; Rose's Glossary, Pol. Ill, page 102; Vroohe's Tribes and 152.
Castes, Vol. Ill, page 485) —
MiNAs iare mostly Hindus, there being only 312 Muhammadans and 1 Sikh,
and have been returned chiefly from the Delhi Division (except Ambala and Simla),
the Ferozepore, Lahore, Multan Districts and the Faridkot, Patiala and Nabha States.
In the Punjab, Minas, who claim Rajput descent, are almost invariably criminal.
iTiey are most numerous in Gurgaon, where they have also taken to agriculture,
.although that does not prevent them from pursuing their traditional occupation.
Siana.
.. ■
Population
I,02»
Males
&3«
Females ...
489
(M.)
Iffina.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. M. a)
2,360
l,03S
153- MirasL
Population 227,394
Hales . .„ 122,071
Females ... 105,328
(H. S. M. B.)
Syn. — Dum,Dhadi, Kalannt,
Kamachi, Mir, ilirtada,
Uutrib^ Nagarchi, Haqib,
Qaioai, Saraai,
UBI.J
154. mooM.
Population 419,37»
Males ... 228,688
Females ... 190,699
(B. S. M)
Syn. —Saraj, Skiraz,
Kafashdoi.
(C. iJ. 188), paro. 527 ; Rosa's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 105 ; Grooke's Tribes and
Castes, Vol. Ill, page 496) —
MiEAsia are all Muhammadans, with the exception of 2,116 Hindus, 29
Sikhs and 4 Budhists, and have been returned from all parts of the Province.
Mirasi is a Persian word which means hereditary, and the term signifies
-either hereditary dependants or hereditary musicians. They are minstrels and
musicians (being also known as Dums — not Dom meaning executioner) and also act
as genealogists similarly to the Bhats (bards), having received accretions from that
caste by conversion.
(C. R. 1881, fara. 607 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 123; Crooke's Tribes and
Castes, Vol. Ill, page 497 ) —
MocHis are both Hindus and Muhammadani, there being only 195 Sikhs, and
have been returned all over the Province, excepting a few small states. In the
east of the Punjab, the term is applied to the more skilled workmen of the towns.
In the west, however, it is simply used to designate a Muhammadan worker in
leather, whether it be the skinner, the tanner or the shoemaker.
{C. R. 1881, para. 507 ; C. R. I891,pa5r« 310; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page l30; 155 Moghal.
Grooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV, page 3) —
MoGHALs or Mongols are all Muhammadans and have been returned almost all
over the Province. These people either entered the country with Babar or were
^attracted during the reign of his dynasty. The figures by no means represent
pure Mongolian blood. Irrespective of the mixture of blood resulting from
intermarriages of the Moghals with the local castes, there is a strong tendency
among men of low status to claim Mot;hal descent. Large numbers of men in
Bawalpindi and Jhelum, who belong to a;^ricultural tribes sucli as Gakkhars, Sattis,
etc., for instance, now profess to be descended from Moghal ancestors. The
Moghals have been declared to be members of an agricultural tribe in all districts,
except ten.
(0. R. 1881, para. 517) —
MujAwiRs or Mujawars are all Muhammadans and have been returned
mainly from the Gurgaon, Gujranwala and Lyallpur Districts. They are the
hereditary guardinns of shrines. It is a functional terra. The Mujawar sweeps
the shrine and attends to the pilgrims, for which he receives some remuneration
from tfiiem. lie also receives a portion of the presents made at the shrine.
(C. R. 1881, pctm, 599 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 138)—
Mdsallis have been returned chiefly from the Lahore, Rawalpindi and
Multan Divisions, the Ferozepore District and the Bahawalpar State. A Chnhra
converted to Islam is known as Musalli. In the south-west he is called Kutana,
.and in the east, Dindar or Bhangi.
Population
Males
Females ..
(M.)
Syn. — Chugatla, Uirza.
98,574
53.52»
4S,01»
156.
Mujawir.
Population
Males
Females ...
(M.)
1,918
1,006
912
157.
Musalli (Eatana).
Population 308,568
Males ... 160,139
Female* ... 143,42a
(M.)
Census Report ]
470
6L03SABT.
Chaptib
158. NaL
Population 350,456
llaUs ... 192,26(>
Females .. 16f),190
(H.8. M.J.)
Byn. — Hajjam, Jarrah.
159. Naik.
I'opulation 6,674
Males ... 8,708
Females .„ 2,966
(H. M. 8.)
160. Nar.
PopnlatioQ 104
Males ... 49
Females ... 65
(H.)
161 Nat.
Population
3.217
Males ..V
l,5b6
Females ...
1,613
(H. 8. M.)
Syn.— Bazigar,
162. Niaria.
Population 2,271
Males ... 1,130
Females .. 1,141
(H. M. 8.)
BjTL.^8oni (in Amlala and
Nahan.)
168- Nnngar.
Populatiwi 9,987
Males ... 5,390
Females ... 4,597
(H.S. M.)
Byn. — Lunia, Kun;a, JTu-
nari, Shoragar, Namlgur,
Bthgar,
m. Od (Odh).
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. 8. M.)
Byn. — Beldor,
165.
166.
Pacha dha.
Population
Males
Females ...
(M.)
Padha.
Population
Males
Females ..
tM.)
{C. R. 1881, para. 525; C. R. 1901, page 310; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, paja
140 ; Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV, page 40) —
Nai3 are Hindus, Sikhs and Muhamtnadans alike (there being only 9 Jaina)
and have been returned from all parts of the Province. They are the barbers of
the country. They now claim a Kshattriya origin. The Muhammadan Nais often
aspire to the status of Moghal.
{C. R. 1881, para. 516; C. R. \89\, rage 311; Rose't Glossary, Vol. Ill, page
150; Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. I, page 160) —
Naiks are almost all Hindus (only 42 Muhammadans and 5 Sikhs) and have
been returned fnim the Multan and Delhi Divisions (except Ambala and Simla),
the Ferozepore, Lahore and Shahpur Districts and the Loharu, Faridkot,
Chamba, Nahha and Bahawalpur States. Naik is only a title assumed by leading
men among the Ahei is, Thoris and Banjaraa, but it is now considered a separate
caste. Naiks are cultivators and labourers.
(Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 157) —
N4BS are all Hindus and have leen returned only from Kullu in the Kangra
District. According to Mr. Maclagan it is a synonym for Dagi and Koli, but it
is said to be an old and distinct caste equal in status to Natlis. They are
generally agriculturists and labourers. In some cases, they enjoy mudfis attach-
ed to certain temples. The male members play on chhainas (cymbals),
while their women dance before the deota (God). The caste is endogamous and the
members do not eat with Dagis, Chamars, Julah^s or other low castes, although
they cat food cooked by the higher castes, e. g., Kanets, Rajputs, Brahmaus, &c.
{C. R. 1881, para. 588; Rosa's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 163; Crooke's Tribes and
Castes, Vol. IV, page 56) —
Nats are both Wuhammadans and Hindus (only 39 Sikhs) and have been
returned mainly froin the Eohtak, Lahore, Shahpur, Montgomery, and Jhang Dis-
tricts and the Phulkian States. They are a gipsy tribe of vagrant habits who
wander about with their families. In addition to displaying acrobatic feats
and conjuring tricks of a crude order, the Nats make articles of grass and reed
for sale. They usually come up from the Rajputana side, but are akin to
Bazigars who belong to the hilly and sub-montane tracts of the Province. • ^^y
{C. R. 1881, para. 635 ; Rose's Glossary, Vol. Ill, page 168 ; Crooke's Tribes and
Castes, Vol. IV, page 91) —
NiAKiAs are mostly Muhammadans, there being only 199 Hindus and 10 Sikhs.
They have been returned from almost all the districts and from the Nahan,
Phulkian and Bahawalpur States. The Niaria is the refiner who melts the
leavings and sweepings of the goldsmith and extracts the precious metals
therefrom, or washes gold out of river sand.
[C.R. 1881, yara. 639)—
Ndngaes are Hindus, Sikhs and Muhammadans and have been returned
mainly from the Karnal, Ambala, Lahore, Muzaffargarh Districts and the Patiala
and Jind States. They are the salt workers of the east, and must not be confused
with the workers in salt mines who belong to vanous castes. Nungars manu-
facture taltpetre or crude soda.
(C. R. 1»81, para. 573)—
17188 ^^^ are both Hindus and Muhammadans, there being only 145 Sikhs. They
16',068 have been returned everywhere in large or small numbers, with the exception of
the Eastern States and the Himayalan iract (save Kangra).
They a-e the professional navvies of the Punjab and are also known as Beldar..
The Ods aie vagrants, who wander abont with their families in search of employ-
ment on earth work. They have a language of their own called Odki. The figures
of Belddrs in the Kangra District have been thrown under "Od." The "Ods"
referred to by Mr. Diack at page 341 of the Punjab Census, Report, 1891, are said
to have returned themselves as Thavi, by which name they are mostly known there..
(C. R. 1881, rara. 563a)—
16 833 Pachadhas are all Muhammadans and have been returned from Hissar (32,381
15' 592 persons) and Karnal (44 persons) only. It is a geographical term used in
Bhatinda and Harianafor Muhammadan Jat and Kajput immigrants from the
country to the west of the Sutlej. Cattle rearing is their traditional occupation but
agriculture is gradually taking its place. They are sometimes called Rd,th;
(ruthless) by their neighbours.
Padbas are all Muhammadans who were converted sometimes back from'
136 Brahmans ; and have been returned chiefly from the Ambala, Hoshiarpur District*
g2 and the Patiala State. They are well versed in the Hindi system of teaching arithmetic-
acd are still seen in the cities coaching boya of both Hindus and JVlahammadan^
XI.
471
GLOSSABY.
[ Puniab, 1911.
in arithmetical tables and giving lessons in the Lando script. But they also act
as phjsiciacs. ITiey are said to be endogamous. The Hindu Padhas have been
returned as Brahmans.
(C. B. 1881, para. 578)— 167.
Pakhiwabas are almost all Wuhammadans (only 1 Hindu) and have been
returned mostly from the GurdBspur, Sialkot, Gujranwala, Gujrat, Lyallpur
and Multan Districts and the Kapurthala and Bahawalpur States. They are
a criminal and vagrant tribe of fowlers and hunters who live in straw huts.
(C. R. 1881 para. 545)— 16*
Parachas are Muhammadan traders converted from Hinduism. They have
been returned mostly from the Ferozepore, Lahore, Jhelum, Rawalpindi, Attock
and Montgomery Districts and the Faridkot and Bahawalpur States, and are the
counterpart of the Khojai*, althcngh they have crystallized into a separate caste.
In the western Punjab, they are very wealthy and trade with Bokhara, Kabul,
Bombay, CalcuttH, etc. ; but in places where the Kliojas are iu strength, the
Paracha contents himself with the occupation of a pedlar. They know the Hindi
characters and nearly all of them keep accounts in Hindi like the Hindus, though
some of them can read and write Urdu. The 5 Hindu entries apparently refer
to those reconverted to Hinduism by the Arya Samaj. A few Parachas pursue
agriculture.
(C. R. 1881, para. 663; Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV, page 138)— 169.
Pasis are mostly Hindus, only 237 having given their religion as Muham-
madan. They have been returned mainly from the Karnal, Ambala, Ferozepore,
Lahore, Sialkot, Guiranwala, and Rawalpindi Districts and the Patiala State. They ;,
are a low class of immigrants from the United Provinces, who are closely allied to ~
Khatiks and are generally met with as keepers of pig. It is interesting to note that
Pasi is a sub-caste of Khatris as well as Brahmans, but owing to the low status of
the caste of that name, the sub-caste is concealed. There are many Pasi Khatris at
Nurmahal in the Jullundur District, but they call themselves Bunjahi. In the
Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana, Amritsarand DeraGhazi Khan Districts and the Kulsia State
they have designated themselves Pashi. Their origin is describeil thus — Pasi Khatris
were inhabitants of Bhatinda. A disastrous fire once broke out and the people fled
in all directions. A young son of the Sardar was left unattended. The few
residents who were left behind, looked after him and were called Pasis as
distinguished from the Ap^sis or Asp^sis who bad left the place. One Brahman
Kanungo in the Gujranwala District claimed to be Pasi, but enquiries have failed
to show any other persons belonging to the Pasi sub-caste. It is possible that
the term may have originally denoted residence in the vicinity of some large
town and may have been applied, indiscriminately to all castes inhabiting the
neighbourhood.
(C. B. 1881, jmras. "90 to 419 ; Croohe's Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV, page 155)— 170.
The Pathans are a purely Muhammadan tribe fourd all over the Province,
but chiefly in the north-west. Their chief occupations are agriculture and military
service.
The term Pathan, according to Afghan book-makers, is derived from Pathan
(rudder in Syrian) a title granted by the Prophet of Islam
Derivation of the term. to Kais (designated Abdul Rashid by him), the leader of
the small band of Afghans who accompanied Khd.lid and
were the first converts to the faith of Muhammad from that country. Abdul
Rashid was called a Rudder because he was expected to guide the ship of
his people on the right track.* But Bellew considers the word to be a corruption
of Pukhtdna, which is the plural of Pakhtun or Pttkhtun and comes probably from
Pukhta (a ridge or hill).t But the late Sir Denzil Ibbetson considered the true
Pathan, as distinguished from Afghans, to be of IndianJ extraction. The following
remarks will therefore bo of interest as bearing on the disputed question of the
origin of Pathans. In an article on the • Ruined temple in the Nurpur Fort'§
(District Kangra), Pandit Hini Nand Shastri, of the Archaeological Department, has
shown that the original name of Patbankot was Pathan or Paithan. This term ia
mentioned in the Ain-i-Akbari. From the analogy of a similar name Paithan of a
placeon the Godavary, whoseorigin was discovered on an inscription (see Epigraphica
Indica, Vol. Ill, p. 103) to bo Pratishthana, he concludes that the latter was the
real name of Pathankot. The existence of the term Pathdniya which designates a
Bajpnt clan living in this locality, fits rather well with the term Pratiskthaniya
(belonging to Pratishthana). Now Pratishthana means well established, and if this
Pakhiwara (
[PakM-
was).
Population
4.16T
Males ...
2,351
Females ...
1,818
(M. H.)
Faracha.
Population '
3,830
Males
2,028
Females ...
1,802
(M. H.)
Byn.—KhoJa.
Pasi.
Population
2,532
Males
1,478
Females ...
1,054
(H. M.I
-Kliatik, Chamrang.
Pathan.
Population 292,417
Males ... 166,519
Females ... 125,898-
(M.)
Bjn,— Afghan.
* The Races of Afghanietap, by Bellew, Edition 1880, page 16.
t Ibid, page* SO, 57.
X Punjab Coi'saa Report 1881, paragraphs 302 to 394
§ Arcliaeological Survey, of ledia. Annual Report, 1904-05, page 111.
CensuB Report, ]
Chapt^s
Vti- Patwa. ,
Population
Males ...
Females ...
(H. M.) ,
BjIL—Patoli or Patdi.
172
173
174
was the derivation of the tertn Pathan, it coaH not "be applied more aippropriateTy
than to the inhabitknts 6i the North- West Frontier ^f India .
It is also possible that Pathim tnay be a corruption of Bdtdhan, tlie name
of a country in the north mentioned by Varahmihra* in his famous book which
is supposed to have been cocnpiled in A. D. 587.
{C. R. 1881, para. 563a ; CrooWs Tribes ani Castes, Vol. IV, page 172)—
339 Patwas have been retnrnel in Gurgaon, Delhi, Karnal, Ambala and Nahan,
229 as Hindus, while those of Bahawalptir are Muhammadans. It is a functional term
meaning one who makes silk-cords, waist-baqds, &c. In the centre and west of
the Province he is known as Patoi or Patoli, and is generally a Kashmiri by
caste.
Penja. {G. B. ] 881, para. 64,1) —
Male's^ ' ... 7 176 Penjas are both Muhamniadans and Hindus (only 3 Jains) and have hteen
Females ... 5,847 returned mo.stly from the Gurgaon, Delhi, Karnal, Ambala, Jullundur, Mianwati
(H.M.J.) and Multan Districts and the Kalsia, Nahan and Pntiala StateA. They are cotton
Nadiaf^^p'amba ^^'^' scutchers who are also kttowa as Pamba, Dhauia, Kandera, and in the cities, as
NaddSf.
(C. R. \88\, para. 589)—
l'xc)9 Peknas are mostly Muhammadans there being only 91 Hindas. They have been
1^04,7 returned chiefly from tlie Lahore Di.strict, tiie Rawalpindi Division except Mian-
wali, and the Multdn Division e.xcept Muzaffargarh and Oera Ghazi Khan. It is a
vacrant tribe of gipsies very similar to the Nats and Bazigars, with the differ-
ence that Perna women add prostitution to their traditional occupation of dancing
and singing.
Phiphra is a small agricultural tribe of Muhammadans which is found in the
?tQ Jheiuni and Kawalpindi Districts. Their status is similar to that of Jats, and are
57 probably an isolated sub-caste of that caste.
Pema.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. M.)
176
Phiphra.
Population
MaJes
Females ...
(M.)
Pnjari.
Populatioa
Males
Females ...
(H.J.)
176. Pnrhia.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. S. M.)
177. Qalandar.
Population
Males
Females ..
(H. M.)
178- Classah (ftasai).
Population 119,826
Males
Females ...
(M. H. S.)
Syn, — Bachar.
179. dazilbash.
Population
Males
Females ...
(M.)
been re-
It is a
62,898
ISO
Qureshi.
Population
Males
Females ...
(M.)
((?. E. 1881, para. 514; C. R. 1891, pag& 341)—
493 PuJAKis are all Hindus with the exception of 6 Jains. They have
621 turied mainly from Kebhthal and the Minor Simla Hill States,
functional term meaning a priest ofliciating at a tfetnple.
(C. B. 1881, para. 663)—
2922 PoKBi AS are mostly Hindus (only 98 Sikhs and 1 2 Muhammadans and have been
1,725 returned, nJore or less, everywhere except in a few districts and states. Purbia is
no caste, but a geographical term, used in the Punjab for all menial im-
migrants from the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh.
{C. B. 1881, para. 593; Cronhe's Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV, page 185) —
i'332 QAL4NDARS are mostly Muhammadans (only 35 Hindus) and have been returned
l'307 from all Divisions and from the Patiala and Nabha States. The word
means a holy Muhammadan who abandons the world and wanders about, bat it is
generally used in the Punjab for a monkeyman who leads about bears, monkeys
and other performing animals. Most of this class call themselves Fakirs.
(C. B. 1881, para. 647 ; Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV, page 190) —
Qassabs are almost all Muhammadans (only 10 Hindus and 2 Sikhs) and have
56,928 been returned from all parts of the Province (except the minor Simla Hill States,
Mandi and Suket). Qassab really means a butcht-r and the name is applied to
Muhammadan butchers, but it has also been adopted for a few Hindu and Sikh
butchers who are known as Jhatkai. The Qassabs have formed into a caste and
its membtirs follow various professions, such as, trade in goats and sheep, cottoa-
Bcutching and in some places even cultivation.
(C. R. 1881, para. 509a ; C. R. 1891, page 314)—
97 Qazii.bashk8 are all Muhammadans and have been returned mainly from the
122 Lndhiana, Lahore, and Lyallpur Districts. This t«rm is applied to the descendants
of certain Persian or Turkish tribes who came in with or after Nadir Shah. The
important Qazilbash family is that of the Nawabs at Lahore, who own plenty of
lundin Lahore and Lyallpur. Those in tlie Lndhiana District subsist on political
pensions and service in the Civil Department.
(C. R. 1881, 2iara. 502) —
oS'^i! QuBESHi is the tribe to which Muhammad, the t'rophet, belonged and conse-
33 509 quently the Qureshis are much respected for their sanctity. They have been
returned cliii'fly from the Jullundur, Lahore, Rawalpindi and Multan Divisions and.
the Bahawalpur State. Their chief occupation is agriculture, but they live agood
deal on charitable doles, and offerings from their disciples.
♦ Brihat Saitbita, by Vaitomihra, Chapter XIV, page 86.
XI.
473
GLOSSARY.
[ Punjab. 1911.
Eababis are Muhammadans (only 40 Sikhs and 1 Hindu). They have been
returned mainly from the Jullinidur, Lahore and Aniritsar Districts and the
Xapurthala and Patiala States. They are musicians, and are so called because they
play on the Kabdb (a stringed insti-ument). They are descendants of Bhai Mardana
and followers of Guru Nanak. They wear long hair, dress like tbe Sikhs
and do not intermarry with the Mirasis. They lecite Shabads from the Granth,
and beg alms only from ihe Sikhs and Hindus. They call themselves Guru
Nanak's Sikhs, and are yet good Muhammadans and bury their dead.
(C.R. 1881,, para. 549)—
Rahbaeis are almost all Hindus (only 8 Sikhs and 8 Muhammadans) and
have been returned mainly from the Delhi Division (except Simla) and the
Phulkian States. They are camel breeders and drivers of the eastern Punjab
whose original home appears to be in the deserts of Rajputana. Rahbari is probably
derived from Rahbar=carrier or guide.
(C. B. 1881, para. 630; Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV, jmge 208)—
Rajs are followers of the Hindu, Sikh and Muhammadan religions, and have
been returned from almost all parts, with the exceptiou of the south-western
Punjab. Raj is probably a functional term meaning a mason or bricklayer. The
caste is somewhat mixed up with the Lobars and Tarkhans who can take up the
work of a mason at their discretion.
181. EababL
Population 497
Males ... 291
Females ... 206
(M. S. H.)
182.
Rahbari.
Population
3,690
Males
1,931
Females ...
1.759
(H.S.M.;
183.
Raj.
Population
14,604
Males
7,382
Females ...
7,222
(H. S. M.)
Sya. — Batera, Memar,
Thavi,
(0. B. 1881, fiaras. 441 to 457 ; C. B. 1891, pages 338 and 342 ; C. B. 1901, pages 184. Rajput.
"'" ""' '^ '.".•' , ^ . ^, , .r„ Population 1,635,432
Males ... 898,023
318—324; Crooke's Trib„s and Castes, Vol. IV, page 217)—
Rajputs are Hindus, Sikhs and Muhammadans (only 14 Jains) and have been
returned from all parts of the Province. Their chief occupation is agriculture and
Government service, chiefly Military. The Rajputs are often spoken of as a tribe, but
it appears to be fairly well established by this time that the term represents the des-
cendants of tbe ruling families of different times. Rajput mt-ans the son of a ruler and
appears to have been u.=ed clearly to denote thehighest status amongst theKshattriyas,
It was natural that the ruling families of Kshattriyas should have formed an endogam-
0U8 group for the purpose of intermarriage, although the limitations were not
very rigid to begin with. But the grovvtli of the Kshattriya caste on the one
hand and the admission to that rank, on the other, of rulers of conquered countries,
led to the limits of this circle being sharply defined. As the members of the
Rajput families grew, those who actually ruled principalities had to confine their
intermarriage relations within narrower limits and the less important members of
the group had to be assigned a comparatively lower status. This process has
gone on for centuries and is still in operation in the Himalayas, where, for one
reason or another, sub-castes of a lower status, like Rathis, Rawatg, Thakkars, etc.,
have actually been separated into distinct castes and practically excluded from
the Rajput fraternity. On the other hand, the Ruling chiefs will, if possible, inter-
marry only with other Ruling chiefs or with such families as are known to have
enjoyed the distinction of ruler in the near past.
Whatever castes may have been admitted to the Rajput status, in consequence
of the prerogative of having ruled a tract of country, tliere can be little doubt
but that the nucleus of the Rajput caste consists of descendants of Kshattriya
chiefs.
So much has already been said about the social economy of the Rajputs that I
need hardly say anything on the subject. They are divided into two main classes
viz., the Surya Vanshis and Chandra Vanshis, and have been ascertained to
possess 3,586 sub-castes (See Appendix to Table XIII, Vol. III).
(C.B. 1881, para. 4,b8;C. R. 1901, pages S18 and 319) —
Rathis are almost all Hindus (only 8 Sikhs and 14 Muhammadans) and have
been returned mainly from the Himalayas — i.e., from Kangra, Mandi and Chamba.
They are considered to be degraded Rajputs and rank just below them.
(C. B. 1881, paras. 445 and 458)— 196
Most of the Rawats are Muhammadans, there being 1,111 Hindus and 42 Sikhs.
These have been returned mainly from the Karnal and Ambala Districts, tho
JuUundur Division (except Kangra) andtheKalsia, Nahan, Kapurthala, MalerKotla
and the Phulkian States. Rawats also appear as a sub-caste of Jats and Rajputs.
Their chief occupation is agriculture, but they rank somewhat lower than Rathis.
{O.B. 1881, para. 659) —
Rehaes are all Hindus and have been returned from Simla, Kangra, Koonthal,
the minor Simla Hill States and Chamba. Rebar is an outcaste who is much
dreaded as a sorcerer, makes trinkets worn by Gaddi women ami furnishes music
at Gaddi weddings. This caste appears to be closely allied to Dumna, although
the two will not interdine.
Females ... 737,409
(H. S. M. J.)
S}-n.—iIian (in Hills),
Sanghar, Ihakkar,
185.
Rathi.
Population 97,798
Males ... 51,129
Females .. 46,669
(H. S. M.)
Rawat (Eaot)
Population 15,419
Males ... 8,652
Females .. 0,767
(H. S. M.)
187.
Rehar (Rehara).
Population 1,438
Males ... 735
Females ... 703
(H.)
Census Report. J
474
GLOSSARY.
Chaptbh
isa Ror (C. R. 1881, para. 476)—
iWes* ""^ 23' 121 Robs are mostly Hindus, there being only 308 Sikhs and 14 Miihammadans.
Females ... IS^aiO They have been returned from the Rohtak, Delhi and Karnal Districts and the
(H. S. M.) jimj State ; those returned from Ambala being immigrants. The real seat of the
tribe is in the great Dhak jungles south of Thanesar in the Karnal District. They
claim a Rajput origin and their social status is the same as that of Jats. Their
chief occupation is agriculture and they have boen declared an agricultural
tribe in the districts of Rohtak, Delhi and Karnal.
The above figures include 214 males and 204 females returned under Aroras
opposite Rohtak in Imperial Table XIII, which has since been found to belong
to Rors. These persons liave been returned mostly from one village Jawahra
in the Gohana Tahsil of the Rohtak District.
189.
190
191
(0. R. 18S1, para. 484)—
63085 Sainis are mostly Hindus and Sikhs, there being only 400 Muhammadans.
49,634 They have been returned chiefly from the Delhi, Karnal, Ambala, and Lyallpur
Districts, the Jullundur and Lahore Divisions, and the Kalsia, Nahan, Nalagarh,
Mandi, Kapurthala and Patiala States. They are hardy cultivators akin to Malia
but of a better social standing as they own land aud are seldom mere market
gardeners.
(C. R. 1881, jmra. 625 ; Grnnkes Tribes and Cades, Vol. IV, page 257)—
'813 Saiqalgars are Hindus, Sikhs and Muhammadans and have been returned
732 mostly from the Delhi Division (except Simla), the Jullundur and Multan Divisions,
the Lahore and Ravralpindi Districts, the Nahan, Patiala and Bahasvalpur States.
Syn.—BhandeJa ',m Nahan). gg^jq^jg^j, j^ ^ purely functional term used for armourers and burnishers of
metal. They are looked upon as a low caste, but claim to be Lobars.
Sahnsar (Sansar)- (C R. 188 J, fara. 563 a)—
iy,j Sahnsabs are all Muhammadans and have been returned mainly from the
116 Hoshiarpur District and Patiala State. They rank with the Arains, but claim to
be Punwar Rajputs, who were driven by poverty a few generations back to work-
ing in grass and growing vegetables.
(C. li. 1881, para. 563 a)—
108 Sangtarashes are almost all Hindus (only 9 Muhammadans) and have been
J06 returned mainly from the Kangra District. It is a functional term meaning
stone-cutter or sculptor,
198. SansL __^ (G. R. 1881, para. 577; C. R. 1891, page 342; Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV,
page 277)-—
Sansis are Hindus f23,585), Sikhs (557) and Muhammadans (2,848) and have
been returned, more or less, from all parts (except Simla, Mianwali, Muzaffargarh,
Dera Ghazi Khan, Dujana, Pataudi, Nahan, Simla Hill States, Mandi and Sukeb).
It is a vagrant and criminal tribe.
R
Saini-
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. S. M.)
Saiqalgar.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. S. M.)
Population
Males
Females
m.)
192. Sangtarash.
Population
Uales
Females ...
(H. M.)
Sansi.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. S. M.t
26,990
14,863
12,127
194
Sapela.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. M. S.)
Syn. — Sapenda, Safiadha
Sapiara.
993
658
335
(C.
195. Sarera (Sarehra)
lu,743
5,779
Population
Males
Females ...
(II. a M.)
196. Satti.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. M.)
191 Sayad.
Population
Males
Females .,
CM.)
Syn. — Fir, Pirzada
1881, para. 563 a)—
Sapblas are almost all Hindus (only 81 Muhammadans and 1 Sikh) and have
been returned principally from the Delhi Division (except Ambala and Simla),
the Lahore and Gujrat Districts and the Nahan and Patiala States. They are snake
catchers and charmers by profession, and although a separate caste now, yet
they appear to have come from one of the vagrant tribes.
{C.R. 1 881, para. 656)—
Saeeras are mostly Hindus, the number of Sikhs and Muhammadans being
' 1,322 and 30 respectively. They have been returned mostly from Kangra, Hoshiar-
pur, Gurdaspur Districts and the Charabaand Simla Hill States. In the hills, they
scutch cotton like the Penja or Dhunia of the plains and are also largely employed
as field labourers. They are outcastes of a very low status.
,g_3,g (C.ii. 1881, para. 453)-
9,769 SATTisare almost all Muhammadans (only 60 Hindus) and have been returned
^•^^^ mainly from Rawalpindi. They are an agricultural tribe and are said to be Raj-
puts. Indeed 718 Muhammadans and 9 Hindus have actually entered themselves
as Rajput by caste and Satti by sub-caste.
247,388 [C. R. 1881, para. 515 ; Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV, page 301) —
131,952 Sayad is a well known Muhammadan agricultural tribe, found scattered through-
115,396 Qy^ ,}jg Province except Bilaspur State. It is the holiest of the foreign tribes, the
title being rightly applied only to the descendants of the Prophet through his
daughter Fiitima and son-in-law Ali. Bat the Sayads of to-day obviously contain a
very large mixture of Indian blood, partly by marrying wives from the Indian
Muhammadans o£ other castes and partly by the tendency of the lower castes to
step gradually into the folds of ihat holy class, j ,
XI.
475
GLOSSAUY.
[ Punjab, 1911.
The Sayads are a hypergamous group who will not give their daughter
in marriage to any one except a Sayad or Qureshi, but do not mind taking
wives from other castes or tribes. The majority of them are naturally Shias, but
there are a few exceptioris in which Sayads living in tracts with a strong Sunni
influence pass as Sunnis, although, perhaps at heart they are Shias all the same.
As a rule,, they are lazy cultivators and depend more upon their income from
Piri Muridi, i.e., dues received as holy people, than on agriculture.
(C. R. 1881, paras. 649 and 657)— 198.
Sepis are all Hindus and have been returned from the Chamba State alone.
It is an occupational term meaning field labourer. The Sepi being a low class
menial is generally classed with Dagis and Kolis, but he does not stoop low
enough to do scavenging.
(C. R. 1881, paras. 501 and 502 ; C. B. 1891, page S4,2 ; Crooke's Tribes and 199.
Castes, Vol. IF, jMge 314) —
Sheikhs (all Muhammadans) are met with everywhere in the Province.
Sheikh means learued and the term was originally applied to holy immigrants
from Arabia, bat it came to be used for converts from Hinduism, 'fhe Sheikhs
have been ascertained to include 1,068 Pub-castes. Of these, the main sub-castes : —
Qureshi (95,267), Faruqi (3,481), Sadiqi (67,'252), Ansari (8,047), Mahajarin
(174), Qui-eshi Sadiqi (1,463), Qureshi Hashmi (30), total=175,714 would appear
to be of foreign origin, with minor sub-castes such as Abbasi (966), Bani Israil
(105), Ghauri (1,289), Hashmi (508), Hussaini (380), Jilani fl42), Khilji (233),
Elhurasani (31), Lodhi (40), Usmani (1,053), Yusafzai (41), Shirazi (37), although
it is very difficult to say how far the assumption of high sounding titles by the
members of these sub-castes is genuine. The remaining Sheikhs are, of course,
local converts.
Sepi.
Population
1,851
Males
958
Females ...
895
CH.)
Syn.— HoI»
Sheikh
Population
338,873
Males
187,378
Females ...
151,495
(M.)
Syn.— Dindar,
Nau-
Muslim,
200.
[129) and have been returned
and Jind. They are salt
201
Shoragar.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. M.)
Syn. — Nungar.
Sirkiband.
Population
Males
Female'? ...
(H. S. M.)
Syn.'^-Chhaparband,
Chikband, Kuchland,
Kuchgar, Rachhband.
Sud.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. S. M.)
(C.fi. 1881, para. 639)—
Shoraqaes are Hindus (658) and Muhammadans
from Hissar, Kohtak, Kangra, Hcshiarpur, Patiala
workers and are identical with Nungar.
(C. R. 1881, para. 563 a ; G. R. 1891, page 317) —
SiEKiBANDs are followers of Hindu, Sikh and Muhammadan religions and
have been returned mainly from the Delhi Division (except Simla), and the
Ferozepore, Gujranwala, Rawalpindi, Montgomery and Multan Districts and the
Jind State. It is an obscure caste occupied mostly in thatching, etc. The follow-
ing entries have been grouped under this head :^Uhhaparband, Chikband, Gawaria,
Ghirdmi, Kuchband, Rachhband, Kuchgar. Most of them belong to outcaste
and vagrant classes.
(G. fi. JSSl.^jara. 537; 0. R. 1801, pxge 342 ; Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV, 202
page 331) —
With the exception of 888 Sikhs and 3 Muhammadans, the Suds are
all Hindus and are found in the eastern and central Punjab. Sud is probably
a corruption of Sut, which according to Manu, was a mixed caste, descended
from a Kshattriya father and Brahman mother, with the traditional occupation of
groom or coachman. The present Suds are, however, a class of traders and clerks.
In social position they are inferior to Khatris or Banias.
(C. R. 1831, jjara. 634 ; G. R. 1901, page 309 ; Crooke's Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV, 203. Sunar,
page 332)—
Sonars are Hindus, Sikhs and Musalmans (only 8 Jains and 1 Budhist)
and have been returned from all parts of the Province. They are the gold and
silver smiths, as well as the jewellers of the Province. Sunar (Swarnakar) is no
doubt a functional term, although for generations the group has been treated
as a separate caste. The members are, however, trying now to obtain Rajput
and Khatri status.
(C R. 1381, para. 477; Crooke's Tribes a'ld Castes, Vol. IV, page 351) — ■
Taqahs are both Hindus and Muhammadans (only 10 Sikhs) and have been
returned mainly from the Gurgaon, Delhi, Karnal and Ambala Districts. Tagaiis,
whose origin is said to be Brahmanic, are recognized members of an agricultural
tribe in the above mentioned districts. (They should be distinguished from
Tagus or Criminal Brahmans of the same tract).
(C. iJ. 1881, vara. 415)- 205. Tajik.
^ > r J Population
Tajiks are apparently the original inhabitants of Persia. The word is used Males
throughout Afghanistan to denote Persian-speaking people who are not Sayad,
Afghan or Hazara. They are immigrant traders who had no females with them
787
531
256
3,351
1,816
1,538
20,645
11,365
9,280
Population
Males
Females ..
(H. S. M. J. B.)
Syn. — Zargar.
158,318
85,587
72,731
204.
Tagah.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H. M. S.)
Females
*M.)
13,223
7,323
5,900
23
23
Census Report, ]
476
GLOSSARY.
Chaptee
206,
m.
Tamboli.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H.M.)
Tanaoli.
Population
Males
Females ...
(M.)
208. Tarkhan.
Population
Males
Females ..
(H. 8. M. B. J.)
8ya.—Badhi, Baihai, Kha-
radgar^ Khoradia, Khati^
Ramgarhia, Hajjar.
and have been returned from the Ferozepore, Eawalpiudi, Jhang and Dera Ghazi
Khan Districts,
g^^ (C. B. 1831, para. 555)—
590 Tambous are Hindus and Mnhamniadans and have been returned chiefly
257 from Delhi, Karnal, Anibala, Simla, Kangra, Lndhiana, I'erozepore, Lahore,
Rawalpindi and Multau Districts and the Nahac and Patiula States. They are
mostly immigrants from the United Province. Tamboli is a functional term mean-
ing a seller of betel leaves.
(0. iJ. 188),pora. 414)—
Tanaolis have been returned only from Attock and Lahore. It is an indua-
*6 trious and peaceful tribe of cultivators who claim their descent from Amir Khan,
a Barlas Moghal, whose sous crossed the Indus some four centuries ago and settled
in the Tanawal tract of Hazara.
(C. E. 1881, para. 627 ; CrooWs Trihen and Castes, Vol. I, page 190)—
356,'540 Taekhans are Hindus, Sikhs and Wuhammadans (only 23 Budhists and 5
2«9,790 JaiDs) and are found all over the Province except the Baglial State.
Ill
65
They are carpenters and masons and are not easily distinguishable from the
Lobar. They are known as Barhai, Badhi and Khati as well. Like the Lobar
the Tarkhan is an indispensable village artisan.
(C. B. 1881, para. 647 ; Croolce's Tribes and Castes, Vol, IV, -page 371)—
Telis are all Muhammadans with the esception of 3,038 Hindus and 33
209. TeU.
Population 295,971.
Females ... 133,527 Sikhs, and have been returned ironi all parts of the Province (except the Jubbal,
iH. s. M.) Bashahr and Keonthal States). Teli means an oil-pretfer, but the caste is of old
8yn,— Cidli (in Multan "" - . . . . _ . . _ .. _
Division), Sabansat.
210.
Thakkar.
Population
Males
Females ...
(H M.S. B.)
S^'U.— Rajput.
6.982
4,051
211. Thathiar(Thatyar).
Population 4,074
Males ... 2,220
Females ... 1,854
(H.S.M.B.)
Syn. — Thatera.
212- Thori.
Population 16,451
Males .. 8,903
Females ... 7,548
(H.S.M.B.)
218
Toba.
Population
Males
Females ...
(M. H.)
214 Turk.
Population
Hales
Females ...
(M.)
standing and of about the same status as the Julaha. In Multan and Muzaffar-
garh, the Teli is called Chaki,
(C. B. 1881, 'para. 458)—
Thakeaks are almost all Hindus (onh- 75 Muliammadare, ore Sikh and one
o'gai Budhist) and have been returned chiefly from Delhi and Gurdaspur Districts and
the Mandi, Suket and Chamba States. In the hills, Thakkars are degraded Rajputs,
but a large number of them have succeeded in returning themselves as Rajput by
caste and Thakkar by sub-caste. In the western Punjab, Thakkar is the title of
the priests of river-worshippers. Thakur is now being adopted by high caste
Rajputs as a title of honour and is replacing the epithet of Mian which is discard-
ed as being a Muhammadan designation. The two words Thakkar and Thakur are
often confused.
(C. B. 1881 , para. 637 ; Croohe's Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV, page 407)—
Thathiaks are Hindus, Sikhs and Muhammadans (only 24 Budhiets) and
have been returned from almost every unit. It is a functional term and is
used for one who makes vessels of copper, brass and other mixed metai, while the
Kascra is the man who sells them. The two occupations overlap each other.
{C.B. 1881, i^ara. 576)—
Thoris are all Hindus (only 8 Budhists) with the exception of 510 Sikhs and
378 Muhammadans returned in the Patiala and Bahawalpur States respectively.
They have been returned mainly from the Hissar and Ferozepore Districts and
the Nahan, Pfitiala and Bahawalpur and Simla Bill States. It is a hill caste of
carriers of merchandise on pack animals, mostly bullocks.
(C. B. 1881, para. 563 a)—
ToBAs are almost all Muhammadans (only 1 Hindu) and have been returned
mainly from the Lahore, Gnjranwala, Jhang Districts and the Kapurthala State.
Toba literally means a diver; but members of the caste dig and clean wells
as well. The Tobas generally belong to the Jhinwar or Machhi caste and are
often fishermen as well as well-sinkers.
[C. E. 1881, para. 506 ; Croohe's Tribes and Castes, Vol. IV,page 415)—
gg4 Turks are all Muhammadans. The term means a native of Turkistan belong-
167 ing to Mongolian race. The Turks are found here and there in small numbers,
and those of the Gurdaspur District, where their number is large, are said to be
ropemakers by occupation.
S69
325
244
21.003
11,179
9,824
{C. B. 1881, para. 517 ; C. E. 189), page 318)—
215. Ulama.
Population
Males
Females .. _ ^
„ ?'^- w ,, miscellaneous collection of people, many of whom cannot claim to have aiiy prTestlv
Any person learned in the tenets of Islfim may claim
plural of which is ' Ulama,' also spelt Ulema — the learne
the title of ' 'Alim,' the
ned men. This group is a
Syn.-
ilullcnu,Qa:i. character. The entries come mostly from the Lahore, Rawalpiudi and Multan
Divisions, the JuUnndur District and the Maler Kotla Stale.
XI.
477
SOBSIDIARY TABLES.
[ Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE I.
Castes classified according
to their traditional occupations.
I
u «
0 C
b
5.S o i
Gbotjp and Caste.
■2 S
.2 °
Geodp and Caste.
iion
of
latio
rovi
at. 5
■£ £
3^
tc-.^
t: » d B< 1
|i
o —
2 J=
i °
ropo
mill
pop
the
CJQ
Pm
w
PL,
1
2
3
1
2
3
Agricultnrists
11,607
480
Carriers by pack animals * ...
29
1
(a) Landholders
21
1
Barbers (N^i)
350
14
v6) Cultivatore (including growers of special
10,666
441
Washermen (Dhobi)
156
6
products).
Jat
4,957
^,
Weavers and dyers ...
1,014
42
Rijp^t
1,635
Arain
87S
Julihi
635
Biloch
532
Kashmiri ...
178
Awin
426
Chhimb4 ...
129
Kanet
404
Others
72
Pathan
292
Kamboh
172
Tailors (Darzi;
36
1
(ihirath
171
Meo
130
Carpenters
648
27
Saini
113
Mali
104
Tarkhau ...
646
Mughal
99
Others
2
Katbi
!)8
Maliar
90i ;
[',
Masons * ...
IE
1
Qiiresoi ... ... ... .".;
71
Khokhar ...
60
58
•
-
Potters (Kumhar) ...
550
23
Others
276
..
Glass and lac workers*
2
(c) Cultivators and cattle rearers (graziers) ...
920
3S
Blacksmiths
329
14
Oujar
610
huh&r
• 323
Ahfr
209
Others ... ... ...
6
Dogar ... .. ...
68
Others
33
..
Gold and silver smiths (Sunir)
158
7
Labonrers*
29
1
Brass and copper smiths (Thathiir)
4
...
Graziers and dairymen *
57
2
Confectioners and grain parchers *
14
1
Fishermen, boatmen and palki bearers ...
753
31
Oil pressers (Teli) ...
296
12
Jhinwar
360
Distillers*
34
1
Machhi
280
MalUh
Others
78
35
.
..
Butchers (Qassab) ...
Leather workers ...
120
1,587
5
66
Hunters and fowlers
135
6
UU
Mahtam
82
rharaar ... ... ... ...
1,129
Others
63
•
••
Mdchi
Others
419
39
...
Priests and devotees
1,395
58
Brahniau ...
1,018
Basket workers and mat makers
126
5
Sjiyitd ... ... ... ..]
247
..
Jopi ... ...
55
Dumna
79
Others
75
.
..
Others
47
• •■
Temple servants * ■••
5
Earth, salt, etc, workers * ...
47
8
Genealogists and Bards (Bh4t>
37
1
Domestic servants *
39
3
Astrologers *
29
1
Village watchmen and menials
86
3
Writers (Kiyasth) ...
13
1
Barwala
Others*
64
22
Musicians, singers, dancers and acrobats
340
14
.Mirasi ... ... ... ^^.
227
Sweepers ..,
1,494
■65
fhnrii ... ... ... _""_
58
Others
55
Chuhrii
MuhshIH
926
310
...
Traders and pedlers
2,035
84
DAgi and Koli
175
• ••
Aiora
674
Dlianak
83
Khatri
433
.'
Bunia
404
Others
619
26
Sheikh
339
Khoja ... ... „ ""
G3
Faqir ... ... ... ...
280
...
Others ... ... ... [[[
122
Dhristian ...
Others
200
139
...
* Mo caste contributes more than 2 per mille of the total population.
Census Report, ]
478
SUBSIDIiEY TABLES.
Chapter
SUBSIDIARY TABLE II.
Variation in caste, tribe, since 1881-
Caste ob Tmbe.
Ahfr
ArAin
Arori
Awac
Baoia
Barwils .
Bharai
Bilooh
Brahman .
10 Chamir ,
11 Chhimbi ..
12 Cbuhri
13 D4gi and Koli
14 Bbanak
15 Dhobi
16 Dogar
17 Dnmni
18 Faqir
19 Gbirath
20 Gujar
21 Jat
22 Jhinwar „
23 Jogi-Bawal and Jogi ••
24 JuUhi
25 Eamboh
26 Kanet
27 Kasbmiri
2S Khatri
29 Khoja
30 Kbokbar
31 Kumhir
32 Lab&nA
33 Lohir
34 M4chhi
35 Mabtam
36 M&li
37 Mali4r
38 Ma)14h
39 Meo
40 Mirisi
41
42
43
44
45
Mochi
Mughal
MiiBsalU
Nil
Patb&n
4G Qaeeib
47 Qureshi
48 RAthi
40
50
51
52
53
54
55
Rajput
Saini
Say ad
Sheikh
Sunir
Tarkhia
TeU
Persons (OOO's omittbd).
1911,
209
978
674
426
404
64
58
532
1,018
1,129
129
926
175
83
156
68
79
280
171
610
4,957
360
83
635
172
404
178
433
63
60
550
58
323
280
82
104
90
78
130
227
410
98
310
350
292
120
71
98
1,63b
113
247
339
158
646
296
1901.
205
1,007
653
421
452
69
66
468
1,123
1,208
152
1,189
155
77
147
75
59
386
170
632
4,942
460
76
657
174
390
193
436
99
lOS
669
56
351
236
83
113
81
73
147
247
415
98
e7
376
264
118
53
38
1,798
127
238
321
177
681
322
1891.
1881.
196
889
570
369
442
64,
67
359
1,107
1,178
145
1,188
170
74
139
70
69
313
174
614
4,430
468
91
625
151
370
196
419
9(1
130
515
55
323
189
57
Pebcentacb of tabiation
inobkask (-f ) oicbease (-).
1901-1911,
1891-1901.
173
795
512
332
437
55
56
311
1,069
1,066
103
1,052
176
66
124
63
71
114
160
552
4,167
426
90
586
130
346
152
393
62
36
467
47
291
161
52
181 66
Not available.
■7
121
229
380
118
62
116
192
332
92
Not available.
357 324
195 188
108 92
Not available.
101 85
1,759
125
215
332
163
618
301
1,662
US
200
336
145
563
261
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
1-5
2-9
3-3
11
10-5
7-3
111
13-8
9-3
6-6
14-6
221
13-1
7-6
6-0
— 8-8
+ 34-1
— 27-5
+ -6
— 3-3
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
3
21-7
10-2
33
•9
1881-1891
3-6
7-9
•9
36 6
444
3-3
34
77
183
1-2
8*2
10-9
6 3
11-2
81
11
•3
+ 436-2
— 6-9
+ 10-8
+ 1-2
+ 33-9
+ 154-2
— 90
— 110
+ 3-8
+ 5-4
— 10-6
_ 5-0
— 7-9
+ 4-6
+ 13-3
+ 14-6
+ 14-2
+ 2-3
+ 7-6
— 1-9
+ 30-2
+ 1-4
+ 2-6
+
+
+
+
4-8
•1
8-8
5-2
5-6
+ 7-7
— 14-9
+ 23-3
— 20
4- 2-9
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
13-5
11-8
11-3
11-0
II
165
20-0
15-7
3-5
10-5
40'0
12-9
3-7
11-5
12-5
Percent-
age OF NET
VARIATION
1881-1911
+ 11-5
- 1-7
— 17-2
+ 5-1
+ 15-3
+ 5-4
— 1-3
+ 4-2
+ 10-4
— 16-9
+ 10-4
+ 2-3
+ 8-7
+ 25-0
+ 45 4
— 37-7
+ 10-1
— 2-2
+ 174-9
+ 8-3
+ 11-1
+ 6-3
+ 8-7
+ 1-4
+ 6-6
+ 16-5
+ 6-9
+ 29-1
+ 6-6
+ 44-7
+ 264-7
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
20-5
230
31-7
28-3
7-5
163
4-7
71-4
4-8
5-9
+ 25-2
— 12-0
— -6
+ 26-2
+ 25-8
+ S-2
+ 11-5
+ 1458
+ 6-8
+ 10-5
19"
15-6
7-5
8-3
33-1
+
+
+
+
+
10-4
15-8
10-9
171
8-9
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
16-8
17-4
10-1
12
68-3
+ 18-0
+ 22-4
+ 112
+ 73-2
+ 56-4
+ 176-0 +
*Not available.
— 5-3 I + 25-6 + i:6-4
+ 21-6 + 3-7 4- 12-9
+ 8-2 + 19-4 + 18-7
+ 91 + 14-7 + 265
— 16-9 + 29 2 + 7-7
•Not available
+ 5-6 + 10-1 I + 8-2
+ 35-6 + 3-7 I + 55 8
+
9-2 + 18-5 I +
Not available.
30-8
— 61'9
+ 2-2
+ 11
+ 10-6
— 3-3
+ 8-7
+ 101
+ 6-8
• No entries in the prerious of the two decades compared
+
+
+
+
+
18-5
5-8
17-9
7-8
1-1
12-5
9-8
15-7
+ 14-8
— 16
— 26-1
+
+
+
+
+
23 8
-8
9-3
14-8
13-6
XL
479
SUB8IDIART TABLES.
[ Punjab, 1911-
SUBSIDIARY TABLE III-
Instances of sub-castes of different types.
Sub- caste.
Sub-caste.
Sub-caste.
Sub-caste.
Sub-cnste.
Sub-c»ste.
Sub-caste.
l.-GOTEAS.
Aggaxwal—
Brahman—
Kashab
Jat-
( Sindal
Eajput—
Parasar
Bhirgo
Atii
Markande
Bhardwaj
Lobar—
Agastmuni
Sandal
Garafc
Bashiaht
Sandal
Garg
Bashisht
Atri
Sheikh-
Kisliab
Bhigirthi
Chuhra—
Kashab
Bhirdwij
Bashisht
Bhirdwij
Sindal
Bh4rdw4i
Bhardwij
Sandal
Garg
Bhagirath
Sunar—
Ahir-
Bharg
Bashisht
Khatri—
Kasbab
Bhardwij
Bashisht
Bhardwi]
Bhargo
Kishab
Bashisht
Mussalli—
Garg
Bhirdwij
Kiaab
Garg
Sandal
Gotam
Kishab
Sandal
Kashab
Koshal
Koshal
2.-BESIDENCE IN A LOCALITY.
Aggarwal—
Daryai
Dogra
KoUchi
Ropar
Saodhari
MnltAni
Uadea
Dashtaini
Farnkhabadi
Lahori
Saharan
Lahauri
NagoriA
Biwalia
Dhaui
Gadt.ii
Liah
Sangar
VAgri
NAlagarh
Dhami
Dogra
Qangapuri
Mandi
Lohar—
Bajput—
NepAl
Dogar
Ghazlani
Gorkha
Mandial
Arab
Ajmeria
Pahari
Jangal
Isikheli
Gangia
Marhatt4
Arbi
Ambale
Pashawn"
Qanauji
Janglina
Ghansi
Mogiana
Bigar
Bagri
PhagwarA
Thai
Kalachi
Kalaia
Multini
Bigri
BanArsi
Purbia
Ahir-
Karnsli
Karnil
Nihanwal
Balkhi
BarnAla
Qanauj
Andorii
Karori
Marbatta
Paghwara.
Bangri
Barsare
Sanghar
Bigari^
Kashmiri
Mewati
Panjibi
Bhutan
Basera
SanglA
B4gEi
Khur4sani
Multani
Pardeei
Chakwal
Chakwil
Sheikh-
Deswal
Lahori
PaDJ4bi
Patodi
Chatril
Chambah
Arbi
Ganga
Ludhiini
Purbii
Purbia
Beai
Chambial
BagdAdi
(jangnw&i
Mnltani
Paqir—
Qandhari
Deswal
Daska
Bagri
Gharwal
Noahera
Arbi
Shahpara
DeswAi;
DeswAl
Balkb
Hinsi
Pashawari
B4garia
Thanesar
Gang!
Dhini
BangAli
Hindastiui
Sindhi
Bagdadi
Vagri
Gangotri
Dhanial
BasrA
Phagwiri
Tatiii
Bangali
Khatri—
Guler
Dogra
BukhAri
Purbia
Zangi
Bukhar;
Balgeria
H4nsi
Gaddi
Desi
S^arii
Brahman—
Deswali
Bangar
Jamw41
Gang!
Deswal
Thai
Andauria
Dogr4
Bardwani
Jhang
Gangotra
Farsi
Awan—
Bangali
Gaznawi
Basi
Kangri
GharwAI
Hindustani
Bangar
m&s
Lahorii
Bhigal
Kingri
Gohana
JagAdhri
Bbarochi
Dakhshani
Mashahdi
Bhungihlia
Kashmiri
GojarwAl
Kalsia
Chakwa!
Desi
Multani
Desi
Lahoria.
Gujrati
Lahori
Ohaniwar
Dbami
Nepali
Deswi!
MarhattS
Gurkha
MewAti
Darya
Dogra
Pothohari
Dbaniwal
Multani
Harnirpurii
Multani
Desi
Ganga
Qandhari
Dhanni
Panjabi
Hansi
Panjabi
Dogri
Gangotre
Jat-
Gaddi
Parbat
Harat
Purbia
Ghebo
Hardawarl
Bangri
Gangotri
Qanauji
Indorii
Sham Churdsi
Jamwal
.Tamuadasi
Baroda
Gujrati
Saharan
JAngli
Shirazi
J4iigl4
Jamwal
Chakwil
Kanoja
Sihiwal
Kalsi*
Sunar-
Jhajar
Kashmiri
Chan4b
Kashmiri
SiAlkoti
Kanpilr
Bangali
Kochi
Lahori
Daryai
Kharar
Vahgal
Kashmiri
Bhera
Kotl^
MahAraahtar
Oesi
Mahlog
Machhi—
Kharar
Dehli
Lihori
MarLatta
Deswil
Maj itha
Chachar
Lahauria
Desi
Mashihdi
Purbia
Db4ki
Mandial
Desi
MaghiAni
DeswAli
Obhechar
Pnshkarni
Gangwili
Marahti
Hansi
Mahdpuri
Kashmiri
Pakhril
Qauauji
Garwil
MArwAri
Jamwal
Malikand
Kenthal
Panjabi
Sdgnr
Godawari
Mathre
Kangri
MandiAl
Kharar
Pothw4ri
Saharan
H4nsi
Nahan
W ultAni
MandiwAI
Lahori
Sindhi
Chuhra—
Hardawir
Pahari
MandiAl
MarhattA
Multani
Biloch—
B4gari4
Hariana
Panjabi
Mussalli—
Markanda
Nagari
AfghAni
Bisrai
Hazard
Purbia
Dakhni
Masuri
Panjabi
Arab
Bangali
Jhnnsi
Qandhari
Dogara
Mawati
Patodia
Aspani
Desi
Kabli
Jangali
Mewar
Pnrbia
Bagdidi
Deswal
Kandiwal
Kalachi
MogA
Djani
3.-
OCCUPATION
r.
Aggarwal—
Oawuiia
Bahishti
MohanA
Bnzdir
TalwAr
Prohat
Jotshi
Jar4h
Bhatiarih
Mullan
Chharimar
Brahman—
PujAri
Nai
Liinia
Chaki
Munshi
Chnrigar
AchAraj
SArwani
Shakardar
Nai
Chnmrang
NonerA
Dasi
Aganhotri
Talwari
Tami>li
Nunwiil
Charoh4
Nunari
Jarri
A ttnr
Tamoli
Vaish
Panwalia
Cliurigar
Pindi
K4mr4
ChaterA
Tell Kaja
Ahir—
Qizi
Gandhi
Q4zi
Kharich
DAnumAr
Chuhra—
Ajarwiih
Samp
Uhosi
Senga
LakhirA
GopAl
AspAl
BttChhowali
Sepra
Gowalii
Sunari
Madari
Joshi
Chamru
Baebhwari4
SodigHF
Hajjim
Zamindar
Mahtar
Jotshi
Chhnpriband
Dalai
Uliua
Jarah
Biloch—
Mnll&ni
Lakhere
ChiriniAr
Dhakpnchh
Zamindar
Khishatband
Baghwani
Nnn4ri
Lobar
DAlwAn
Gawala
Awan—
Loni
Bandar Chhir
Sdrwan
NAgpAl
Gawalia
Gawilbansi
B&tiud4
Mahi
Bhand
Shntarbin
FAdhe
Hadphor
Gawalia
Bighban
Makhdum
Mashki
Bhanjri
Slid
PA.KlhA
HAndi
Uajam
Census Report,]
480
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE III.
Instances of sub-castes of different tj-pes-^continued.
Subcaate.
Sub-caste,
Sub-caste.
Sub-c&ste,
Sub-caste.
Sub-caste,
3.— OCCUPATION— coriciudeJ.
Cbnhra — concld,
K4tni
Lohtia
Loni&
Mahiw^l
Pad he
UntwM
Uthw41
Vangra
Paqir—
Beldir
Chirimar
Daiban
Gawilii
Jadugar
Kunjidar
Langri
Nag4rcbi
Noniri
Rajp41
Rnmmil
Sarwan
Jat-
Ajili
Bachhw41
Bangiil
Ba^iti
Dalai
Gindhi
Gilt
Gopil
Goras
GowaIi4
Hali
Kharad
Lakberi
Lakhi
Langar
Mftkhdam
Mflabki
Mistri
Nagarpdl
Nitak
Ncn
Nor4r
P41i
Pandi
Patoi
Pujari
Rachhbandi
QaBS&i
Raskin
Qizi
Rathwal
Rachhpal
Sapila
Ragi
Lobar—
Ranial
Ahangar
Bhakari
Ahni
Dntwal
G^budi
Zamindar
Joshi
Khatri—
Kardgar
BB7.az
Kbaras
Chirimir
Rhuribnnd
Gahi
Koftgar
O^hndi
Lakhii-i
Gawil
Langar
Gochar
Lohi
Langri
LohiA
Lnbanii
Nonari
Loh&ri
Pahde
Qinngo
Paiidat
V&M
Qazi
r4ndi
Taksalia
Pathere
Vahdi
Macbbi—
Chamrong
Cliirimar
G4ndhi
Khirkash
Lakher&
Mahi
Mihigir
Mishki
Nun
Nnn4ri
Rangrez
Mussalli—
Heldir
Bona
Chliapriban
Golandaz
• inrjniar
H&lu
Met
Nun
Sapadh
Eajput—
Bbangar
B hagwan
C hitiniar
Chobdar
DaUl
Dariiib&f
Gawali
Hatirii
Kardwil
iUihi
Mahigir
Mabiwal
Niin
>iaiw41
Nonari
Nun
Nungar
Ontwil
Pit.di
Patwe
Shakardir
Sod4gar
Takeal
Vahi
Chapter
Sub-caate.
Zamindir
Sbeikb—
Bahishii
Bazaz
Beopiri
Bh^nd
Charam-froeh
Charmi
Gadigar
Jahazi
Palledar
Pandhi
Qazi
Sarif
Suigar
Sodigar
Sunar-
Dalai
Nongar
Nuuiri
Qazi
Rammal
S4rw^Q
4.— VAHIATION IN SOCIAL PBACTICES.
Bajput—Gati, Mahton. | Eanet— Barogra, Karouok.
5— STATUS.
Aggarwal—
Anbri
Niiikbadshihi
Cbuba
Bans
Sarbmukhi
Chohra
Bahadar
Uadgotre
Nanga
Dalla
Cbam
Seth
Darg4hi
Barbia
Bbagat
Pandit
Dangar
Chatnere
Sethi
D4rog4
Mehtar
Bhup&l
Piposh
Uarwun
Chaudhri
Sinah
Ghoreharhe
KajbanB
Bbusban
Rafiq
Dev
Chhann4
Tahvir
Gborewdh
Rajkumir
Brahmchiri
Faqir—
Fojdar
Chhapar
Lobar—
Gole
K^ishihi
Hir4
Ban micas
Ganja
Chhat
Babrl4
Jaikarii
'Ibikar
Kanphata
Charandasi
Gidar
Chhattri
Bahadr4
Karchbi
Ahir-
Litlii
Chharimir
GcU
Chhatw41
Bhupal
Katwal
Balwan
Mehti
DfndAr
Guru
Cbunda
Uanwesh
Mahant
Balwani
Pandit
Diwana
Hiirdil
Dal4wari
Macbbi—
Mah4r4ja
Cbandarbansi
Puran
Dudhdhiri
Hijri
D4uddohna
Chanchal
Mahta
Cbandhn
Rai
Gborcharhe
Kaliadi
Dandwadh
Chuhra
Mi4ii
Gawil Katan
Kaj Probat
.Iholiehak
Katnin
Datigwal
D;nd4r
Munshi
Jadubansi
Ram pal
Kaliposh
Khnrwil
Dewane
Giida
N4g
Krishanbauai
Ranp4l
Kunjidar
Kuclnili
Dhaighar
Name
Nanga
Mukhia
Ratanp&l
Lncha
L4tha
Dbarnii
Pandit
Naiishern'ini
Nandbansi
Rigvedi
Pandit
Mal.ant
Galghotu
Raja
PMndit
Ragbubansi
Kikhi
Raj 4
Mahta
Ghore
Sakhi
Q4nungo
Rai Bausi
Sewak
Sail^ni
Muple
Gidar
Sardar
Rakhw4l
Raji
Bb&nt
Sarbhangi
Nig
Gosala
Shinni4r
Rajpal
hii] Banni
Sher
Snbih Khezi
Paiicham
Jbatpatie
Mussalli—
Surajbansi
Sbabzada
Shukal
Bwiini
Pandit
Kat4ra
Chandal
Uttam
Suiajbansi
Suraj
Vaidinti
QanungO
Katari
K4u4
Sbeikh-
Awan—
Tagu
Vidiarthi
Raja
Khar
Mir
Al4hi
Kbotta
Tej
Jat—
Katjik4
Mabt4
Naglu
Diw4n
Malak
Tejpil
Astar
Sant
Mehtar
Shahzadi
Haxnri
Rija
Uttam
Baliihar
Saidiri
Murgai
Bajput—
K4lipo9h
Tbug
Vedpanthi
Balwin
8fw4
N4gli
Agarbansi
Maht4
VV.uir
Chuhra—
Bandar
Senki
NagpAl
Agbansi
Pandit
Bilocb—
Bhiipil
Pedwin
Suraj
Nakhra
Agnash
Q4nungo
Bahaduri
Cband&l
Bhagat
Surajbanst
Panighar
Agni
Sunar-
Rustani^ni
Da8i4
Bbogi
TalwarA
Panjratan
Bhangi
Agangotre
Sfth4ran
Ilalal Kbor
Chanchal
fnchii
Vanjzati
Bhupril
Kbashh4l
Brahman—
Kalank
Cbniid
Khatri—
QanungO
Cbandarbansi
Mahant
Agnihotri
Lat Mir
Cband&lii
Ariand
R4nd
Chh»i
Mahia
Ainar
Malak
Cbandan
Ariunt
Sakandri
Chel4
Talwir
Amiri
Mehtar
ChandrAu
Arya
e.-CHi
lNGE of LAN
GTTAGE.
Awan—
Khatri—
Lobar—
Machhi-
Mussalli—
Bajput—
Jata
Kochi
i'itni
Dagri
Hindi
Dogri
Bhatia
Lande
Jat—
Kaiiiri
Kokir
N«;;li
Dogri
N4gri
,Uta
XI.
481
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
[ Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIAEY TABLE III-
Instances of sub-castes of different ty-geB— continued.
Sub-caete.
Snb-casft.
Sub-caste.
Sob-caste.
Snb-caste.
Snb-caste.
Sub-caste.
7.-DIVEBGENCIES OF RELIGIOUS VIEWS,
Aggarwal—
Brahman—
Nanak
Narinjini
Ninakshahi
Lobar—
Rajput—
Guru
Bishin
Nanakpanthi
Nirbin
Nar Binghi
Biswa-Karam
Ganeeh
Jnini
Chitar Gnpt
Som Nath
K&mrai
Kihang
Chisbti
Gnlab Dasi
NiDakpaotbi
NinakshAhi
Jat-
Shamsi
Nirmali
Ganesh
Kabirbansi
Parastiath
Kamanaodi
Ak&li
Sikh
Paras R4mi
Kabirbansi
Kishan Chandi
Sariogi
Eimde
Arya
Sita
Raghbir
Mansnr
Paras K4mi
Vaishno
Eamdev
Bisbnoi
Snltani
Ratn D4s
Nanakpanthi
Kam 1)48
Ahir-
S4dh
Dadupanthi
Valli Sulem4n
Rami Nandi
Ramdasi
Sbabidk4
Dadnpanthi
Saniasi
Gobind
Khatri—
Ram Chandi
Su6
Sheikh-
Jiiinpanthi
Chuhra—
Gorakh
Devi
Sachdev
Snltini
Nanakpanthi
Nirban
Bbagwan
Gordw8r4
Gobinde
Sanatan
Snraj
Shamsi
Baradasi
Bbagwati
Gnru Nansk
Kesdh4ri
Saniasi
Machhi—
Sultini
S4dh
Pehriya
Kabir
Khalsa
Shambhu
Kali
Sunar-
SalUni
Haznri
Kesdhari
Lakbdata
Sita
Mussalli-
Kabirbansi
Awan—
Kh^lsa
Knka
Nanakpanthi
Vasdev
B41miki
Shamsi
Nanaksh^bi
Lanba
NaLak
Sachdev
Pir Shamsi
8.-
-ASSOCIATIO
N.
Aggarwal—
Dhadhi
Tatnboli
Panw4r
Sodhi
Khokhar
Bhatti
Arori
Dhiriwal
Tanauli
Path4n
Tank
Kohira
Bhuttar
Bihti
Dhnnd
Thim
Patoi
Telir4j4
Korutan4
Charoha
Bains
Dfndar
Tiwani
Pawar
Thakar
Lab4na
Chawala
DhariwSl
Gakhar
Tnr
Eijput
Udasi ■
Machhi
Chuhan
Garewal
Gil
Tains
Rather
Utradhi
Mad4ri
Dakhna
Gil
Gondal
Valote
Ror
Vattu
Mahtam
Dhingra
Hing
Gorai
Vary4h
Saini
Chuhra—
M alang
Dogar
Jasn^ra
Gujar
Wirk
Si«
Dh4nak r
M4Ii
Girath
Jttt
Hanjra
Zargar
T4uk
Domr>v
Manhis
Gil
Kapnr
E4ds
Biloch-
Thatiyar
Dam
Manj
Gond
Khokhar
Jilap
Ahir
Tiwana
Gagra
Mazhabi
Hinjri
Xori
Janjnha
Awin
Tariah
Khatik
Mehton
Janjna
Manaktala
Jaspil
Baba
Vasir
Koli
Meo
Jasw41
Saigal
Jaawil
Banjara
Vattn
Pasi
JAiiiai
Jat
Saini
Jat
Bazigar
Venis
Sahnsi
Mughal
Kachhi
Abir —
Jhammat
Bharii
Virk
Jat—
Niru
Kaith
Apgarwil
Jogi
Bhat
Brahman —
B4bri
Nat
Kal^l
Athwal
Joyi
Bhatiara
Aggarw41
Baloch
Paobade
Kambob
bhabri
Jnlih4
Bhatti
Ahir
Bania
Panwar
Kamhar
Bhitia
Kahut
Bhatti Khokhar
Bihri
Banj4ra
Path4n
Kanet
Bhil
Kakezai
Bhiilar
Baiar
Barwila
Qureshi
Khokhar
Chadhar
Kalil
Khutta
Bedi
Batwal
R4jput
Kori
Chopra
K am boh
Chadhar
Bhabra
Bhabr4
E4mgarhi
Labana
D4riw41
Kaner4
Chang
Bhat
Bhat
Rana
Lang4h
Da84
Khnral
Chiiuhan
Bh4tra
Bhatia
Ritbi
Lodi
Pindir
Khattar
Chiahti
Biskarma
Bhil
Rathor
Mahijan
Goil
Khokbar
Didpotra
Bnnj4i
Bhojki
Rori
Mahtam
Gnjar
Kokari
Daha
Chhotisaran
Bodla
Sadiqi
Min4
Jaiswira
Kurtanj,
Dakhni
Choh4n
Chamar
S4hDi
X4ru
Jat
Larigah
Dhadi
Dabgar
Chaughatta
Saihgal
Od
Juliha
Lodhi
Gil
DAgi
Chauhan
!<aini
Panw4r
KAngar
lUchhi
Goudal
Dahre
Chopre
Sansi
Path4n
Korj
Jlekau
Gujar
Dasei
L'akhna
Sar«liy4
Pawir
Lodi
Men
Hana
Gagre
Dhobi
Sarin
Rajput
Si&l
Meo
Harni
Uara
Oogar
Sohndi
Ramgarhi
T4nfc
Mian4
Hinira
Gnjar
Gakhar
Snd
R4na
Uiitwil
Minhi3
Hir
Hnsaini
Ghandbila
Suthri
R4thi
Awan —
Mirasi
Janjui
Janjua
Goil
Tagah
Rawal
Afridi
Mirdhi
Jatoi
Jogi
Gorewah
Toli
Rora
Abir
Mophi
Jhammat
K4i8th
Goaiin
Thori
Saini
Ai>84ri
UohiSI
Kalil
Kapuri
Gujar
Tur
Sami4
A rain
Mnghnl
Knnera
Kar4r
Harni
Utridhi
Sansi
Hadhan
Mussalli
Kang
Khandclwal
Jidu
Vedi
Sial
Bijwa
K4ru
Khnral
Kharral
Jasw41
Khatri—
Sindhu
BhibrS
Pftnw4r
Khokliar
Khatri
Jhinwar
Aggarvvil
Sirimol
Bb»lle
Paoli
LabAni
Lanpih
Jogi
Ahir
Sud
Bbanb
Paricha
Ladhar
Lodhi
K..h4r
Ahluw41ia
Suthr4
Bbat
Pathan
Langah
Lobar
Kaith
A rora
Tank
Hhitri
Qurefhi
Mahtam
Man
Kxlal
Aulakh
Tpli
Bhatti
Kababi
Maliar
Milaiihana
Kamboh
Badhan
Thathi4r
Bhusin
Kajput
Mallih
Pan war
Knnera
Bani4
Utradhi
Bhutta
Ranghiir
Maiihas
Rajput
Kanet
Banjiri
V^!ijw4h
Bhnttsr
Riinjha
Men
Rithi
Kanjar
Bar4ich
Machhi—
Biloch
Rora
Miriisi
Kathor
Kapur
Bhiibra
Batwiil
Chadhar
Sahoti
Mnghiil
Sahgal
Karil
Bhfind
BharbhunjA
Chatha
Salm
Mughliiii
Saini
Katoch
Bharbhunja
Cham4r
Chishti
SiS,l
Muwsnlli
Sindhn
Khatri
Bhat
Chang
1 Choghatti
Sindhu
Pakhiw4rfi
Sirm4l
Khoja
Bbitia
Koli
482
Census Eeport. ]
80B3IDIAEY TABLES.
Chaptek
SUBSIDIAEY TABLE III.
Instances of sub-castes of different tyipes—eonduded.
Sub-caste.
Sub-caste.
Sub-caste.
Sub-caste,
Sub-caste.
Sub-caste.
Sub-caste.
8 -A8S0CI ATION-concJuded.
Machhi— concJd,
Rnjput—
BharbhuDJa
Dindar
Khatri
U4ngat
Babot4
Eotioi
Abdal
Bbatre
Garewal
Kbokhar
Mar48i
Sandhu
Mnd4ri
Aggarwal
Bbil
Gil
Koli
Mehr4
Sidu
Mallih
Ahir
BUooh
Gorii
Kurmi
Mochi
Sud
Meo
Ahlawali
Bodia
Gujar
Labao4
Mughal
Suthre
Pakhiwara
Arain
Boparii
Bins
Lttngih
Naik
T4nk
Qalandar
Arori
Chachar
Hinjra
Machhi
Nat
Teli
Mussalli—
Athwil
Chadhar
Jaiswar
Madai'i
Ontwal
Thori
Chumiir
A wan
Chahal
Jhamniat
Mahajan
Pakbiw4ra
Tiwans
Cbuhri
Bains
C hangar
Jhinwar
Mahtam
P&si
Turk
Dhii.ak
Bijwe
Chawala
Ju!iha
Mahton
Pftth4n
Uthwil
Dindar
Bari4h
Chima
Kaisth
Mair
Qureshi
Utr4dhi
Dumni
Batnal
Dakhu4
Kalil
Malanhins
Uandh4wa
V4hri
Gagri
B4waria
Dhadi
Kamboh
Mali
Rangrez
Vains
Paei
Bhabara
Dhiriwal
Kaoet
M4n
E4njah
Vaish
Pawali
Bhale
Dhillon
Kapur
Maniir
Sadiqi
Var4ich
Qilandar
Bharai
Dhindsi
I
9— DEGKADATION.
Aggarwal—
Bhatti
Jat
Tdnk
Janjui
Chauh4n
Manhas
Brahman
BhuUar
K4ith
Tan war
Kaioch
Chogatta
Meo
Khatri
Bhutt4
Kamboh
Tur
Khatri
Dahra
Mughal
Rajput
Chadda
Kaug
Vaina
Nam
Dhariwil
N4ru
Ahir-
Cbahal
Kharal
Vari4h
Panwar
Dhodi
Panwir
Bhat
Chogatta
Kbatri
Vedi
Patbanii
G hi rat
Path4n
Chauhin
Chopra
Khokhar
Virk
Raghu Bans!
Ghorewah
Kajpiit
Panwar
Dihra
Labani
Jat-
Bijput
Gil
Eandh4w4
Rajput
Dhadwal
Lad bar
Brahman
Ran a
Goria
K4njb4
Tur
Dhaliwal
Min
Gaur
Mussalli—
Gujar
Sandhu
Chuhra—
Dhillon
llangat
Mohial
Afs;ban
Gnleri4
Si41
Aggarwal
Dhoear
Mughal
Khatri—
Ahir
H4ns
Sidhu
Ahir
Garewil
Naru
Brahman
Arori
Hinjr4i
Vadhan
Arain
Gaur Brahman
Panwar
Gaur
Athw41
Janjua,
Varaich
Athwil
Ghorewih
Bajput
Sarsnt
Aw4a
Jat
Vari4h
Aulakh
Ghumman
Bandbiwe
Lobar—
Bijwih
Kaler
Vasir
Bihri
Gil
Raogar
Bains
Bbat
Kamboh
Vatta
Bains
Gorai
Sahote
Bedi
Bhatti
Kharal
Virk
Ba,jw4h
Gulerii
Sarin
Bhatti
Butta
Khokhar
Kajput—
Barahman
Haus
Sareut
Brahman
Biloch
LabaD4
Ciaur
Bariiich
HiDJr&i
Sial
Chauhan
Cha<id4
Lad bar
Kap4htia
Bari4h
Hir
Sidha
Ghorew4h
Chadhar
Langah
Mohial
Bhat
Janja4
Sindhu
J4du-Banei
Chanal
M4n
Sarsnt
Bbauara
Jaewil
Caste.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV.
List of pigmented tongues examined at the Hospitals.
a.S
<5 «
o
Ahir ...
Arain
Arora
Awan
Bair4gi
Bania
Batw4l
Bb4ti4
Bbatri
Biloch
Bohra
12j Brahman
13 Cbani4r
U' Cbbimb4
Chuhra
I>4gi and Koli
D4oU
Darzi
Dh4nak
Dbobi
Dogar
Faqir
Gaduri4
Gbiratb
Gosain
Gujar
Jat
Pigmented
TONGOKB.
- 00
rt G
3J 'tC
2 3
290|
6
63
3
805
1
1
1
12
500
4111
114 6
Caste.
2 28
10
1
i
11
1
21
24
"u
1
1
Id
1
1
lo
1
2
1
3
45
3
1
2
...
• ■•
30
11
5
1
1
134
3
4
07K
24
10
3S
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
4«
47
48
4!
50
51
52
53
43I54
Jhinwar
Jogi
Julah4
Kahut
Kal41
Kamboh
Kanet
Kashmiri
Kayaoth
Kbatik
Khatri
Khuja
Khokhar
Kumb4r
Kurini
Lobar
M4chhi
MHb4jan
Mahton
Uili
M»li4r
Mallah
Mazbabi
Meo
Miin4
Mina
Mi rani
Pigmented
Tongues.
3 5
89
'J
274
lil
12
22
259
11
3
12
788
69
17
11
1
45
3
7
3
33
2
27
3
10
1
10
21
2
3
1
"2
2
Caete.
5 55
56
57
58
59
bO
ISl
2R2
03
04
05
06
67
08
09
0
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
Moobi
Moghal
Mussalli
N4i
I'athan
fenj4
Qalandar
QaBs4b
Qureshi
K4jpat
Sanei
8a;ad
Sheikh
8irki Band
Slid
Suoar
Tarkh4n
Teli ...
Thathiir
Ulema
Christian
Eurasian
European
Unspecihed
TOTAL
K S
PlGUENTID
TONGDBS.
25
5
25
25
98
1
I
27
3
148
135
58
127
100
7
30
25
354
7
1
32
26
6
14,668
21,148
64
244
201
16
4
8
4
2
17
i
]
134
11
XI.
483
S0E8IDIARY TABLES.
[Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIAEY TABLE V.
List of pigmented tongues examined at the Jails.
"g PiGMBNTBD
TS
**.! ^
PiGMBNTBD
.„ 0 1 PiGMBNTBD
o Caste.
0.3
TONGUES.
.0
Caste.
2S
TONGUEB.
Caste.
0°
. a
0 c3
^ g
TONGUES. 1
1
" m
m
0
e
J
2i
H a
2
0
§.2
3
e2
i5
"a
'u
0
II
0
1'
i.2
0 (D
4
Z
-4^ t.
0 a
5
Si
^1
3
to
0
g.2
CD S
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
1
2
3
1 Aheri
4
1
1
17
Khatik
1
1
1 33 Tarkhin
4 1
1
2 Ariin
10
]
1
18
Khatri
21
"i
134 Tell
9 2
2
3 Bair4gi
1
19
Khoja
4
"2
2 35 Thakkar
]
I ...
>>>
4 Barw&li
3
""]
'"1
20
Lohir
3
...
... 36 Christian
6 2
2
5 Brahman
6 Chamar
7 Chahri
27
12
38
"1
1
21
82
23
Maohhi
\fallah
9
13
1
1
2
1 37 Onapecified
1
80 2
2
""5
5
Meo
5
2
TOTAL
633 52
4
66
8 Dogar
1
...
24
Mochi
3
...
■ **
9 Faqir
27
'"2
2
25
Mir4si
5
2
2
10 Gnjar
7
1
1
26
N4i
2
1
1
U Jat
226
1?
1
I u
27
Pathan
32
1
1
12 Jhinwar
10
2
2
28
Eijput
18
■ •«
• ••
13 JuUha.
1
1
1
29
S4nsi
24
4
4
U Kalil
1
30
Sayad
2
...
• ••
15 Kamboh
14
"3
"3
:n
Sheikh
1
1
1
16 KttDJar
2
...
...
32
Sunar
6
• ••
• ••
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VL
Traceable caste names of the Smritis.
Castes found in Smeitis.
Peeseni equivalent.
6
a Name.
Parentage.
Traditional occupation.
Sub-caste.
Caste.
to
Father.
Mother.
1
2
3
i
5
6
1 Ambasiitua
Brahman
Vaishya
Music, medicine, agriculture, etc.
Bith
Jat.
2 NiKHADA
Do.
Shudra
Trade, goldsmith, watch, boatman
(Ramiyana).
Nakhad
...
Mallah.
3 Mahishta
Kshatriya ...
Vaishya
Musician .., ...
Majhi, Majhir ...
...
Mirdai.
4 UgS
Do.
Shudra
Soldier ...
Gar
...
Aggarwil.
Do
Do.
Do.
Do.
Ogar, Oghar
...
Jat.
Do
Do.
Do.
Do.
Augar
...
Khatri.
5 Kaena
Vaishya
Do.
Writer, servant and attendant
at distilleries.
Karu
...
Jat.
6 KathkIba
Mahiahya ...
Kama
Carpenter, driver and sculptor.
Rathi, Ratti, Ratwal ...
Tarkhin.
7 AVBITA
Brahman
Ugra
Doctor and keeper of elephants
and horses.
Abri, Abt
...
Brahman.
Do
Do.
Do.
Do.
Abhat
■ ••
Khatri.
8 Abhika
Do.
Umbiati ...
Cattle breeding and sale of milk,
etc.
Charioteer, counseller, writer, cook
Abhirya
• ••
Ahir.
9 Sota
Kshatriya ...
Brahmani ...
Do
Sud.
10 Vaideha
Vaishya
Do.
Actor and artisan ...
Badhya
Mirisi,
11 CiiandalX
-Shudra
Do.
Scavenger, executioner, buruing
ground attendant.
Chanil, Chandil
...
Chubra.
12] MoCilUK
Vaishya
Kshatriya ...
Musician, royal messenger
Mangat, Mochat
...
.Tat.
13 Kshatta, Meda,
Shudra
Do.
Hunter and fisherman, dealer iu
llangu, Medo, Khat
Jat.
Manor.
liquor.
14 AndhrA
Vaideha
Nishadi
Hunter
Andhar
Jat.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Cleaner of doors
Andhar, Andre ...
Chamir.
15 Karavaba
Nishad
Vaidehi
To carry conveyances, worker and
dealer in leather.
Karoro, Karwal ...
Moohi.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Karawat
...
Jat.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Karoriii, Kariwil,
riwle, Karbil.
Ka-
Chamar.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Kar4wak
...
Dagi and Koli.
Census Report, ]
484
SUBaiDIABY TABLES,
Chaptee
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VI.
Traceable caste names of the Smritis-
—continued.
i
Castes found in Smkitis.
PBESENT E(iUlVALENT.
Name.
Parentage.
Traditional occupation.
Sub-caste.
Caste.
a
■B
Father.
Mother.
2
1
2
3
i
5
6
IG
Mbda
Vaideba
Nishadi
Hunter
Medo
Jat.
17
KCKKOTAKA
Shudra
Do.
Maker of weapons, poultry-keeper
Kokar, Kokiri
Jat.
18
Kbodbaka
Do.
Do.
Do.
Karod. Karods
Jat.
19
Vena
Vaideha
Ambasthi ...
Juggler, proclaimer of royal orders
by beat of drum.
Ben, Venar
Jat.
20
Tantcvata
Vaishya
Eshatriya . . .
Weaver and dealer in leather
Tandi
Cbaro4r.
■21
Dhicvana
Brahman
Ayogavi
Worker and dealer in leather
Dhakni
Chamar.
z-i
JUAQHTBA
Bratya Kshat-
Kshatriya ...
Spy and actor
Jhakar
Jat.
Do.
riya.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Jikhar
Knmhir.
33
SUDHANWACHABYA
Vratya Vaish-
Vaishya
Worshipper of ghosts, secret in. (
Sudan
Kajput.
ya.
former under disguise. i
Sudan ...
Brabman.-
24
Saibandeba
Dasya
Ayogavi
Dealer in liquor and vegetables ...
Sandri
N4i.
25
Maitreyaea
Vaideha
Do.
Bard, ringing the bell in the
morning.
Mattar
Mirasi.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Mathran
Bh4t.
26
Margara
Nishad
Do.
Boatman
Magri
Mallih.
27
USBAHA
Brahman
Vaidehi
Umbrella bearer ...
Ude
Jat.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Utbwsl
Riijput.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Udein ... _
Jhinwar.
28
Kanstakrit
DTfija
Ambashti
Maker of metallic utensils
Kans
Luhir.
29
Kiimbhej(ba
Do.
Ugra
Maker of earthen vessels
>••
Enmh^r.
30
BUUDRAEA
Eshatriya ...
Shudra
Instructor in the use of weapons...
Sudhara, Snd, Sud4 ...
Chamar.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Sud. Sudi
Jat.
31
Paitalika
Vaishya
Do.
Bard
Batiil
Mir&si.
32
KinnAta
Kshatriya •■■
Parshavi
Coppersmith
Kanidi
Lohir.
33
Malakaba
Mahishya
Do.
Grower of flowers
...
Maliir.
34
KUSHILATA
Ambaahtbya,..
Vaidehi
Musician •••
Kashili
Mirasi.
35
Napita
Mngadh
Ugra
Barber
...
N4i.
36
Kayasth
Vaideha
Mahisi
Writer
...
Kavasth.
37
Manjd
Malakar ...
Karani
Borer of jewels
Manj
Sunir.
38
Shalmala
Manjn
Knlali
Sale of betel-leaves
Sanbal
Jat.
39
KOLIlABTI
Shalendhra ...
Kshatriya ...
Disguiseman ...
Karnot
Bahrupii.
40
Katdhana
Vaishya
EaraDi
Cow-herd
Katan, Katpin
Gujap.
11
Vatsak
Do.
Do.
Do
Bacbhwiris
Ahir.
42
ClIHAGALK.i
Katdhana ...
Manju
Gont-herd ...
(Jhagla
Gujar. I
43
Ajapal
Do.
no.
Do. ...
Ajwal
Jat.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do
Ajpal
Kajput.
iA
Mandalaea
Puspsheeha...
Karmcbandali
Keeper of, attendant on, dead
bodies.
Mandal
Chamar.
45
Malakya
Malakar
Kayasthni ...
Maker of ivory bracelets
Malata
Churigar, Ma-
niar
46
Kcbcbinda
Knmbhkar ...
Knkknti
Dyer of silk
Karnndi
KnmhSr.
47
Saukimra
Kukkut
Abhiri
Weaver of ' tnsser ' cloths
Sokhar
Mirisi.
98
Nir.IKAETA
Abhira
Kukknti
Dyer
Niliri
Liliri.
49
Shankuilya
Napita
Uargn
A pseudo barber
S4ngi
Nai.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Sonkla
Julabi.
50
Maukali
Ugra
Parasbavi ...
Oil-presser
Mongli
Teli.
51
Manjcwa
Do.
Vaidehi
Dyer ...
Manjdi
Lilari. ',
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Manj
Julahi.
52
Sotbadbaba
Ayogava
Pathkari
•luggler, actor
Sntdhir
Tarkhin.
53
Sanchaba
Alrita
Veni
Weaver ... •••
Sanjar
Jul^ba.
54
Ushtbapalaka ...
Do.
Manja
Camel breeder
Dntwal
Jat.
55
Kaiyabta
Parshava ...
Avogavi
Fisherman, cultivator
Kew4, Ket
Jat.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Kowat
Mall^h.
56
Charmkaba
Nishad
Dhigvani
Worker in leather
...
Cbamir,
67
Sadndiea
Ven
Abhiri
Dealer in liquor
Sindak. Sundarke
Ealil.
58
Panpi'Shopaka ...
Karm Chandal
Vaidehi
Sule of leather for shoes
Pindu
Mochi.
59
Dhivaba ...
Nishad
Ayogavi
Bamboo splitter, boatman
Dhiwar
Jhinwar.
60
LolIKARA
Kehatriya ...
Mngadhi
Preparation of iron weapons
...
Lobir.
61
Tailika
Ugra
Parshavi
Preparation of oil
...
Teli.
B2
Kabal
Ven
Abhiri
Denier in liquor
Kaldl
Kal^l.
63
Agvki
Ksh.itriya ...
Shudra
Service, guarding forts and cultiva-
tion, treasurers.
Agri
Jat.
64
Kap.^1.1
Tivar
Grahmani
Preparation of ropes of ' San ' ...
Kipri, Kapal
Labliii.
65
Karuaear
Gopal
Tantnvayee ...
Ironsniith
Kiinkar, Kangal
Michhi.
66
Kalu
Knmbhkar ...
Kotaki
Oil-pressor
Kalhu
Teli.
#1
XI.
485
8DBSIDIART TABLKB.
[ Punjab, 1911
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VI.
Traceable caste names of the Smritu— concluded.
a
s
Castes found in Smeitis.
Name.
Parentage.
Father.
Mother.
Traditiosal occupation.
PBBSENT B(iDITAL«NT.
Sub-caetes,
CaBt«.
57
S8
69
70
71
72
7a
74
75
76
77
78
79
SO
81
82
84
86
56
KiN
Do.
KODIB
KOTAE
KoL
KoDiu ...
GoP
CbitbeAb ..,
Do.
JoLA
Dam
Tambolika
Nat
Bhat
Manikab
Rajak
Do.
Lkt
Vabuji ...
83 Vaid
Shvapacb
(Shvapak)
swabnaeab
Haddi
Jola
Do.
RiBhi
Attali Karak
Let
Tiwar
TantQvaye ..
Viswakarma
Do.
Mlechha
Lot
Vaishya
Rajak
Ksbatriya
Tamrakut
Dhibar
Do.
Tiwar
(iop
Brahman
Shudra
Ambashtha ...
Let
Haddivi
Do.
Brahinani .
Kumbbkari .
Tiwari
Rajaki
Mabivandhi ,
Shudra
Do.
Tantuvayee ■
Chandali
Sbadra,
Shoundik
Brahmnni
Rankhkari .
Tiwari
Do.
Tailaki
Tantuvayee .
Vaishya
Brahmaiii .
Vaishya
Ghandal
Musician
Do.
Maker of musical instruments
Architect „
Living; on forest products
To cut plunks of Wood
Sale of milk, etc. ...
Painter
Do.
Weaver
Maker of bamboo articles
Seller of betel leaves
Singer, dancer, etc.
Bard, minstrel
Bracelet-maker
Washerman
Do
A menial ... ... ...
Seller of leaves
Physician ... ... ...
Executioner
Goldsmith ..
Keeper of pigs
Kin
Kh4n
Khodal
Kot
Kadoli, Kadwalii
Gawala ...
Cbatkari ...
Chatral
Baja
Bajoi
Lot
Bangwira
Ved
Bedi, Vedwa, Vid
Sapag
Hand!
Teli.
Mirasi.
Tarkhan.
Do.
Koli.
Beldir.
Ahir.
Aror».
Lobir.
Jnlibi.
Oum.
Tamboli.
Nat.
Bhat.
Maoiar.
Dhobi
LiUri.
Chuhxi.
DoB&li.
Kbatri.
Brahman.
CbuhrA.
Snnir.
Chamir,
CHAPTER XII.
Occupation.
INTRODUCTORY.
R«ference 595. The statistics regarding occupations are contaiued in Tables XV, XVI
togtfttis- and XVI A. The first is divided into five parts. Part A. slio-ws for the
tics. Province, as well as for each district and state, the number of persons pursuing
each group of occupations; Part B. shows the occupations subsidiary to
Agi'iculture ; Part G. gives the number of persons following selected subsidiary
occupations combined .with certain principal occupations ; Part D. shows the
distribution by religion for the Province, as a whole, of all the occupations dealt
with in Part A. ; and Part E. furnishes particulars regarding the industries of the
Province, the number of factories, with not less than 20 operatives, which were at
work, on the 10th of March 1911, in each district and state, the strength of opera-
tives and the mechanical power employed, together with the caste or race of the
owners and managers of each factory. The functional distribution of certain
selected castes is shown in Table XVI, while Table XVI A indicates the converse dis-
tribution—vtz., the part taken by each caste in the occupations named below: —
1, Income from rent of agricultural land ; 2, Army (Imperial) ; 3, Army (Native
States) ; 4, PoHce ; 5, Village watchmen ; 6, Service of the State ; 7, Service of
Native and Foreign States; 8, Municipal and other local (not village) service;
9, Lawyers of all kinds including Kazis, law agents and Mukhtars, etc. ;
10, Lawyer's clerks, petition-writers, etc. ; 11, Medical practitioners of all kinds, in-
cluding dentists, oculists and veterinary surgeons ; 12, Midwives, vaccinators, com-
pounders, nurses, masseurs, etc. ; and 13, Professors and teachers of all kinds (ex-
cept of law, medicine, music, dancing and drawing) and clerks and servants con-
nected with education.
The more important statistics have been embodied in the following Subsi-
diary Tables appended to this Chapter : —
I. — General distribution of occupations.
II. — Distribution by occupation in Natural Divisions.
III. — Distribution of the agricultural, industrial, commercial and pro-
fessional population in Natural Divisions and Districts.
IV. — Occupations combined with agriculture (where agriculture ia the
subsidiary occupation).
V. — Occupations combined with agriculture (where agriculture is the
principal occupation).
VI. — Occupations of females by sub-classes and selected orders and gi'oups.
VII. — Variations in selected occupations, 1901-11.
VIII. — Occupations of selected castes.
IX. — Distribution by religion, of each occupation and by occupation, of
each religion.
X. — Number of persons employed on the 10th March in the Railway,
Irrigation, Postal and Telegraph Departments.
XI. — Distribution of prisoners by religion and caste.
XII. — Distribution of income-tax assessees by caste.
59f>. The scheme of classification of occupations, adopted at this Census,
is different to that according to which figures were arranged at the previous
Census. The main objection to the old scheme was its extreme elaboration, and
it was realized that the information collected in the schedules was not sufiBciently
precise, to enable the occupations being sorted in such detail. At the Census
of 1 90 1 , for instance, there were no less than 520 gi oups of occupations with an
addition of 39 heads as sub-groups. The present system has resulted in the
reduction of these groups of occupations from 559 to 169.
The clasBi
fication
scheme.
487
XII. iNTRODncTORT. [Punjab, 1911 .
The preaent classi6cation is based on the scheme drawn up by Monsieur
Bertillon and recommended by the International Statistical Institute for general
adoption, so as to render a comparison of the occupation statistics of different
countries possible. He divides all occupations into 4 classes and 12 sub-classes
■witli three aeries of minor divisions comprehending, 61 orders, 206 sub-orders
and 499 groups, but the principle underlying the scheme is that the occupations
returned should be so classified as to fall under one of,the principal minor divisions
of the sub-classes, further details being arranged according to local requirements.
The scheme was adopted by the Census Commissioner, after full consideration ;
the classes, sub-classes, and, with a few exceptions, the orders of Monsieur
Bertillon's scheme being maintained unchanged; but the sub-division of orders
into groups was carried out with reference to local conditions reducing the
number of the latter as far as possible.
The occupations returned in this Province have, therefore, been compressed
into 4 classes, 12 sub-classes, 55 orders, and 169 groups. The reduction in
the number of groups would have been still greater but for the fact tliat, in order
to preserve the distinction between industry and trade, it was necessary to sub-
divide some of the old groups. Persons, who make an article, are, in all cases,
classed under * Industry ' whether they sell their manufactures to middlemen or
direct to the consumers, while persons who only sell but do not manufacture, are
classified under ' Trade.'
To enable a comparison of the present figures with those of the previous
Census, the latter were re-arranged, under the orders of the Census Commissioner,
according to a list drawn up by him, which showed the old groups, correspond-
ing wholly or partially with one or the other of the new groups. This comparison
will be foviud in Subsidiary Table VII. Although the general scheme of classifica-
tion has been recast, the titles of most of the groups under which the bulk of
the population has been returned, and the system ot arranging under them, the
entries found in the Enumeration books, remain "the same as in 1901.
In part A of Table XV, the population is classified according to
principal occupations, the non-earning dependants being differentiated from
the actual workers but still appearing under the occupation, which provides
their means of livelihood. The number of persons, in each group, partly
dependent on agriculture, is given but, otherwise, subsidiary occupations are not
dealt with in this part of the table. In Table XV E, however, which has
been prepared from the Special Industrial Schedules, the principal occupation of
an individual has merged into the main industry in connection with which he
carries on his special pursuit. For instance, a carpenter or a blacksmith, working in
a cotton ginning factory, is classified in Table XV A under his specific profession
while he does not appear in Table XV B under that distinctive occupation, but
merely as an operative of the cotton ginning industry.
597. The instructions for filling in the schedules, which were very clear. The accn-
are reproduced below : — racy of the
"The entry of occupation in columns 9 to 11 of the schedule is another matter gtatistica
requiring special care. Only those women and children will be shown as workers who help
to augment the family income. A woman who looks after her house and cooks the food is
not a worker but a dependant. But a woman, who collects and sells firewood or cowdung,
is, thereby, adding to the family income and should be shown as a worker. So also a
woman who regularly assist^ her husband in his work [e.g., the wife of a potter who
fetches the clay from which he makes his pots) but not one who merely renders a little
occasional help. A boy, who souietimea looks after his father's cattle, is a dependant, but
one, who is a regulur cowherd, should be recorded as such in column 9."
" Stress must be laid on the importance of avoiding vague words like ' labour ,'
' service ' or ' shopkeeping. ' The Enumerator must enter the exact kind of labour or
service and the nature of the goods sold. In the case of service, it is necessary not merely
to distinguish Government service, railway service, municipal service, village service,
service in a shop or oflBce and domestic service, etc., but also to show the exact occupation
followed, e.g., in the case of Government service, whether collector or army oflBcer, or
civil court clerk, or police inspector, patwari, constable, etc. ; in the case of Railway
service — engine-driver, station master ; in Municipal service — octroi moharir, sanitary
inspector ; in village service— chaukidar, etc. In the case of clerks, the occupation of their
employer must be shown, e.g., lawyer's clerk, bank clerk, sahukdr kd gumdshtd. Persons
living on agriculture must be distinguished as rent-receivers (mdlik) and rent-payeM
488
Census Eeport, ] intboductobt. Chaptik
(muz4riah). Where a person cultivates part of his land and sublets part, he should be
shown iu column 9 as a rent-payer and in column 10 as a rent- receiver, if he gets the greater
part of his iocome from the land which he cultivates himself, and vice versa, a tenant who
sublets his holding should be shown as rent-receiver. Gardeners and growers of special
products such as, vegetables, mangoes, etc., must be shown separately. Persons, whose
income is derived from the rent of houses or land in towns, should be disticguished from
those who derive it from agricultural land, their occupation being noted as rent (kirtly^
makdn), etc."
" Mortgagees and persons, who live mainly on money lent at interest, or on stocks,
bonds or other securities, such as shares in Companies, should be entered as capitalists
(Sihukar)."
" Field labourers (H^H, Rahak), etc., should be distinguished from tenants."
" For shopkeepers and traders, the nature of the article sold should be stated, e.y.,
* General merchant,' ' Cloth merchant, '' Seller of food stuffs (dukto nun tel).' Jn the
case of industries the precise nature of the industry should be given as ' Cotton weaver,
* Carpet maker,' 'Silk weaver,' ' Maker of glass bangles.' "
" In respect of Government pensioner it should be noted whether the pension is civil,
military or political."
"Where a man has two occupations, the principal one is that on which he reUes
mainly for his support and from which he gets the major part of his income. A subsidiary
occupation should be entered if followed at any time of the year (whether followed through-
out the year or during a part of it). For instance, if a man is a potter by profession but
does the work of date-picker in the date season, the entry in column 9 should be potter and
that in column 10, date-picker (charha), and if a man is a shopkeeper but keeps making mats
in his spare time, the two occupations should be entered in columns 9 and 10 respec-
tively."
" Only one subsidiary occupation (the most important one) should be entered in column
10."
Errors were found in Household Schedules ; but the Enumerators,
vrho had been trained previously by instruction in regular classes and by
practical illustrations, made few mistakes. There was little confusion
between a man's traditional and actual occupation. By way of example may be
quoted the case of the chaiikidars of this Province, who, though watchmen by
tradition, live largely by agriculture or handicraft as they cannot subsist on
the pittance which they receive in the capacity of chaukidars. These village
seiTants have, where they do not live entirely upon their income as watchmen,
been returned under other occupations, as is evidenced by the fact that the total
number of village watchmen returned in Table XV A is 20,162 while the depart-
mental figures aggregate 37,179. In some of the Native States, the sepoys in
the army are somethiiig like Heservists, receiving a small monthly salary from
the State for such military duties as they may be called upon lo perform from
time to time, but earning their livelihood mainly by other professions. The
following remarks of the Census Superintendent of the Jiud State will show that
such soldiers have been classed under their principal occupation and not under
* Army ' : —
" A considerable number of employes of the State Army belongs to the agricultural
tribes and the income from land being large, in these days, on account of high prices and
canal irrigation, many of the soldiers earn more from their lands compared with their fixed
pay. They have, therefore, been classed under their principal occupation of ' cultivating
proprietor,' ' rent-receiver,' etc."
The Deputy Commissioner of Jhang says in explanation of the absence of
bone and ivory workers in the returns of that district that such artizans earn
their liveiiho(d chiefly by wood work, and that the lime burners who are, also,
absent from the return, live by soap-making and contract work. He considers
that the persons concerned have been correctly classed according to their
principal occupations. Several instances can be given in which persons, with a
defined traditional occupation, have been returned according to their actual
calling. The inmates of the monastery at Bohar in the Rchtak District were
found, on enquiry, to be mostly landowners and have been returned as such in the
occupation table instead of merely as ' inmates of monasteries.'
In the Nabha State there are no Darzis by caste but nevertheless 1,919
persons have been returned as tailors by profession, although they were included
in their respective castes. Similarly the total number of barbers in the whole
Province is 350,456 in the caste table while the number pursuing that occupation
shown in Table XV A is much smaller, being 271,061. There may have
XII.
489
INTEODTJCTOET.
[Punjab, 1911.
Per-
eentage
Occupation.
1911.
1901.
of
varia-
tion.
1. Mannfaoturers, bnsineBsmen and
contractors otherwise unape-
cified ...
13,207
16,084
—17-9
2, Cashiers, accountants, book-
keepers, clerks and other em-
ployes in unspecified offices,
etc
26,846
85,048
—68-4
3. Mechanics otherwise unspecified
433
5,158
— 91'6
i. Labourers and workmen other-
wise unspecified
224,144
747,874
—700
5. Shopkeepers otherwise unspeci-
fied
676,945
370,331
-f82-8
been cases of confusion in entries
relating to the principal and sub-
sidiary occupations, but they are
confined to persons whose income
is derived equally from more
occupations than one. Their
classification under cue occupa-
tion or the other, as the prin-
cipal one, cannot, however, be
objected to. The use of vague
terms, such as clerk, contractor,
labourer, etc., has been very
much restricted, as the com-
parison made in the margin will
show.
The group of unspecified shopkeepers includes a particular type of shop
known as Parchun shop or Duhdn Nxm Tel, — very common in villages where all the
local requirements like flour, grain, oil, spices, cloth, sugar, salt, matches, etc., etc.,
are stocked. The instructions were to classify such shops with reference to the
principal article sold. It was, however, impossible to tell this from the entries
and the course adopted with the Census Commissioner's approval was to count
them as ' unspecified.' The strength of persons depending on such shops is
652,220, and excluding this the number of unspecified entries under shopkeeping
would show an enormous decrease.
Tbe instructions in reSpect of workers and dependants were these : —
" This column is intended for those who do not themselves follow any occupation, bub
depend upon the income of others. Boys at school or college should bo entered as dependants.
Dependants on a joint family, the members of which follow different avocations, should be
entered in column 11, under the occupation of the principal working member. Domestic
servants must be entered as cook, bhisti, etc., in column 9 and not in column 11 as depend-
ants on their masters' occupation. Persons temporarily out of employ should be shown as
following their previous occupation. Women and children who work at some occupation
are not dependants and the column will bo blank for them. "
Few mistakes have been made in distinguishing dependants from workers.
Several questions were referred to me for orders, during the preparation of
the Preliminary Record, and certain doubtful points were decided in the course
of sorting. For instance, it was questioned, with reference to the instructions
alluded to above, whether a student, who lived on a scholarship, should be treated
as a worker or dependant. It was decided to treat him as a worker living on his
own income. In respect of the dependants of Chiefs, it was similarly ruled that
when a person received a fixed allowance from a Chief he was to be treated as a
worker but when he formed a part of the Chief's household, not being a servant,
he was to be entered as a mere dependant. In respect of active occupations no
difficulty was experienced. Boys and females, who did the least work likely to add
to the family income, were entered as actual workers. But with all the care
taken to ensure a record susceptible of classification, several entries were
made which lent themselves to misinterpretation and consequently resulted in
erroneous sorting. The mistakes discovered in tbe course of sorting or tabulation
were corrected with a great deal of trouble, after local enquiry or resorting. A
few instances are given below : —
Sellers of wood did not qualify their trade and the sale of firewood and of
building timber being classed under two different groups, it was impossible from
the entries to determine the group to which they related. The omissions were
supplied after local enquiry. In some cases, the watchmen did not specify
whether they were public or private servants. For instance, 504 persons in the
Simla District, were returned as watchmen and were sorted as village watchmen
(group 143), but local enquiries showed that they were all domestic servants and
that not one of them was a village watchman. The officers belonging to the
Agriculture and Settlement Departments returned their occupation as Indian
Civil Service, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Tahsildar, etc., according to which
they would have been placed under group 144. They have, after comparison of
the Sorters' tickets with Departmental distribution lists, been relegated to group 3,
490
Censns Report, ] inteoductobt. Chapter
The entry commonly found in the case of Brahman priests or ^Mirasis and other
retainers was ' Birt Brahman,' ' Birt Mirasi,' etc., meaning the traditional
occupation of a Brahman or Mirasi. On the other hand, similar terms like ' Birt
Rajput,' ' Birt Jat,' etc., were used in a converse sense, namely in the meaning
of a person performing the traditional functions of his caste in the service of a
Rajput or a Jat. The meanings were ascertained from each locality and the
terms were classified accordingly. Such entries as ' pony hire,' ' mule hire,' etc.,
were capable of a double interpretation. Income from riding ponies or mules
had to go to group 99, while plying pack animals fell in group 101. This doubt
was also cleared after local enquiry. Certain entries of teachers, without specifi-
cation, were detected in sorting and were relegated to the heads of i law,' • music,'
'dancing,' 'drawing,' etc., after a reference to the caste of the person enumerat-
ed or after enquiry from the place of Enumeration. The inmates of jails often
gave their original occupations instead of being classified as ' convicts,' ' under-
trial ' and ' civil prisoners,' according to the special instructions given. Such mis-
takes were corrected during Tabulation after reference to the Enumeration books
of the jails concerned. Many employes of cotton factories did not specify
whether they worked in a ginning, spinning or weaving mill. This omission was
also supplied after local enquiry. Workers on coal did not specify whether their
occupation was connected with charcoal or mineral coal, and the omission had to
be supplied with reference to other information. The makers and sellers of
articles could not be expected to distinguish clearly between the two factors
of which their occupation was composed. Some returned themselves as makers,
others as sellers and some retui'ned themselves both as makers and sellers. In
the last mentioned case, they were included, in accordance with the instructions,
under the industrial group of makers of that article, but, where one or the other
factor was omitted from mention, there was no alternative but to go according
to the record. For instance, the districts of Lahore, Karnal, Rohtak, etc., show
no manufacturers of aerated waters, while Lahore has 687 sellers of wine, asrated
waters, etc., Karnal has 92 and Rohtak 31,
Sweepers in the employ of Municipal committees, in many places, gave
their occupation merely as ' Municipal sei'vants,' and have consequently been
shown in ' Municipal sei'vice * (group 146), although it was found a little too late,
during Compilation, that 861 Chuhras were included in that group, most of whom
must have been employed on the work of scavenging and should accordingly have
appeared in group 93. The inmates of hospitals were I'eturned under theu'
respective occupations, but no clear instructions were given to the effect that they
should be returned under the separate designation of inmates of hospitals. It
was found impracticable to abstract the information from the Enumeration books
of all the hospitals.
Numerous mistakes of sorting were detected, during the raai-king of
occupations by groups in the Compilation office and in preparing the classification
sheets. A few important ones may, however, be mentioned here : — Boti (bread)
and Bui (cotton) are written very much alike in Urdu, so selling BoH and selling
Bui were indiscriminately mixed up in Compilation. The confusion was dis-
covered in the final checking and references to local officers revealed the mistakes
which were traced back to the initial stages of Compilation and corrected. The
entry ^Boria Baf means a mat-maker in the eastern Punjab and a gunny-bag
weaver in the rest of the Province. The Compilers threw all the entries under
group 23, Jute weaving. The mistake was discovered in the final checking and
rectified after ascertaining the interpretation of the term from the districts. Some
mistakes were made in the compilation of Table XV C " Dual occupations," in
consequence of the erroneous classification of occupation entries. The mistakes were
discovered on comparison with the figures of actual workers in Table XV A, and
the whole table was recompiled after comparison of the Sorters' tickets with the
classification sheets of Table XV A. Some misclassification also occurred during
Compilation. For instance, 18 females were put down as actual workers under
group 51 ' Manufacture of aerated waters ' in the Hissar District. The entry
being suspicious local enquiries were made and it was found that all of them
were dependants. By tracing the figures back through the processes of
Compilation, it was discovered that 5 male workers had been copied under
491
XII. BISCUasION OF THE STATISTICS- [ Panjab, 1911.
dependants and 18 female dependants in the column of actual workers. The mis-
take was corrected. DiflBciilties were experiencedin connection with the allocation
to groups, of occupations which overlap one another ; e.g., Nos. 9 ' cattle and
buffalo breeders and keepers,' 12 ' herdsmen, shepherds, goatherds, etc.,' 82
•tanners, curriers, leather dressers, etc.,' 83 ' makers of leather articles, such as
trunks, water bags, etc.,' and 69 ' shoe, boot and sandal makers.' The best use
was made of the entries actually found, although it has resulted in more or less
anomalous entries in some cases, for instance, in the Muzaffargarh District where
one brother cultivates land and the other acts as hersdman to the cattle jointly held.
The keepers of cattle have generally been registered as agriculturists with the
result that only 14 women appear as keepers of cattle, having 1,046 dependants,
while the number returned in group 12 ' herdsmen, shepherds, etc.,' is 14,132 of
which less than half, that is, 6,721 are dependants. The total of the latter group
for the whole Province, also shows a much smaller proportion of dependants than
that of group 9 which also points to the inference that herdsmen, shepherds, etc.,
belong largely to the families of agriculturists and breeders of cattle.
The special industrial schedules gave a great deal of trouble. Although
filled in by the managers, etc., of the factories, with the assistance of trained
Enumerators they were yet found to be mostly imperfect and had to be returned
repeatedly for correction and completion. The greatest diflBculty was experienc-
ed in ascertaining the castes of ownei-s and managers.
On the whole Table XV was the most tedious and difficult one to compile.
No pains were spared to make the statistics as accurate as possible. An alpha-
betical index of occupations was prepared in vernacular, on the basis of the index
circulated by the Census Commissioner. But the latter was not received till
towards the end of July 1911, when the sorting had been completed. It could not,
therefore, be utilised in sorting. The occupations entered in Sorters' tickets were,
however, marked with group numbers in the Compilation office with the assistance
of this index. A special staff was trained for this purpose and the work carefuily
checked. A consolidated list of occupations, falling under each group, was pre-
pared from the Sorters' tickets and examined by me personally. With the help of
this list, the classification sheets were prepared, by the same special staff from the
Sorters' tickets, in which the numbers were first corrected according to my list.
The group totals were then transferred to the compilation sheets, fi'om which the
final Tables XV A and XV D were prepared in the usual course. On completion,
Table XV A was compared with Table XVI. Noticeable differences or discrepan-
cies were marked, and on the one hand, local inquiries were made to make sure
that the present entries were correct while on the other, the figures concerned
were traced back through the various stages of compilation to the Sorters' tickets
and, where necessai'y, the sorting slips, which had been kept tied up by occupa-
tions at the conclusion of sorting, were rechecked. The proportion of actual
workers and dependants in Table XV A was also closely scrutinized and a
similar procedure adopted where any startling features were revealed.
As a further precaution clean proofs of Table XV A were circulated to all
districts and the district officers were invited to criticise the figures relating
to their respective charges. The criticisms so received, were borne in mind in
finally checking the table, in order to make sure that no mistakes had really
crept in. Nevertheless, it would be rather sanguine to assert that the 6gures
given in the table are perfectly accurate. The most that can be said is, that
every conceivable expedient has been devised to ensure accuracy and that the
results may, for all practical purposes be viewed as correct. It may, however, be
noted that Table XV A represents the state of affairs on the night of the final Census
and does not take cognizance of seasonal occupations, which were in abeyance at the
time. On the other hand. Table XV E refers only to the factories that were at
work on the 10th of March 1911 and deals with the persons employed on that
day. These figures are quite distinct from those incorporated in Table XV A, for,
the persona, entered in the Special Industrial Schedule at midday of 10th March,
were again enumerated the followmg night at the General Final Census.
DISCUSSION OF THE STATISTICS.
598. The bulk of the tables connected with occupations render it an impossi- Preliminary
ble task to discuss, in detail, the various aspects in which they can be considered. Remarks.
Census Report, ]
492
DISCDSaiON OF THE STATISTICS.
Chapter
General dis
tribation
by classes
and sub-
classes.
A mass of information has been collected in the subsidiaiy tables which are avail-
able for the examination of minuter details. In the following pages only the
salient features will be noticed briefly, the variation against the figures of 1901
being mentioned, wherever necessary, in dealing with the distribution. It may
be noted at the outset that notwithstanding the efforts to arrange the figui-es of the
previous Census, as far as possible, in accordance with the groapiug now adopted,
the change in classification has, in many cases (particularly where old groups had
to be split up and the figures relegated to more places than one), rendered the
comparison more or less unreliable.
Functional distribution of the people-
599. The proportion of the population supported by the occupations falling
under each class and sub-
Number per 1,000 of total population.
"t
1 „•
atj"
Class and sub-class.
la
O.O.
O 3
ctual
worker
Class and sub-class.
ii
CO
... s
-1
P., QQ
-U
ii"
<^
A. — Production of raw
601
226
VI. — Public force ...
11
5
materials.
Vll. — Public adminis-
6
2
I. — Esploitatioii of
Goo
225
tration.
the surface of
VIII. — Professions and
25
10
the earth.
1
liberal arts.
II. — EitracticHi ol
1
1
IX.— Persons living
2
1
minerals.
principally on
B. — Preparation and
298
118
their own in-
supply of mater-
ial substances.
come.
D. — Miscellaneous ...
57
28
in. — Industry
203
83
X. — Domestic ser-
21
11
IV.— Transport ...
v.— Trade
30
65
12
23
XI,— Insufficiently
described oc-
11
5
C- -Public Adminis-
a
18
cupations.
tration and Li-
XII.— Unproductive,
25
12
beral Arts.
most important sub-class is
CEJCRAL OBTRBUnON Of PtPULATDN
BY OCtajPATIONS (^ CLASSEQ
KRJMBER PER MH.LE: OF POPULATION
UiiliiiiiiiiiTiTlTliiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiii)iiii;:iiiiinii!ii!!iiiiiiiiin
SIB CLASSES
•■UNJAB- 41
CITIES CD
PUNJAB ■<=
CITIES- -C3
O-fKASONS ,
class is noted in the mar-
ginal table. The production
of raw materials (class A)
supports 601 persons out
of every 1,000 and all but
one of them depend upon
the exploitation of the sur-
face of the earth (mainly
agriculture), one person per
mille being engaged in the
extraction of minerals.
The former sub-class of this
class is, therefore, of prime
importance in the Punjab.
The preparation and supply
of material substances (class
B) provides subsistence for
298 persons per mille. The
industry, which maintains 203 persons ; trade
comes next -,7ith 65, and transport is
fourth in importance "with 30 per mille.
Only 44 persons per mille are maintained
by occupations falling under Public
Administration and Liberal Arts (class
C), being distributed by sub-classes as
follows: — Pubhc force, 11; Public admin-
istration, 6 ; Professions and liberal arts,
25 ; persons living principally on their
own income, 2,
Under class D (miscellaneous), which
embraces 57 persons out of every 1,000,
are included the sub-classes of domestic
service, insufficiently described and un-
productive occupations, which support
21, 11 and 25 persons, respectively, per
mille. The diagram, printed in the
margin, illustrates the relative strength
of each of the sub-classes and some of the
smaller functional divisions in the whole
Province and the population of the cities
and selected towns. Allowing for the
difference of classificntion, the decrease in
the population of the Province seems to
have occurred mostly in class D. It has
contracted by 39 per cent, within the last
10 years. Classes B and C have also been
affected but quite imperceptibly, the de-
creases being '3 and '5 per cent, respec-
tively. Class A, on the other hand, which
493
XII. DISCUSSION OF THE STATISTICS. [ PlUljab, 1911.
ha3 gained in importance, now includes 2'6 per cent, more workers and dependants
than in 1901, notwithstanding the ravages of plague and mularia in its ranks. The
increase in class A has occurred mainly in sub-class I (exploitation of the surface oE
the earth). The strength of sub-class II (extraction of minerals) has more than
doubled itself but the figures are comparatively small. In class B, sub-class IV
(transport) shows a large increase of 55*6 per cent., owing to extensive canal
works, construction of roads and the extension of railways. But sub-
classes III (industry) and V" (trade) have shown decreases of 4-5 and 2*6
per cent, respectively, obliterating the increase shown by transport. In
class C (public force), sub-class VI supports 26-9 per cent, less persons than
10 years ago. Public administration (sub-class VII) has risen in strength by
15'4 and professions and liberal arts have gained 14-8 per cent. Persons liv-
ing mainly on their own income (sub-class IX) have, on the other band, decreased
by 7"8 per cent. In class D (miscellaneous) the largest decrease, 69 per cent., has
occurred in insufficiently described occupations (sub-class XD. The general con-
clusion that may be drawn from the above description is that it has been possible to
classify occupations, with greater certainty at the present Census by transferring a
good many of the unspecified occupations of the past Census to their proper heads;
that class D, which embraces the menial and baser occupations, has suffered most
from the heavy mortality during tbe deceunium just ended, and that industries which
include unclean professions, have also suffered to a comparatively large extent, while
trade has lost little. Transport has kept pace with the growth of trade and the
movements of population; and class A of which agriculture is the principal occu-
pation has actually grown in numbers. Tbe Public Administration has gained con-
sistently with the growing requirements of the population, and Professions and
Liberal Arts have also shown a welcome development. The growth of enterprise
ia evidenced by the fact that fewer persons are content to sit idle and live on
the income, which they receive without exertion. Of the total population of the
Province, 9,429,445, i.e , 39 per cent, are actual workers. In other words, one out
of every three inhabitants of the Province works for hid liveliliood, whether per-
sonally or through hie servants, and he supports the other two. From the figures
given in the last paragraph, it will be seen that the proportion of actual workers
-and dependants, in the unproductive professions (sub-class XII), is half and
half — that is the strength of actual workers is much above the Pro-
vincial average — and this ia aa it should be, for it includes inmates of asy-
lums, prisons, orphans, beggars, prostitutes, etc., who have few, if any, depend-
ants. Domestic service (sub-class X) has also as many dependants as workers.
Here again, every member of a family, who is capable of work takes up
some sort of service reducing the number of dependants to a minimum. These
two sub-classes have the highest percentage of actual workers. Of the classes,
too, U (miscellaneous), which includes the two sub-classes above alluded to, has as
many as 49 per cent, of actual workers against the provincial average of 39. Class
A maintains the largest proportion of dependants and class B stands next.
But taking the figures by sub-classes, ' Trade' and ' Public Administration ' Avhich
■contain some of the most prosperous people have as many as 65 dependants per
cent. — that is to say, every 7 workers support 13 dependants— or roughly speak-
ing, that every earning member has to maintain two persons besides himself.
Sub-Class I.— Exploitation of the surface of the earth.
600. Agriculture is the means of subsistence of 580 persons out of every Pastnre and
],000. The proportion is largest in the Himalayan Division, where as many as 8 1 5 ^S"™"'^*'
persons out of every 1,000 are connected with land (in the Chamba State all but 95 (Order I.)
per mille of the population being in one way or another connected with agricul- '^''■''^"^'"^•gv
ture), and lowest in the North- West Dry Area, while in the other two Natural ™'''"
Divisions the proportion is nearly equal. Looking into the figures of individual
districts and state-), it appears that fewer persons belong to this profession in
units, which have large trading or industrial centres. In Amritsar, for instance,
the proportion is only 374 per mille, in Lahore 450, in Montgomery where ex-
tensive canal works are in progress 492, in Multan which has a large com-
mercial town 458, and in Simla which is a small district comprising mostly an
■artificially collected population, only 472.
CcnsQi Report, ]
494
DISCUSSION OF THE STATISTICS.
Chaptbb
Subsidiary Table III indicates the varying strength of agricultural popula-
tion in each district and state. With reference to the
conditions prevailing in the Province, the persons
connected with agriculture hhve been divided into
(a) rent-receivers J (b) rent-payers — ■!. who are
self-cultivating proprietors ; 2. who are tenants ;
and (c) others — i.e., farm servants and agents, etc.
agriculturists, according to these sub-divisions is noted in
Agricultore
(a) Rent-receivers
(t) Rent-payers
(i) Cultivating proprietors
(ii) Tenants
(c) others
580
26
504
314
190
50
The distribution of the
the margin.
Eent-fsyerB. The Punjab has been described, repeatedly, as the Province of peasant
proprietors. The marginal figures above referred to show that this is only too
true. The rent-payers, i. e., actual cultivators (group 2 of Table XV A)
form the bulk of the agricultural population. The cultivating proprietors re-
present more thau fths of this group and have been treated as rent-payers,
in so far as they cultivate land, and, as if it were, pay rent to themselves.-
The real tenants, who cultivate for the proprietors or other tenants with a better
status — e.g. (occupancy tenants or farmers of land), include less than fths the
Strength of the group. The proportional strength of cultivating proprietors, also
known as peasant proprietors, is largest in
the Himalayan Division (see margin), where
the small holdings do not admit of large
farming, and the proprietors cannot live
without ploughing their own fields. In
the North- West Dry Area, the number of
tenants is very much high (300 per mille)
and that of cultivating proprietors propor-
tionately low (184 per mille). This is due
partly to the abundance of large land own-
ers (who are the remnants of tribal chiefs)
in the districts of the western Punjab,
Fattah Khan, the Maliks of Pindigheb, in Attock, the
Khans of Isa Khel in Mianwali, the Biloch Tiimandars
Number per mille of total population
supported in
CJ
a
C3
a
g
C3 ^
a
"3
>.
a
S
P
a
H- 1
K
CO
!z;
Agriculture
5C-1
815
5G3
559
(o) Rent- receivers ...
26
16
27
28
(I) Rent-pavers
470
782
5115
484
ii) Cultivating
313
611
355
184
proprietors.
(ii) Tenants ...
157
171
150
300
(e) Others
68
17
31
47
like the Sardar of Kot
Chief of Kalabagh, the
in Dera Ghazi Khan, the Tiwanas of yhahpur, and so on ; and partly to the capi-
talist grants in the Canal Colonies, where, in consequence of the growing
property, even the yeomen and peasant proprietors have begun largely to employ
tenants to cultivate the whole or part of their holdings. The districts of the
eastern and central Punjab, which are more democratic in their tenures, show a
high percentage of landlords cultivating their own lands.
Xt%t-receivers Rent-receivers are comparatively small in number and in the whole Pro-
vince they aggregate only 26 per mille and so al.'^o in the Indo-Gangetic Plain
West, while in the Himalayan Division only 16 per mille receive rent. In the
Sub-Himalayan tract, the proportion is above the Provincial average; and in the
North-West Dry Area it is somewhat higher still.
Otkert, The other agricultural occupations are named in the margin, with their
actual strength. The number of agents, mana-
gers, etc., is very small, being less than 1 per cent,
of the total number of other agriculturists. There
is no coffee or cinchona plantation iu this Province
and the number of persons employed exclusively in
connection with tea and indigo is also very limit-
ed. Ordinary labourers are employed for hoeing
and picking tea, during the respective seasons, anci
indigo is planted by ordinary cultivators. Indigo
churners are a special class but their operations
are confined to the months of August to October,
after which they follow other pursuits. There are
41 tea factories — 1 iuMandi and 40 in the Kangra
District mainly roundabout Palampur — with 3,914
operatives, 10 of them being under Kuropean supervision. Steam pow^er is used in
seven, oil in two, water in three, and steam and water power in one. Fruit, flower
and vegetable growers come up to about 2 per cent, of the total figures under
o
is
o,
°
Occupation.
Strength.
O
3
Agents, managers of land-
ed estates (not planters,
clerks, rent-collectors,
0,946
4
etc.).
Farm serrants and field
labourers.
1,192,187
5
Tea and indigo plant-
ations.
711
6
Fruit, flower, vegetable
growers, etc.
20,121
xn.
495
DISCUSSION OF THE STATISTICS.
[ Punjab, 1911.
others. Farm servants and field labourers represent 97 per cent, thereof, and
therefore, constitute the main strength of persons falling under this head. On the
•whole, farm servants, etc., constitute i-gth of tlie total agricultural population.
As would be expected, the number of such servants and labourers is fewest in
the Himalayan Division (16 per mille), but it is not much larger in the Sub-
Hiraalayan Division, either. As many as 45 per mille were found to be era-
ployed in the North-West Dry Area at the Final Census, when neither harvesting
nor sowing operations were in progress, mainly owingj to the necessity of employ-
ing men on irritjation wells, which are namerous in that tract, and of engaging ser-
vants to help the cultivating proprietors in the colonies, where canal irrigation de-
mands constant attention. Bnt the proportion was still higher in the Indo-Gangetic
Plain West, and there, again, the colonisation in the Gujranwala and Lahore Dis-
tricts, the well irrigation in Jullnndurand Ludhiana, and the custom, in the central
and eastern Punjab Districts, of keeping a number of Chuhra and Chamar servants,
to look after the plough cattle and help in cultivation, have tended to raise the
figure. It may be noted that the majority of the farm servants are supplied by
the Chuhra, Chamar and other menial castes. Occasional farm labourers are
recruited largely from the Bagri or Mareoha immigrants from Rajputfina, at
harvest times, when they travel about in large gangs in search of employment.
But they could not appear in the occupation table, as the Final Census was taken
before the spring harvesting operations were actually commenced.
Besides 5,143,377 actual workers and 8,893,599 dependants, who have re- Estimate of
turned agriculture as their principal occupation, there are 282,468 (actualti^^ •^^p^^'^"
workers) who are partially agriculturists, i.e., who gave some form of agiicultureiTiion oS"^^*
as their subsidiary occupation, combined with some non-agricultural principal agriculture,
occupation. Half of these, with their dependants, may be assumed to depend on
agriculture. But in estimating the correct strength of the population dependent
on agricultural pursuits, it has to be borne
in mind that 354,069 (actual workers) of
the persons, who returned this calling as
their principal occupation, also belong to
other non-agricultural occupations. It is
most likely that the majority of these
persons depend more on other pursuits,
and claim to he agriculturists merely be-
cause of the higher status attaching to the
holders of land. But in any case half of
these Mctual workers and their dependants
should be ignored in estimating the de-
pendence of population on agriculture.
The number of dependants of the two
latter sets is not available but, arguing by
analogy of the agriculturists, it may be
assumed that 13,939,273 persons (workers
and dependants) — i.e., 577permille of the
total population of the Province, subsist
on agriculture, as worked out in the margin.
But it has also to be remembered that cultivators usually keep cattle for
breeding purposes and add to their income by the sale of dairy produce and of
live-stock and that not a few of them work as labourers, ply camels or bullock- -
carts on hire fmd follow other pursuits, during the slack agricultural seasons,
and consequently the dependence of the population entirely on agriculture should
perhaps be estimated at 50 per cent.
Pasture covers groups 9 to 12 of Table XV A. Tlio total number of per- p^^..^^
sons, who returned one of these as their principal occupation, represents 17 per (Groups'
mille of the population and has increased from 209,723 to 406,766 i.e., by 94 ^-'2)
percent. Bnt it must not be inferred that this signifies a real growth of
pastoral occupations, or that pasture is now supporting a larger population than
it did ten years ago. The figures of 1901 have been arrived at by splitting up
several old groups and are, therefore, not very rehable for purposes of comparison.
Moreover, it is a fact that women and boys of cultivators, particularly tenants,
Workers.
Dependants.
■yVho returned agricul-
ture as their principal
occupation.
Deduct—
One-half of those who
returned other pro-
fessions as their sub-
sidiary occupations.
5,143,377
177,031
8,893,599
306,116
Balance
Add—
One-half of partially
agriculturists.
4,966,343
141,234
8,587,483
244,213
Total
5,107,577
8,831,606
13,939,273
Census Report, ]
496
DISCUSSION OF THESTATISTICS.
Chaptkb
who usually tend the cattle, have been returned as actual workers, under the head
of Lerdsmeu, shepherds, etc., to a much larger extent than in 1901, when most of
them appeared as dependants of the heads of their families. As a consequence
of the extension of cultivation alluded to in paragraph 59 of Chapter II, and the
decrease of the waste area from 22,213,455 (1901-02) to 20,173,657 (1909-10),
the dependence on pasture should show a contraction, but it has to be borne in
mind that while cultivation adversely affects the breeding of sheep and goats, which
must have a Avaste area to brow-^e upon (the figures in Subsidiary Table VII
show a falling off in sheep, goat and pig breeders) of 72 per cent., cattle
rearing is an adjunct of farming and the growth of cultivation is accompanied
by an increase in the number of cattle. This process is exemplified best in the
Canal Colonies. Some of the tenants there have become regular cattle breeders,
on a small scale, and the status of a cattle breeder {milddr) being considered
higher than that of a mere tenant, they have in many cases preferred to call them-
selves by the former name. This is what accounts for a rise of 104 per cent.
in the number of cattle and buffalo breeders and keepers.
Pasture is shown by Subsidiary Table II to support 29 per mille of the
population in the North- West Dry Area, which includes the greater part of the
Chenab and the whole of the Jhelum colony, and also districts like Mianwali
and Muzaffargarh, containing large tracts of sandy desert and low hills, the
inhabitants of which are still largely pastoral. The Sub-Himalayan tract, which
is thickly populated and cultivated in small holdings, leaves small room for
pasture and consequently the pastoral inhabitants of that division contribute
only 10 per mille to the total population.
The dairy faims and piggery noted in the margin are the only large
industrial undertakings belonging to this
head. The dairy at Rawalpindi bslongs
to Government and the one at Patiala
to the State. The Government fodder
compressing works at Amritsar using
steam power, with 37 operatives, should
also, perhaps, be mentioned here. There
District or State.
Description.
No.
Opera-
tives.
Rawalpindi
Patkiia '.'.'. ".'
Piggery
Dairy Farm ...
1
I
1
37
52
36
is no other fodder press in the Province,
RsMiig and 601. Fishing and hunting are numerically unimportant occupations, em-
Hunting, bracing only one per mille of the total population. Hunting as a means of livelihood
(Order 2) is dying ouf, as the stock of game is rapidly decreasing consequent on the
shrinkage of cover, due to the extension of cultivation and the nomad tribes
like the Gedris and Bawarias are, perforce, settHng down to cultivation and other
kinds of labour, when they cannot get enough by begging. The total number
of hunters has decreased from 3,160 to 2,137 and at the next Census there will
probably be very few person.^, who will own entire dependence on this pursuit.
FisMng. Xhe fishing industry, though insignificant in numbers, is yet intei'esting and
full of possibilities. The adherents of this occupation have increased from 7,326
to 10,162 — I.e., by 38*7 per cent. A large number of fishermen by tradition,
however, live mainly on aUied work such as plying boats or carrying water,
and this increasing tendency of the conservative fisherfolk to combine other
trades with their own, marks the depletion of the Punjab waters and the gradual
decay of their craft. As the fishermen themselves say, there are in many
districts as many fishermen as fish, and the five thousand odd miles of large
rivers and major c^inals in the Punjab probably produce less food than any equal
volume of water in the civilized world. Tin's result has been brought about by
years of unrestiicted fishing, by the obstruction of the free passage of fish to their
spawning ground (notably \n the Ravi) and by the unchecked destruction of
immature fish and " fry" in the shallow waters in which they breed. Fortunately
most Indian species are both prolific and hardy, and it is to be hoped that the
recent initiation of a Department of Fisheries will result in the resuscitation of
the industry, when methods of conservation and restocking have been worked out.
The largest numbers of fishermen have been returned from the districts
and states named in the margin. These figures
Bahawalpur
Kangra
Aliizaffargnrh
2,R92
1,251
1.067
are
interesting, as indicating the close connection between
waters unimpeded by irrigation dams and a numerous
XII.
497
DISCDSSION OF THE STATISTICS.
[ Pnnjab, 1911.
Jheliun
Uianwaii
Di$trict.
Jhelnin
Bhahpur
Iflianwali
No.
3
1
2
... 2,988
... 410
Operative$.
],353
39
59
fishing population. But there is probably now not one man who makes
his living exclusively by the capture and sale of fish in Kangra. The District
contains the most important spawning grounds in the Province, But they
have for years been subjected to insensate depredation of all sorts and the annual
destruction of 'fry ' by poisoning and other illicit methods is incalculable. The
Jhinwars and Dreins, who do not use illitiit methods, openly deplore this cutting
of their supplies at the source.
The fish markets in order of importance are Lahore, Delhi, Ambala,
Multan and Amritsar. Small quantities of fish are also sold in Eawalpindi, and
Jhelum and other towns, and the demand is such that fish from Muzaffargarh
finds its way into the Lahore market by rail. But even in Lahore the supply is
quite inadequate and what should be a cheap and wholesome diet is
in fact a costly luxury practically throughout the Punjab, although there are few
villages in which it is not eagerly eaten when procurable.
Subclass H.—Extraotlon of minerals.
602. The Punjab is not known to possess much mineral wealth except in Mines,
common ealt, and only 1 per mille of the population depends upon occupations (O'^^^r 3).
falling under that sub-class ; but in its small way, mining is coming into
prominence, the population dependant on it having risen from 16,687 to 36,132
within the past decade.
Entries of coal mines are found mainly in the Jhelum and Mianwali Districts Coai Minei.
(see margin), but there are a few entries in Shahpur, Sialkot ^*^''°°P ^^^•
and some other Districts as well. The coal mines which were
found at work are named in the margin, 'I'he principal coal
mine of the Province is that at Dandot (Jhelum) worked by
the North-Western Railway in two places, the Dandot branch
under a European Mining Manager and the other at Chiti Dand and Rakh Dalwal
through a Company. Next in importance is that at Pidh Ratocha also situated in
the same district and managed for the North-Western Railway by a Company
employing 161 operatives. There is a small mine at Katha in the Salt-range of the
Shahpur District with only 3P workers. Besides the coal found in the Salt-
range, some deposits have been discovered and tapped in the Maidani range which
encircles the north and west of the Isa Ehel Tahsil in the Mianwali District.
Shafts have been sunk at Lamshiwal and Makarwal by private enterprize, and
have turned out up to 100 tons a day by fits and starts, but the mine has not yet
developed into a working or a paying concern. The operatives in the two branches
of the mine number only 59. The coal industry of the Province is not in a
flourishing condition, and the reduction of freight on Bengal Coal having resulted in
a loss in the working of the Railway mines, it is proposed to close all three of them.*
603. This group includes the extraction of stone, kankar (calcareous con- Quarries of
Crete), slate and chalk. The occupations afford employment to 8,197 persons and ^'^'* '■°''^"'
support 16,119. Though numerically unimportant, the strength of the profession '^""^ ^^'
has been nearly doubled in ten years in consequence of the growing deman-d for
stone ballast and other material for metalling roads. Chalk is dug out of pita
at Malakpur-Kohi and K^simpur in the Delhi District, The stone, slate and
kankar quarries at work, at the special
Census, are noted in the margin. All the
three stone quarries are managed by the Ir-
rigation Section of the Government Public
Works Department. The 'I'rakki quarry is
the largest, employing 1,140 persons in all
and worked mainly for the Railway, although stone is also sold to the public for
building and other purposes. The other two quarries have been returned as using
Bteam power, but they only employ a steam locomotive for transhipping the stones.
The slate quarry lies in Kangra. Roofing slates are extracted in several places
in the hills, but the introduction of corrugated iron sheet which are much more
durable, has practically killed the industry, and there is but one quarry now employ-
ing more than 20 operatives, Kankar is extracted in small quantities in most
districts, but in Gujranwala alone there is a quarry where 151 operatives are
District.
Description.
No.
Operatives.
Jhelnm
KsDgra „.
Gniranwaln
Stone quarry...
Slate
Kankar
3
1
1
1,889
210
151
employed on the work.
• See nots on Dandot Colliery printed as Appendix IV to Latifi'a Indnstrial Punjab', pp. 298, 299.
Censas Report. ]
408
DISCnSSION OF THE STATISTICS.
Chaptkb
Common salt.
(Group 19).
604. The extraction of salt is the means of subsistence of only 4,752 per-
sons, but it is the most important industry of the class. The figures given in Subsi-
diary Table \'II, which show that the strength has risen from 54 in 1901, are mis-
leading, as these figures only cover the salt makers of the Rohtak* and Gurgaon
Districts, The workers at the salt mines were then included in miners unspecified
and have now consequently been placed against group 18 (other minerals). There
hag probably been no real increase in the strength of salt miners. Salt making is
a minor occupation in the eastern Punjab. Persons still engaged in the industry
in the Rohtak and Gurgaon Districts have returned themselves mainly as
agriculturists with salt making as their subsidiary occupation, and local enquiries
have shown this to be correct. The numbers still returned as salt makers are noted
1 in the margin. Salt is also manufactured in the Mandi State
Rohtak
GurgaoD
industry.
13
Extraction
saltpetre,
alam, &c.
<Groupao).
of
The recent
Industrial
Survey.
Textiles.
(Order 6).
where 42 persons (actual workers 29) are supported by the
Tbere are two salt factories in Mfindi with 302 operatives including
28 persons employed in supervision, etc., and .20 skilled workmen. Kock salt is
extracted in the Mayo salt mines at Khowra (Jhelum), the Warchha mines at
Warchha (Shahpur) and the salt pits at Kalabagh (Mianwali). The number of
persons returned under the occupation in each of these districts i.s given in the
jheinm 3 9*4 mfirgiu. The Salt mines and pits are Government concerns,
shahpnr '.'.'. 'in The Khewra paines had 932 operatives on 10th March 1911 and
Mianwali ... 500 ^^^^^ ^^ Warchlia 72. The Kalabagh pits are worked spasmodi-
cally and at the time of the Special Industrial Census, tbe number of workmen
did not come up to 20.
605. As many as 11,546 persons live on the extraction of saltpetre and
alum. Saltpetre is manufactured in the Delbi Division (except Simla District),
and the Lahore, Shahpur, MianwaH and Montgomery Districts and the Patiala and
Bahawalpur States. An account of the process of manufacture and the extent
of the industry is given in Latifi's Industrial Punjab.!
The manufacture of alum is confined to Kalabagh and Kotki in the
Mianwali District.f
Sub-Class III.— Industry.
606. An Industrial Survey of the Punjab was made by Mr. A. Latifi,
I.C.S., in 1909-10. The results are dealt with in his excellent compilation entitled
the ' Industrial Punjab.' It is, therefore, unnecessary to deal, at length, with the
condition of the indigenous handicrafts and the effect of modern industrial
developments. In the following paragraph, I have drawn upon the book in
illustrating the Census figures.
607. Next to the works connected with dress and toilet, the textile indus-
tries are the most important in the Province, and over a million persons {i.e., 45
permille of the total population) depend upon
them. The number of persons classed under
each of the groups included under the order
' textiles ' is noted in the margin. Cotton weav-
ing with spinning and sizing is out and
out tbe largest. Industries connected with
cotton take up the lion's share and completely
dwarf the strength of the other branches
of textile manufacture.
608. The old Bdna (hand ginning ma-
chine) is going completely out of fashion, ex-
cept in isolated and out of the way tracts not
within easy reach of the modern ginning
factories, and the indigenous Penjd, Pinjerd
or Kassdb (cotton scutcher) is fast disappear-
ing. Cotton pressing is eminently a new idea.
With 65 ginning factories at work it is no
wonder that the total number of persons dependent on gmning, etc., should have
diminished from 139,301 to 89,743, i.e., by 36 per cent, since 1901.
Gronp
No.
Ocoapation.
Streogtb.
21
Cotton ginning, cleaning
and preasing
89,743
22
Cotton spinning, sizing
and weaving
883,156
23
Jnte spinning, pressing
and weaving
1,449
24
Ropo, twine and string ..
8,349
25
Other fibres
32,223
Cotton gin-
26
Wool carders, spinners
ning, cleaning
and weavers of woollen
and pressing.
blankets, carpets, etc....
17,023
(Qroup 21).
27
Silk spinners and wsavers
13,584
28
Hair, camel and horse
hair, bristle work, brush
maker, &c.
593
30
Dyeing, printing, bleach-
ing, etc., of teitiles ...
1S,786
SI
others
23,575
• There is a small colony of salt makers at Zahidpar in the Rohtak Diatriot,
t Edition 1911, pp. 138, 139.
J Latifi's ' Industrial Punjab," pp. 134, 135,
499
XII.
DI8CDBSI0N or THE 8TATISTIC3.
L Punjab. 1911.
609. The strength of spinners, sizers, and weavers of cotton has decreased Cotton spin-
8 per cent, from 959,688 to 883,155. This decrease is due partly to the replacing "IdVeaiin^g.
of handlooms and the connected handicraft by spinning and weaving machinery (0"^°"? 22).
which aims at reducing hand labour to a minimum, and partly owing to excessive
mortality in the classes of which the indigenous weaving profession is composed.
The high prices together with the keen competition with piece-goods of
foreign manufacture have also proved pi'ejudicial to demands on power-worked
and hand industry. The weaver is still indispensable almost everywhere,
but he is being gradually edged out by the products of the power loom ;
and those who cling to their traditional occupation have to eke out their living,
more and more, by working in the fields. A few characteristics of the Julaha
(weaver) are given in Chapter XI,* It is also well known that the women of the
^amindars are giving up cotton spinning for more lucrative subsidiary occupations
such as cotton picking.
In the margin are named the districts and states where the profession is
still in considerable strength. In Chapter
I of his bookt Mr. Latifi has given an ex-
cellent account of the indigenous weaving
industry of the Province and has suggested
measures for its improvement. Hand-
looms are being encouraged by Govern-
ment and the Salvation Army Weaving School at Ludhiana which attracts weaver
boys from long distances and is doing most useful work. The improved hand-
looms of the Salvation Army pattern are being introduced in many places.
610. The factories which have been one of the causes of reducing the The Cotton
number of cotton giuners (indigenous) and weavers have.on the other hand, been a ^*°*°"^*-
great boon to the people by saving labour and setting it free for the ever increas-
ing demand in other directions ; and we find in Subsidiary Table VIII, that weavers
(Julaha by caste) are taking largely to other professions, 164 per mi lie of them
being engaged
District or
No.
District or
No.
State.
supported.
State.
supporttd.
Hoshiarpur
... 66,140
Guj rat ...
... 38,638
Sialkot ...
... 62,91S
Multan ...
... 38,553
Jullundur
... 47,149
Lahore ...
... 36,032
Guj ranwala
... 40,874
Patiala ...
... 35,707
Gurdaspur
... 39,611
Shahpur ...
... 32,293
Amritaar ...
... 39,332
Jhang
... 31,655
District
Description.
or
j=
^i
State.
2 s.
22
w °
Cotton gin-
Total ...
1,466
nicg.
Hisear ...
3
260
Delhi
2
127
Ludhiana ...
2
322
Lahore...
3
120
Shahpnr
6
311
l.yallpur
2
171
Jhang ..
1
21
Moltan
2
81
D. G. Khan ...
1
43
Cotton ipin-
Total
11
1,0.58
ning.
Delhi
10
760
Aroritear
1
308
•Cotton weav.
Total ...
3
12s
ing.
Simla ...
1
42
Ladbiana
1
25
Lahore...
J
56
Cotton press ...
Total
3
98
Delhi
1
21
Lahore
2
77
Cotton spin-
Total ...
3
1,843
ning and weav-
Delhi
2
1,004
ing.
Lahore ...
1
639
Cotton ginning,
Delhi
1
f>l6
spinning and
weaving.
■ss
District
il
SI >
Description.
or
.^
^'^
State.
ti
ai III
p
15
Si °
Cotton ginning
Total
i,287
and pressing.
Gurgaon
1
a*
Lahore ...
2
183
Shahpur
2
143
Montgomery ...
1
75
Lyallpnr
8
785
Mnltan
1
77
Ginning and
Total ...
4
287
pressing with
Muzaffargarh ...
1
08
other indus-
Uera Ghazi Khan
1
46
tries,
Shahpur
1
142
I'atiala
1
31
Cotton press
Patiala
1
59
and flour mill.
Weaving with
Total
?.
133
other indas-
Gujranwala
1
61
triea.
Ludhiana
1
72
Ginning with
Total ...
23
1,012
other indus-
Ferozepore
2
68
tries.
AmritSar
3
210
Gajranwala
1
20
Shahpur
2
140
Multan...
4
168
Muzaffargarh ...
1
35
Dera Ghazi Khan
0,
07
Bahawalpur
3
112
Lahore ...
1
32
Lyallpur
1
28
Kapurthala
1
46
Ambala
1
30
Delhi
1
86
in agriculture
and other occu-
pations for
exploitation of
the surface of
the earth, 60
in industries
other than
weaving and
25 in trans-
port. At the
Special Indus-
trial Census
taken at mid-
day on the
lOtl) March
1911, the fac-
tories (with
not less than
20 operatives)
named in the
margin were
found to be at
work. In no
bnmch of in-
dustry has the
use of mechanical power by means of imported machinery been introduced so largely
as in the various stages of manufacture of cotton piece-goods. "Notwithstanding the
difficulties created by the unusually high prices of cotton which have ruled, of late.
* See Glossary.
■f Industrial Punjab.
Census Report,]
500
DISCUSSION OP THE STATISTICS.
Chaptee
Jate.
(Gronps 23
and 94).
Other fibres.
(GroopaS).
no less than 88* cotton factories were at work on tte 10th March 1911, with
7,712 operatives, including 34 European and 2,889 Indian skilled workmen.
Eight of the large works are under European supervision. The most popular
kind of factories is the type in which ginning is combined with floor grinding,
rice husking, oil pressing, etc. The establishment is small and the various
branches work alternately or simultaneously according to requirements. There
are 23 such factories with 20 to 86 operatives in each. Four factories take up
ginning and pressing along with rice husking and flour-milling and one, at
Patiala, presses cotton and grinds flour. The Industrial Home at Gujranwala gives
practical training in weaving, carpentry, shoe-making, etc., while the Weaving
and Carpentry School at Ludhiana restricts instructions to the two branches of
industry. Twenty-two factories are devoted to ginning alone, 11 to spinning, 3 to
weaving and 3 to pressing cotton only. Spinning and weaving are combined in
the three largest factories in Delhi and Lahore with an aggregate of 1,643 opera-
tives and one at Delhi carries on ginnins:, spinning and weaving simultaneously,
while ginning and pressing are undertaken by 15.
Steam power is used by 71 of the factories, 3 are worked with oil engines,
one depends upon steam and oil and another on steam and electricity. The two
industrial schools use no power and the 8 spinning (at Delhi) and 2 weaving
factories of the old type (at Ludhiana and Simla) turn out work by hand.
611. Jute spinning and weaving is a minor industry in this Province, but
the manufacture of articles of San (Crotalaria Juncea) string afi^ords the means of
livelihood to 8,349 persons in the plains
612
Wool.
(Qroap 26).
Mnzaffargarh
Eoshiarpur
Ferozepore
Lahore
Dera Ghazi Klian
The manufacture of ropes from Mn7ij (Sacchrum Munja) which
4,469 grows in abundance on the rivers, is quite an important in-
4,368
8,764
2,724
2,403
1911.
1901.
Group 21
Do. 2a ...
8,349
32,223
23,979
1.232
Total ...
40,572
25.211
dustry. The total number dependent on it, is 32,223, the
largest figures being returned from the districts named
in the margin. There has been a certain amount of
overlapping between groups 25 and 24 and the marginally noted figures classed
Bahawaipur 2 507 ^^ ^^® latter gfoup probably represent a good deal of work in
Gurdaspur ... ... 1,147 Mvtij fibre. The Labauas of the western Punjab depend very
Muzaffargarh ... 1,014 largely on this occupation and even where they have
settled down as cultivators, they add appreciably to their income by the manu-
facture of Munj. The industry is, however, in a very
crude condition, and the ropes so manufactured are
used mainly in well gear, nets, building works and
netting charpoys. For purposes of comparison groups
24 and 25 should bo taken together. The rope industry
appears to be keeping pace with the growing require-
ments of the people as the marginal figures will show.
613. The wool industry is still of importance in this Province, althougti it
appears to be on the wane. The total number of persons supported by' it has fallen
from 32,361 to 17,023 or by 47 per cent, during the past decade. The cheap im-
ported woollen goods and those manufactured at Uhariwal are gradually replacing
the crude indigenous product. In the higher classes, furs, pattds and padded cot-
ton cloaks have gone completely out of fashion and the local blankets (Lois, Dhus-
sas, Blnlras, etc.) are giving way to cheap foreign blankets, woollen Ghddars
(sheets), etc. Owing to the large export of woolt and the demand created by the
Indian woollen mills, the price of this commodity has risen and the blankets of
local manufacture though warmer and more lasting cannot compete with the
cheaper (though of inferior material) production of foreign manufacture, and
are losing ground in the natural demand for cheap articles. But it has
to be remembered that all weavers who did not specify the particular
branch of the profession to which they belonged had to be classed as cotton
weavers and so the strength of the adherents of this group is somewhat below the
• It shonld be noticed thnt many of the smaller ginninj; factories work only periodically, immediately after
the cotton hnryest, beginninf; in October or November and Instinfj till February or March. The combination of
the owners of such factories into what are known as pools also accounts for the closnre of a nomlier of them.
t The following figures of export of wool for the Province are excerpted from Latifi's ' Industrial Punjab,' p. 56 :—
Mds. I Mds.
1905-06 136,667 1907-08 91,917
190607 100,312 I 1908-09 „. 129,818
501
XII.
DISCDSSION OF THE STATISTICS.
[ Punjab, 1911.
District.
Worleers and
dependants.
Aniritsar
... 3,548
Kangra
... I,fi81
Karnal
... 1,827
Gurdaspur
... 1,341
Gujrat
... 1,2l'9
Sialkot
... 1,1^7
Jhelum
... ],f'4l
Ludhiana
812
mark.' The new Egerton Woollen Mills of Dbariwal are the only factory
■which deals with wool fron:: its initial stages of cleaning to the final process of
■weaving. It is a large European-owned concern with 1,147 operatives, including
887 skilled workers, 59 of whom are females. There are
a wool cleaning machine and flour mill, a wool baling press
and a wool, sugar and flour mill in the Ferozepore District,
at Fazilka, which is the great centre of trade in wool. An
interesting account of the wool industry is given by Mr.
Latifi.* The important centres of wool industry are named
in the margin. Amritsar which has a large population of
Kashmiri weavers, turns out the largest amount of hand-
woven woollen cloth, crude or washed (Mdlidd) and dyed, with or without embroi-
dery, and is also the largest
woollen carpet weaving centre.
The carpet weaving factories
which were at work on the
day preceding the Final
Census, are enumerated in the margin.
614. Like other spinniuff and weaving industries, silk also shows a de-Silk.
cline of 19-5 per cent, (see margin). Little raw silk jg (**'^°"P ^^J-
produced in the Province.! The manufacture consists
of spinning, dyeing and weaving the raw silk imported
from China, Japan and Bokhara. Silk embroidery affords
occupation to females in all parts of the Province, and mixed silk and cotton
piece-goods (such as Lungis, Ghddars, Dotahis, etc., with a silk edging) are
woven by the indigenous weaver almost everywhere. But silk spinning and
jl^ltan 3 922 "Weaving on an extensive scale are confined to large urban
Amritsar ...
Jullundur ...
District.
Description.
No.
Opera-
tives.
Amritsar
Gurdaspur
Amritsar
Woollen carpet-weaving ...
Ditto
f'otton and wool carpet-weavinp...
5
3
1
747
167
37
1901
1911
Difference
16,885
) 3,584
-3,301
3,867
1,7U0
centres, as the marginal figures will show. J The Amritsar
city alone has as many as 2,337 persons engaged in silk
manufacture compared with 3,867 for the whole of that District.
Enquiries show that a good deal of silk work of various kinds is turned
out at Gujranwala, but it is doubtful whether there are really 1,301 silk weavers
there. Obviously traders in silk cloth have gone to swell the figures of this
occupation. There are two silk factories at Amritsar, one called the Silk Filature
aud the other the Silk Cloth factory. The former spins silk yarn aud the latter
weaves Darydi (silk cloth). The former is worked with steam power and
employs 26 workers, the latter consisting only of handlooms, has 358 operatives.
Khushab in the Shahpur District has about 50 looms which originally manu-
factured plain and bordered Darydis and lungis, but as remarked by Mr. Latifi,
" the weavers are finding it more profitable to produce the coarse cotton fabrics "
and consequently only 6 (actual workers) have been returned as silk weavers in
the whole of the Shahpur District, the rest appearing as weavers of cotton.
Delhi has practically no silk weaving, the 15 male and 304 female workers being
engaged on silk spinning, carding and other subsidiary processes.
615. The other textile industry, which includes lace, crape, embroidery, ot'>er lace,
etc., as well as insufficiently described entries, has naturally shown a dechne owing d?ry!'et™. '^°'"
to more careful classi- (Group 3i>.
fication. But so far as
the manufacture of
gold-lace is concerned,
there has been a real
decline for reasons
mentioned under
group 89. Figures of
persons dependent on
gold-lace making are
given in the margin.
It will be noticed that
Total
Pbovince.
Delhi
City.
Lahore City.
amritsar
City.
>- a
i; a
" a
Detail.
J s.
■^ a.
<D 5
I"" ■
_. -a "c
CO a a
E-i
14,390
2
Total wol
and de
dants.
O
Total wor
aud de
dants.
Workers.
10
Total wor
and de
dants.
U
O
Lace, goldbraid
4,635
10,484
2,568
. i1
233
138
(Gota) weaving
6,948
3,183
6,304
1,976 ...
187
599
Embroidery, gold thread
msking
741
697
356
300 66
47
12
5
• Latie's ' Industrial Punjab,' Chapter V.
t A small quantity is prodnt ed in Gurdaspur.
t For an account of the silk industry see Chapter IV of Latifi'a ' Industrial Punjab."
Census Report, ]
502
DISCUSSION OP THE STATISTICS.
Chaptbe
IQ
Hides, skins
etc.
(Order 7).
TanDcrB, etc.
(Groups 32
and 8ii).
Wood.
(Order 8).
Sawyers,
Carpenters
and Joiners.
(Gronp 3G).
Tanners, 4c. (group 32') ..
Makers of leather articles (group 33) ...
Shoe, boot, and sandal makers (group 60)
Total
1901.
312,250
3,788
44U.253
756,291
the industry is practically confined to the city of Delhi. It still survives
Aroritsar, but is in a precarious condition and is dying out of Lahore.
616. The occupations connected with leather are so mixed up that their
classification under groups 32, 33 and 69 is much of a muchness. In rural
tracts, a Chamar in the eastern and Mocbi in the western Punjab will do the
tanning, and also manufacture water-bags (A/as/i/j/f«) sis well as country shoes,
etc. In the larger industrial centres, the branches are more defined. In
comparing the figures with those of
1901 the tliree groups above alluded
to should be taken together. The
figures given in the margin will show
that on the whole, there has been a
decrease of 126,423 persons or of
1 7 per cent, in dependants on the
leather industry. According to
Latifi this would be attributable
to the decline in the export of tanned leather in consequence of the im-
position of prohibitive duties ou tanned as distinguished from raw pelts, by
most of the Kuropean importing countries.* But the variation noticed above
is due in no small measure to the thinning down of the castes which belong to
the.se occupations, by tradition. The Chamars alone show a decrease of 79,730
(see Subsidiary Table II to Cliapter XI). On the other hand, the extensive use
of boots and shoes of Kuropean manufacture leaves little room for the development
of shoemaking, while the manufacture of the more expensive Panjabi shoes is
practically dying ovit, except for sale as curiosities. The special Industrial
Census showed three leather factories at work, two at Lahore with 68 workers
and one at Gujranwala with 34.
617. Wood industry is one of those which have shown an all round deve-
iopment. It embr.aces 2 per cent, of the total population.
374,926 The figures of persons classed under this order are com-
pared in the margin and exhibit an increase of over 29
per cent.
618. The bulk of the artizans are Carpenters and Sawyers and these
occupations would appear to have gained 105,229 or 38 per cent. But the
professions of carpenter and blacksmith (Tarkhan and Lobar) overlap each
other and persons belonging to either traditional occupation will soraetiraes act
as masons. The increase noticed here is almost wholly counterbalanced by a
decrease of 107,051 in plough and ag;ricultural im|)lement makers (gronp 39), and
is therefore more apparent than real. Mr. Latifi has started a theoryt that the
wood industry thrives in the sub-montane districts which are nearest the source
of supply of timber and languishes in the treeless plains of Hissar, Mianwali,
Ludhiana and Multan ; although he qualifies his opinion in view of the importance
of certain centres of the industry. But none of the sjb-montane districts
flourishes upon the hill timber in respect of which the tract stands somewhat
in advantage. The facility of transport of timber by rivers ami rail, places
all markets on u more or less similar footing. The manufactures, for which
certain localities are noted, are connected mainly with sliiaham (Dilbergia
Sissoo) which is so common in all the districts served by the t'unjab rivers.
Carpenters seem to be in abundance in districts (1) where building operations
are in progress on an extensive scale, and (2) which have towns or tracts known
for special manufactures. The largest
figures of the occupation came from the
marginally noted di.stricts. Almost all the
1011
1901
+ 109,823
Sialkot ...
... 26,973
Gurdaspur
... 13,163
Lahore ...
... 22,620
Multan ...
... 13,100
Amritsar
... i!l,454
Lvallpur
... 12,578
Cujraiiwala
... 21,225
Ambaia
... 12,553
Paliala ...
... 19,141
Shahpur
... 11,09.5
Hoshiarpur
... 17,211
Karnal ...
... 11,406
Jullundur
... 16,934
Jhang ...
... 11,312
Gujrat ...
.. 13,984
Ludhiana
... 11,008
Ferozepore
... 13,570
units have large progressive towns where
building operations and the manu-
facture of furniture, etc., afford a large
opening to carpenters. Sialkot has,
moreover, been an industrial centre for a long time. 'I'he Siaikot paper was till
• For facts and ligures sae Latifi's ' Industrial Punjab.' pages 100, and 101 and his exhaustive account of the
leather industry in Chapter VIII.
f Industrial Punjab,' page 209, For an account of tbe wood industries see Chapters XIV and XV of the
same book.
XII.
503
DISCUSSION OF THE STATISTICS.
[ Punjab, 1911.
recently out and out the mosb durable and well polished indigenous variety,
cane and other wooden "sticks have for a considerable time been largely manu-
factured there, and wittiin the past iew years, the town of Sialkot has become an
important depot for sporting outfit and requisites such as cricket and tennis bats,
polo and hocky sticks, etc. Sialkot has two " Sporting Goods works," with 270
operatives one of them using steam power and the other an oil engine. Gujran-
wala has n similar factory with 42 workers but without any mechanical power.
The importance of the Liiliore and Ami'itsar Districts lies in the cities of those
names which are developing steadily in architecture. In the former, buildings
are springing up like mushrooms. The Victoria Diamond .Jubilee Hindu
Technical Institute, for teaching mechanical works at Lahore, has also been
enumerated as a factory. The attendance on the 10th Mai'ch 1911 was 95.
The Patiala State has more than one progressive town and the formation
of new towns and villages in the canal colonies, with 7na?jc^w, etc., accounts for
the large numbers of carpenters in GujranwalH, Lyallpur, Shahpur and Jhang
Districts. The last is also well known for excellent shisham wood carving and
panels inlaid with brass, made at Chiniot. Sfihiwal in Shahpur is also famous
for small ornamental boxes, bedsteads, etc. The boxes, toys, etc., of Hoshiarpur,
Tuade of shisliam and inlaid with ivoiy, are exported far and wide and the town
of Kartarpur is a great centre for the manufacture of chairs, tables and other
furniture prepared from shisham and tun (Cedrela Toona) wood. Gujrat is also
known for its wooden furniture (mobtly of shisham) which is supplied throughout
the Province. Teak is nciw largely used for the more expensive oinam^^ntal
requisites. The figures of the Delhi District are comparatively small, even though
it includes tho city of Delhi. This is because stone is used extensively there
for architectural purposes in place of wood. The Muzaffargarh District, is one
of the best s/?i.s7ir3m-prodncing areas and the wood is exported in large quantities,
as the local demand for the construction of buildings is limited and no wooden
manufacture of importance is peculiar to the district. The number of carpenters
and their dependants is therefore not larger than 8,010.
619. Basket making and allied industries provide the means of livelihood Basket-
Baskets of lei or pilchhi (Tamarix dioica) which grows (Groups?)!
le rivers, are the chief manufacture of Multan, Jhelum and
Jhang. Attock is known for baskets made of pattha
(Chamacrops Ritcbiaria) fibre and the leaves are used ex-
tensively in Kangra and Gurdaspur for making j dates and
cups. The number of persons depending on the occupation
in each of the districts is given in the margin. Dellii has a
cane factory (with 46 operatives) which turns out cane chairs, baskets, etc.
The manufacture of arms has practically died out and there is little
forging and rolling done in the Province.
620. Plough and other agricultui-al implement makers (group 39) have Metals,
decreased from 127,441 to 20,390, i.e., hy 84 per cent. But they are either |Pj„'^^'^ 9^'
carpenters or blacksmiths and the majority of tiiem have probably been returned (Group*
under the former head as noticed in ])aragraph 618 above. 38— 4i).
Moat of the blacksmiths have been i-eturned as " other workers in iron "
(group 41). The figures of this group have risen from 171,334 to 197,537, i. e.,
by 15 per cent. They are most numerous in the districts with important cities
and towns.*
The Industrial (/ensus showed the existence of 36 iron factories as detailed
in the miugin. The
arsenal factories at
Rawalpindi are work-
ed with steam power
and electricity with
the exception of one
which employs steam
alone. Taken collec-
tively these are the
largest works. The
for 104,100
perso
in abundance
on th(
Multan
. 9,730
Kangra
8,262
Jhelum
7,479
Jhang
4,952
Attock
4,934
Gurdaspur
. 4,743
No. of
Tiesoription of factories.
District.
^0 .
opera-
tives.
Arspiiftl workehop ...
Rawalpindi
7
578
Arsenal oBice, store room, &o. ...
Do
1
t;52
Iron workshop
Total
8
m
Delhi
3
182
Ambala ...
1
25
Lnhore
2
210
Gujrat
1
24
Rawalpiodi
I
87
* For a detailed account of the irou and steel mduBtry, see Chapter XVI of Latihs ' Induutrial Fuujab."
Census Report, J
504
DISCUSSION OF THE STATISTICS.
Chaptbe
lock works factory at
Dellii is worked witli
electricity. Seventeea
of the others use
steam power and two
have oil engines.
Eight minor factories
use no power. Small
foundries and work-
shops, with less than
20 operatives are
numerous and scatter-
ed all over the Pro-
vince, but of the six
principal foundries
enumerated at the
special Census that at Nalian is intended mainly for the manufacture of
sugarcane presses, which are distributed in all the sugarcane-growing tracts
a decent
Other
■
No. of
Description of factories.
District.
No.
opera-
tives.
Iron and wood workshop
Total
5
174
Ambala ...
1
24
Lahore
3
128
Gujrnt
22
Iron works and General Kogineering factory ...
Total
943
Delhi
40
Lahore
93
Amritsar ...
m
Kawalpindi
66
Iron foundry
Total
250
Delhi
38
Lahore
212
Iron foundry and General Engineering works...
Sirmur (Nahan) ...
280
Blacksmith and carpentry shop, &c
Bnhawalpur
69
Municipal workshop ...
Total
89
Delhi
40
Amritsar
49
Surgical and Veterinary instrument factory ...
Sialkot
22
Lock works factory
Delhi
50
Brass, Copper
and Bell
netal.
(Group 42).
Ceramics.
(Order 10).
Glass.
(Group 45).
Potters, etc.
(Group 47).
OQ hire, the State deriving a decent income from this source besides pro-
moting a local industry. Other iron goods are also manufactured at the
■workshop, and it is curious that the cheap wages prevailing at Nahan
enable the sale, at a profit, in the markets of the plains, of articles
manufactured from imported iron smelted at the foundry, in spite of the
expense of carting the goods for 24 miles either way along a partly metalled
and partly unmetalled road. Of the 4 foundries at Lahore, 3 belong to the
Eailway, the fourth is employed mainly in melting scrap iron purchased locally.
The Delhi foundry is a small one. The Surgical instrument factory recently
started at Sialkot is an innovation.
Workers in metals other than iron, together with their dependants, number
only 18,943, and have shown practically no variation. The principal seat of this
industry is Delhi, which accounts for 5,258 persons, i.e., between one-fourth and
one-third of the total strength of the group. The industry is confi ned to the
city of Delhi which contains all but two of the persons returned in the whole
District under the group. There is no brass, copper or bell metal factory, but the
tin despatch box factory at Multan* employing 65 workmen is deserving of notice.
621. The manufacture of glass never went beyond the crude processes, but
the extensive import of cheap bangles and the sale of empty wine bottles in the
markets has throttled the small industry which did exist in the way of making
bangles from crude glass and blowing bottles out of it for scents and
distilled essences (Araq). The number of persons earning their livelihood from this
manufacture has fallen from 7,653 in 1901 to 3,079. Attempts are, however^
being made to establish glass factories worked on western methods and two such
institutions are already in existence, one at Ambala and the other at Panipat (in
Karnal).t The former is of long standing, but after repeated failures came into
the hands of the present proprietors in 1904. It is worked under European
supervision and has 37 operatives altogether, including 16 skilled men. The
latter is of recent origin and though worked purely by Indian agency, has 35
operatives including 24 skilled workmen. Neither factory has, however, gone yet
beyond melting crude glass out of quartz sand.
622. Pottery is the most important Ceramic industry in the Punjab. The
potter is an indispensable factor in the rural tracts with well irrigation,
and in a tropical climate like that of this Province,
people cannot get on without the earthen pitcher. The
industry has, therefore, more than maintained itself and
the number of persons returned under this occupation has
increased within the last 10 years from 270,043 to 284,496,
i.f., by 5 per cent. The largest figures liave been returned in
the marginally noted districts. Besides the earthen i)itchers
pots and other utensils lequired for household purposes and
Gujranwala
Sialkot ...
Fatiala ...
Montgomery
Lahore ■■■
Multan ...
Jhang
Forozepore
Amritsar...
GnjrBt ...
Babawalpnr
lf),2K4
15,979
15,138
14,700
14.194
13,493
12,449
1 1,346
10,776
10,638
10,505
* .Swe Lati&'s ' InduHtrial Punjab, ' page 237.
t An account of both the factories ia given on pages 287 to 290 of Latifi's ' Industrial Punjab.'
XII.
505
DISCUSSION OP THE STATISTICS.
[ Punjal), 1911.
the pots {lota or tind) used in connection with the Persian wheels on the wells, the
potters turn out earthen toys for the amusement of children, glazed pottery in
■Gujranwala and enamelled pottery in Multan.* The increase has been general
except in some of the districts of the Delhi Division, and in Ludhiana in spite of
the fact that the substitution of enamelled ware for earthen plates, cups, etc.,
among the poorer classes has somewhat handicapped the trade. But poorer and
stupider than even the weavers, they are still saved from economic destruction,
by ceremonial prejudice.
623. The growing architectural requirements are bringiogtheBrick and Tile
industry into prominence and the number of workers and dependents earning their
livelihood from this occupation has risen from 31,838 to 64,788 within the past de^
Brick aad tilo
makers.
(Group 48),
Not using power.
Stre
<GTH.
O
S o
Operatives,
"5
m
.■3
ia
S
;£
20—49
32
996 123
50-99
41
2,113 619
100—199
11
1,110, 343
200—399
■^
430
200
cade, the strength having more than doubled itself.
The demand for the industry is largest where build-
ing operations are extensive. At the time of the
Census there were 86 Brick and Tile kilns with 20
operatives or more in each. Altogether they afford-
ed employment to 4,649 men and 1,285
women. One of the kilns has been returned
as worked with steam, but this appears to be
due to a mistake in interpreting the use of
steam coal as steam power. The kilns are
classified in the margin. That the average number
of workers for each Brick and Tile factory, large
or small is not less than 69 shows the magnitude of
the industry. The large kilns are not confined to
one or two places but are distributed over 11
Districts and two Native States, as the marginal
figures will show. The kilns supply bricks for
private houses. Government or Railway buildings
and bridges, as in the case of Mianwali. It is
noteworthy that the industry employs 28 female
operatives to every 100 males. Most of the
unskilled labourers have to be employed merely
on carrying bricks baked or unbaked, and women
of the labouring classes can easily assist at such
work. It may also be mentioned here that there
are three Brick and Lime factories, one at Delhi
and two at Ludhiana, the latter worked with
steam power.
624. Attempts to establish Match factories have proved unsuccessful and
the manufacture of explosives which is now intended exclusively for pyrotechnics
is a declining industry.
Oil pressing is the only occupation of importance in group 53 and its
strength has increased from 114,798 to 120,650 in ten years, J.e., by five per
Cent. The kolilu or indigenous oil-press worked by the traditional Teli (oil
presser) is the most common apparatus for extracting oil from rape-seed, etc. No
large Oil-mills devoted exclusively to the manufacture of oil have yet been
started, but in nine factories worked with steam power, oil-milling has been com-
bined with cotton ginning, rice husking or flour grinding machinery, in the Delhi,
Shahpnr, Amritsar, Hoshiarpnr, Ferozepore, Lahore, Lyallpur and Dera Ghazi
Khan Districts. One factory at Lahore adds the manufacture of soap to the ope-
rations of its Flour and Oil mills.
The other chemical industries are insignificant, but it may be mentioned
that soap is coming very largely into use for toilet and laundry purposes and ia
extensively manufactured although in small quantities. Indeed in the towns, it is
a common practice to dissolve one part of Caustic Soda in two parts of water and
four parts of common oil with or without a littlo refined flour (mcj'da), allowing the
mixture to solidify, when it is cut into cakes and used for washing clothes. Among
0
Persons
0
B 1
EMPLOYED.
District or State.
tn"
en
0
C3
a
Delhi
1
47
27
Jnllaadur
9
336
32
Lndhiana
(J
296
42
Ferczepore
Lahore ...
9
9
708
C33
109
153
Amritsar ..
2
72
8
Gujranwala
7
272
86
Shahpur ...
Kawalpindi
3
13
100
606
18
129
Mianwali
10
666
364
Multan ...
9
501
205
Patiala
5
279
83
Jind
3
133
29
Chemical
products.
(Order 11.)
Manufactura
of vegetable
oil.
(Group 53.)
* Mr. I,atifi gives an interesting descriptiou o£ the industry in its various branches in chapter XIX of hia
Indastrlul Punjab.
Census Report, ]
506
DiscxresioN of the statistics.
Chaptee
Food indns-
tries.
(Order 12.)
Rice pounders
and buskers
and flour
grinders.
(Group 56.)
Bakers and
Biscuit
makers.
(Group 57.)
Other food
industries.
(Groups
58-66.)
the poorer and eyen middle classes, tbe females manufacture soap in this -way in
their homes, a practice which is extending to the rural tracts.
625. The indigenous grinding atones, which were so common in towns, are
now disappearing in consequence of the opening nf flour mills, but in the villages
almost every house still has a chakki (grinding stones) of its own. Here,
however, the housewife does the
grinding and does not reckon as a
flour grin(3er. The dhdnkut (rice
pounder) is also giving way to the
rice husking machine. It is, there-
fore, not strange that the number
of persons dependent on these occu-
pations should have decreased with-
in the decade from 173,458 to
113,318, i.e., by about 35 per cent.
Details o| the Rice and Flour fac-
tories with 20 operatives or more
are given in the margin. These
food industries are usually combined
other mechanical institution. The number of
such combined factories is 38.
There are 15 mills intended exclu-
sively for grinding flour and four
which deal with nothing but rice.
Eight factories carry on the double
work of grinding flour and husking
rice. The distribution of the three
latter types is given in the margin.
Delhi U tbe largest centre for the
manufacture of flour. Hissar has a
combined Cotton ginning and press-
ing and Rice husking factory, but it
a
o
6
a ■
a
o
CO
Description.
"o
S
o
o.
"Hs
a >
IS
6C
a •-
Si
■a n
a "
z;
D
Z
&
Flour mills ...
15
15
1,020
5
Eice factory
4
4
200
• •>
Flonr mill and rico factory ...
8
S
248
• ••
Flour grinding combined with
other industries
U
14
672
2
Eice husking combined with
other industries
5
5
227
■ •>
Bice husking and flour grinding
combined with other industries
19
19
823
...
with cotton ginning or some
m
a>
PesoriptioD.
District or State.
S
a
S5
S
O
Total
15
1,020
f
Delhi
4
450
Ambala
2
172
Lahore ...
2
177
Flour mills
•• H
Amritsar
Gnjranwala ...
1
1
31
28
Sbnhpnr
1
21
Kapurthala ...
1
26
I
Patiala
3
115
Total
X
200
Bice factories ...
... 1
Hissar ...
Batiawalpar ...
1
3
77
123
Total
8
248
f
Jullnndur
1
28
Ferozepore
1
25
Flour mill and rice
tory
fao--
A mritsar
Sialkot
2
1
6G
29
Gujranwala
2
68
..
Bahawalpnr ...
1
32
was engaged on the last mentioned
work alone at the special Census.
Rice husking machines have sprung
up in all tbe rice growing tracts
except Kangra, Karnal, Ambala,
Hoshiarpur and Patiala, where the
indigenous process is still resorted
to and consequently the number of rice pounders, buskers, etc., and tbeir depen-
dants is large, being 8,287, 5,941, 5,937, 5,160 and 6,230, respectively.
626. Bakers and biscuit makers are not numerous, but it is worth mention
that biscuits, which are new to this country, are coming very extensively in use
and the bazar bakers do not now content themselves with preparing the ordinary
articles of food, but turn out bread and biscuits of the European kind in large
quantities. Tbe Delhi Biscuit factory with 47 operatives, worked with steam
power under European supervision, supplies biscuits to most of tbe Provincial
markets.
Small bakeries are numerous in the larger towns and cities, but there are
two large ones with not less than 20 operatives, one at Delhi owned by a
Braliman employing 39 persons and tbe other at Rawalpindi, which belongs to
tbe Army Supply and Transport corps, with 34 workmen.
627. Gram-parchers have decreased 33 per cent, chiefly because parched
gi-am is not prized now as an article of fond. Butchers have, on tbe other band,
increased 16 per ccnr. owing to tbe increased consumption of meat. Sweatmeat
makers, etc., (group 63) show a large increase of about 30,000, but it is accom-
panied by a corresponding decrease of about 23,000 in sweatmeat sellers (group
119), as tbe confectioners are usually makers as well as sellers, and should,
under the new system, appear in tbe former group.
Under this head may be mentioned tbe European-owned potato meal
factory at Simla with 91 operatives, worked with an oil engine.
ID
Description.
District or State.
a
a
a.
K
O
Breweries ..,
Rawalpindi
2
480
Distilleries ...
Karnal ...
1
24
Do
Amritsar
1
81
Do
Nabha
1
67
507
XII. DISCUSSION OF THE STATI3TIC3. [ pxmjab, 1911
The sugar industry is not a profitable concern in the Province, but there is
one State-owned sugar factory at Nabha -with 31 workers and using steam power.
Sugar refining is conducted at Multan in two factories with an aggreo^ate of 68
operatives, and there ia a Flour mill and Sugar factory at Ambala, with 33 workers,
using an oil engine. There is also a sugarcane press at Batala worked with a
steam engine and employing 20 men. The only large sugar concern of the Prorince
is the Sujanpur Sugar, Rum and Carbonic acid factory in the District of Qurdaspur.
It turns out some 2,360 maunds of sugar and 1,463 maunds of molasses eveiy
year.* The molasses and the washings of the sugarcane are utilized for the manu-
facture of Rum. Carbonic Acid Gas is generated as a bye-product. Brewing and
distilling is a very minor occupation, but the concentration of the distillation
of country liquor nt Karnal, Amritsar, and Rawalpindi, in the hands of wholesale
dealers, has reduced the operations to very narrow limits. Against 1,765 persons
living by means of this profession, there are only 246 workers and dependents
now supported by the industry. There is a brewery at Murree (with a branch
at Rawalpindi), "where liquor is also distilled.
The number of distilleries is three, in-
cluding one at Nabha. Details are given
in the margin. f
A malt factory at Delhi worked
with steam and employing 50 opera-
tives exports malt prepared for brewing,
to the Deccan Brewery, Kirkee, belong-
ing to the eame Firm.
The Cigarette factory at Lahore,
with 29 workers, is the only noticeable institution connected with the manufacture
of tobacco. Snuff is prepared in the Attock and Muzaffargarh Districts, but none
of the mills has 20 workers or more. The more important water-works are also
classed under food industries, those at Dellii, Lahore, Rawalpindi and PatialaJ
have between 47 and 74 employes each. Less than 20 operatives are employed on
the water-works proper, at Lahore, but the workshop attached thereto which has
47 workmen and utea no mechanical power has been included under this head,
628. Tailoring and allied professions maintain 0 per mille of the total popu- Industries
lation and the strength has increased by about 40 per cent, during the pjist decade, of dress and
The rise in the standard of living, which results in occupying the time of the ''^® toilet,
females more in superfluous work than in attending to the essential ^Order 13).
requirements, is driving the sewing of ordinary clothes from the home Tailors, etc.
of the average townsman to the shop. The profession, therefore, has room ^*^"'"p^^^-
for more and more hands, notwithstanding the extensive iise of sewing
machines which has considerably economized lubour. There is hardly a tailor now
without a sewing machine. Even in the villages a tailor would beg, borrow, or
steal to equip himself with a cheap n!achine,and, if he cannot find enough customers
in one village, he will rather set apart a certain amount of time for regular rounds
and attach himself to a group of villages. There are 8 clothing factories at
Lahore connected with the Railway, one of which uses steam and oil power.
Persons engaged in boot and shoe-making or dependent on it come up to^''°®^>^°°**
2 per cent, of the inhabitants of the Province. 'I'he profession has already been makers,
mentioned with group 32. Karnal is noted for its boots and shoes and has 11,509 ^^'°"P ^9)-
male and 2,523 female workers engaged in the trade, with 17,349 dependants.
The only point deserving notice under other industries pertaining to other indnst-
dress is a button factory at Delhi with 31 operatives, manufacturing buttons, and j"?,^ to^^dre^"
one hosiery factory at Gujranwala (with 40 workers) which produces socks and C^roup 7oj.
other hosiery. There are several smaller hosiery factories at Lahore and
Ludhiana where knitting by machinery is carried on.
Washermen and djeis have increased 41 percent. Their strength now Washing,
is 177,671. The variation is due partly to the growing need? of society and ^yg*^^-
partly to a difference in clns3ification whereby the dyers of fabrics have been (Group 7i).
relegated exclusively to group 30.
* Lalifi's Industrial Vunjab, page 200.
t There ia alio a brewery at Solan hut it has less than 20 workers and has not been included in table XV E.
X Combined with the electric installation.
Census Report, ]
508
DISCDSSION OP THE STATISTICS.
Chaptes
Famiture
industries
(Order 14).
Cabinet-
makers, etc.
No.
Ambala I
(Group nj.<^:i^,,^ I
Tent-makers,
etc.
(Group 75).
Bnildinc:
industries.
(Order 15).
Lime-burners
cement-
workers.
(Group 7G'.
Stone and
marblo-
workera,
masons and
bricklayers.
l.Group 78).
Others.
<Group 7
Barbers^ Barbers represent 11 per mille of the population and have lost 4 per cent.
roup ( . .^ strength, owing, apparently, to the general causes of decrease. It is not possi-
ble to say with certainty whether the disappearance of the scruples against shav-
ing one's self and the use of the safety razor have helped to thin their ranks.
629. There are three factories of cabinet-makers, as shown in the margin.
Cabiiiet and other furniture making, is an industry for
pera^^vea. .^^j^j^jj there is a great field. The persons dependent on
72 this occupation have risen within the past 10 years from
2,251 to 8,724.
One tent making factory has been returned from Rawalpindi with 68
workers, but the Census returns do not show a single entry in that District. la-
deed, only 35 workers and dependants have been classed under this head in the
whole Province. It appears that the persons employed in tent-making gave
their occupation, at the general Census, as tailor, and not tent- maker,
630. Lime-burners and cement-workers are a very small body (1,805), but
Lahore 2 184 ) using tbero are 5 lime factories of which 4 use steam power.
Gujranivaia ...2 67 J power. Their detail is givcu in the margin. Lime with less
Rawalpindi ... 1 31 operatives than 20 exist in almost every district and
state and in every one of the larger towns.
The growth of buildings has strengthened the profession of masons and
stone-workers, and the persons depending on the occupation have increased 53
per cent., aggregating 164,031 now. The bulk of them are Raj by caste (including
Aleemar and Thavi). They are mixed up with the Lobars and Tarkhans and the
professions overlap as much as the three castes. Like carpenters and smiths
they are most numerous in the districts with growing towns.
The miscellaneous building industries now support close on 100,000
persons against 16,700 in 1901, an increase of 497 per cent. The noticeable
feature of this group is the extraordinary growth of petty contractors who
undertake to execute various kinds of works connected with architecture. The
Surkhi (powdered bricks) factory at Lahore employing 26 workmen and the
Surkhi and lime grinding works at Gujranwala and Gujrat with 24 and 54
operatives each, should be mentioned under this head. I'hey are all worked
with steam power.
631. The chief means of transport at the present day being the Railways,
of means of . . , , .„. tlieir construction appears under the head
m J. so. Cart, carnaee, etc, rankers ... I,b84 ,,, t rrn i i- i i
Transport, gj saddlers, harness, whip and lash iransport. ihe population engaged on the
(Order 16.) makers 1,797 construction of other carriages, motor cars. etc..
82. Boat builders .. 50 . , , ■,■, , • \ . , l
IS extretuely small (see margm). A number of
workmen employed on carriage building pass as ordinary carpenters and smiths,
while country saddles and whips are manufactured by workers in other leather
articles. Very few carpenters specify their occupation as boat-building.
There is one factory at Rawalpindi called the Coach building and Motor
car, works with 30 operatives. Messers. Kivett and Sons have a Motor car,
Carriage works, and Furniture factory at Anibala, worked with an Oil Eugine and
employing 104 hands. A factory at Delhi with 41 workers combines Coach build-
ing with the manufacture of Furniture. Coach building and Barness making is
carried on in another factory (35 workers) at Rawalpindi and at Paiiala, Carriage
building. Automobile and general Engineering works employ 76 men.
Production 632. Gas and Electric works and Ice factories are not important numeri-
and trans- cally. But it may be mentioned that the electric installations at Simla and Delhi
mission of ^= the gas works at Rawalpindi and the ever increas-
physical Description. ^^™" ^^^^^' ing Consumption of ice have nearly doubled the
force. handful of dependents on occupations connected
(Order 17). Electric Tramwav and with the transmission of physical force for
lighting and other purposes. The factory Census
showed the existence of the marginally noted
works in the Province, although the season for
working of ice factories does not generally begin
till after the date on which the final Census was
taken.
Constrncton
Description.
Num-
ber.
Opera-
tives.
Electric Tramway and
lighting works
Electricity, water pumping,
ice and soda water
factory
Ice factory ...
Ice combined with other
industries ...
2
1
1
6
275
43
29
♦339
• The number of persons employed m the manufacture of ice alone are not known.
xu.
509
DISCUSSION OF THE STATISTICS.
[ Punjab, 1911
District
or State.
Num-
ber.
Opera-
tives.
Delhi ...
1
54
Simla ...
...
2
553
Ludhiana
...
I
29
Lahore
23
2,499
Jind ...
...
1
26
Total
28
3,161
Note. — The jail
included in these iigures.
presses sre not
Workers and
dependents.
1901
... 1,102
1911
365
633. Printers, lithographers, and engravers have decreased from 5,873 to Iiidustries
4,869. The larger concerns appear to be swallowing up the smaller printing and of luxury-
lithographic works. There are now only 28 presses in the Punjab (with 20 or and those
more workers each) of which 15 use power (3 steam, 11 oil and 1 electricity), pertaining
Five of these are under European management, to litera-
The local distribution is given in the margin. It tire, etc.
will be seen that the majority of the presses are (Order 18),
confined to the capital of the Province. The
figures of the Special Industrial Schedules would SrouTsI)?'
appear to indicate that the Census returns under
this group are somewliat below tlie mark. But
enquiries have shown that the employes of the 4
Government Presses included in Pai t E of Table
XV rightly returned themselves as Government or
Railway servants, (groups 144 and 103, respectively) at the General Enumeration,
Newspaper managers, editors, etc., now number 270 against 437 in Newspaper
1901. This would seem to bo an anomaly, considering that there are no less mat^e^rs and
than 229 newspapers of all kinds published in the Province. But the newspaper editors, etc.
offices are usually combined with some presses and the establishment appears to ''""P^^)*
have been returned under group 84. On the other haad only the more important
papers have separate managers and editors with one or more assistants each.
The manager is identical with the editor in the less important ones, while many
of the magazines are edited by persons engaged principally in other lines.
The immense sale of musical instruments made in other Provinces Makers of
and countries and of gramophones has practically killed thej^gfju^g^^g
local industry and few persons are now exclusively engaged in (Group 87).'
the manufacture of the SHdr and other indigenous stringed in-
struments. The only remarkable feature is the establishment of
a Harmonium, Photo, Camera, etc., factory at Lahore with 22 operatives using an
oil engine. The decliue of advanced Indian music, vocal or played on stringed
instruments is attracting the attention of European sympathisers with the art.
The increasing wealth of the Province necessitates a laiger number of Workers in
workers in precious stones and metals and makers of sto^Qgg"^^^
imitation jewelry. The total strength of the profession metals, etc.
which consists mainly of goldsmiths has risen from 135,240 *^*^'^°''^®^^-
to 190,892, i.e., by 41 per cent, in ten years. The districts
returning the largest figures are given in the margin. Delhi
and Amritsar are the great centres of the industry,* and
the demand for gold and silver ornaments is considerable in districts with large
towns. But the goldsmith is indigenous to every district and in the rural tracts,
every large village has one or more goldsmiths of its own, who meet the local
requirements accord mg to the tastes of the inhabitants. The gold thread
factory at Delhit has 39 artizans and uses electric power.
The tinsel and gold lace industry has suffered very heavily of late from the
import of cheap manufactures from Russia, France and Germany, and for the reasons
given by Mr.
Latifi, the indus-
try is not only
on the decline,
butis also deteri-
orating in quali-
ty. Figures
relating to the
tinsel industry
are detailed in
the margin and
those pertaining
to gold lace are given under group 31. The industry is peculiar to the cities and
large towns, but the city of Delhi is by far the most important centre.
* For an account of the industry see Latifi's Industrial Punjab, pages 1!53— 855.
■f See Latitj's Industrial Punjab, page 260.
Delhi
... 15,076
Amritsar
... 12,059
SaUkot ...
.. 9,018
Lahore ...
... 8,848
Patiala ...
.. 8.692
JuUundur
.. 8,574
Gujranwala
8,101
pIo°v"^.| «--«-.
Lahore City,
Amritsab
City.
Detail.
CO _*. Total workers and
3 S dependents.
M en
w
<D
M
O
l£
a
ZJ
<
a
as
M g
El
Actual workers.
a
.M a,
II
m
s
■s
<«1
■a
□
ca <D
o
Tirkash and kandlakash
Gold and silver leaf makers ...
1,336
1,492
2,604
2,658
760
1,345
187
46
57
22
692
39
239
11
510
Census Beport. ]
DISCCS8I0N OF THE STATISTICS.
Chapter
others.
Sweepers,
scavengers,
etc
(Order 19).
Transport
by water.
(Order 20).
Persona em-
ployed on the
maintenanco
of rivers and
canals, etc.
(Group 90).
The only other point desei-ying mention is the increase in the strength,
of group 88 — ' Makers of watches and clocks, and opticals etc. — from 734 to
],7&4. The valae of time is making watches an essential requisite even for
menial servants, and spectacles are coming very largely in use in consequence
of the study of books and papers printed in small type.
634. The emancipation of the depressed classes is limiting the supply of
scavengers. Their number (workers and dependents) has diminished since 1901
from 780,602 to 591,270, i.e., about 25 per cent. The profession is important,
as even with the reduced strength, it supports more than 24 per mille of the total
population. The castes engaged on scavenging work are settling down largely as
farm servants and even as cultivators, besides taking up employment in the
higher gi-ades of menial service. Some of the sweepers in Municipnl service con-
sidered it infra dig to be called sweepers and had themselves returned generally as
Municipal servants. Members of the profession are somewhat evenly distributed
all over the Province.
Sub-Class IV— Transport.
635. One of the most important groups under transport by water is that of
persons employed on the construction and maintenance of water channels. While
transport by river has declined, the canals have opened fresh fields of work for
large gangs. The strength of this group has risen from 81,708 to 86,101 within
the past decennium. The staff of the Irrigation Department together with the
contractors and coolies working under thera have all been included under this
head. The largest figures have been returned from the districts named in the
margin. The construction of the triple canal project
accounts for the high figures of Gujrat, Gujranwala, Lahore,
Sialkot, and Montgomery, while the extensive maintenance
establishment in Lyallpur and the annual clearance, etc., of
the Inundation canals of Multan explain the statistics of
Gujranwala
Lahore ...
Montgomery
Mnltan
Lyallpur ...
Gujrat
Sialkot ...
11,325
10,012
9,280
8,229
5,297
.5,195
5,066
those districts.
Boat owners,
boatmen, etc.
vGroup 97).
Transport
by road.
<0rder21).
But a very large number of coolies returned
their occupation with or without detail
such as labour, earth work, building, etc.,
and yet did not specify whether they work-
ed on the canals. Enquiries show that
such omissions adversely affected the totals
under group 96. The actual workers
shown in the Census returns therefore
fall considerably short of the figures
obtained from the Irrigation Department,
which are given in the margin. The latter
afford more reliable material for compari-
son so far as actual workers are concerned.
It will be seen that 160 Europeans and
Anglo-Indians are employed in connection
with the canals, including 121 ofiBcersand2
contractors. The corresponding number
of Indians is 94,752 including 69 officers.
That traffic by river is not dying out* is indicated by the fact that boat
owners, boatmen, etc., have practically maintained their strength as shown in
1911 ... 21,148 the margin. The largest figures come from the Mianwali
(2,020), Muzaffargarh (1,886), Dera Ghazi Khan (1,582), on
the Indus, and Bahawalpur (l,609j, Jhang (1,472) and .Multan
(1,291) on the Chenab, all in the south-west of the Punjab, where boats are largely
used for the transport of merchandise besides fenying people across the rivers,
and Kangra (1,084) where the dreivs find lots of work as ferrymen and in con-
nection with the floating down of timber on the Beas.
636. Transport by road supports 427,750 persons or 18 per mille of the
total j)opulation. The most import;-.nt group falling under this order is that
owners and drivers' (group 101), which embraces 213,618
shown an improvement of 5 per cent, since J 901. The
1.1
Class of persons employed.
a 3
X
P..S
a
S^ec
a
u p
-a
□
Total persons employed ...
IfiO
91.7&2
(a) Persons aircctly employed
15b
I6.59S
Officers ...
121
C9
Upper subordinates
15
272
Lower do.
1
3,143
Clerks
£1
930
Peons and other servants
9,432
Coolies
2,752
(b) Persons indirectly employed ...
2
78,154
Contractors
2
2,582
Contractor's regular employes
3,373
Coolies
...
72,199
1901
Difference,
. 21,650
I per cent.
of ' Pack animal
persons and has
most used in transport of goods
animal
* See paragraph 64, Chapter II
is _tlie camel and the largest figures
XII.
511
DISCUSSION OF THE STATISTICS.
r Punjab, 1911.
Dera Ghazi Khan
Mnltan ...
MuzaSargarh ,,.
Shahpur
•• f^'lll (aee margin) are found in the districts of the western
" i7!i53 Puniab, where transport by camels is most common.
•• 13,458 Amritsar has 11,154 persons bolonging to this group.
Persons employed on the construction and maintenance of roads (group
98) have risen from 22,938 to 41,347, owing to the opening up of numerous
feeder roads.* Cartmen, drivers, coachmen, etc. (group 99) are also becoming
more numerous, their strength having risen from 42,211 to 58.919. Part of
this increase is due to a difference in classification, but there ia no doubt about a
considerable growth of wheeled traffic, owing to the construction of new roads.
Instead of plying on the main roads, the carts and tumtums which are replacing
the old ekkas, now make a roaring business between the Railway stations and the
neighbouring tracts. Porters and messengers (group 102) with their dependants,
have risen from 18,063 to 111,635. This is due mainly to the inclusion of village
porters (known generally as higdris) in this group. These men act as messengers
-and are rewaided by the owners of land by payment in grain, at each harvest.
In the Enumeration books, their occupation was noted as " Icdr higdr " and enqui-
Ludhiana ... 29,348 ries from Ludhiaua and Patiala, which returned the largest
Patiala ... 13,134 figures, have shown that they are mostly Chfimars.
637. It goes without saying that the Railways are growing in importance,
with wonderful rapidity. The department, according to the Census Returns,
affords employment to 149,453 persons now— compared with 92,819 in 1901— an
increase of 61 per cent., and yet large numbers of artizans and labourers, employed
in the Railway Department, have been returned under their respective professions,
in consequence of their failure to specify the sphere of their employment.
Leaving alone the coolies on construction, railway emloyes of all kinds now
"~ ■ stand at 119,313 (including 47,896 actual
workers) and have registered an increase of
57 per cent, since 1901
Transport
by rail-
(Order 22).
"Si
%.s
3
O 60
b B
r'i<
CI
1,604
1— <
Total
73,009
Officera
160
22
Snbordinates drawing more
thaii
Rs. 75 per mensem
999
508
Snbordinates drawing more
than
Rs. 20— 75 per mensem ..
41.S
12,476
Sabordinates drawing under 1
B.'M
19
56,536
■Contractors ..
• ••
10
859
Contractors' regnlar pmploy^a
3
2,608
Railway
employes of
all kinds othe
than constnic-
mi T\ J. j_ 1 'ioii coolies.
1 he Departmental (.Group 103>.
figures, which are detailed in the margin,
show a gi-eater strength. In comparing
the two sets of figures, it has to be remem-
bered that medical men and scavengers,
even though in the service of the Railway
Department, had, under the Census Com-
missioner's instructions,! to be classed
under groups 154 and 93, along with the
other members of the respective professions.
This can, however, account for only a small portion of the difference of over 23,000.
The real cause is that, as stated above, the bulk of the artizans employed in the Rail-
way "Works returned themselves merely as carpenters, smiths, etc., without any
•ference to the employes. In the city of Lahore, for instance, there are 8,270 per-
sons employed at the Railway "Workshops and some 4,000 in the Headquarter
Offices and at the Railway Station. Ao:ain,>*t this total of over 12,000, the occupa-
tion table shows only 8,831, Railway omploy(^s at Lahore — which means that over
3,400 returned themselves under their professions, and supports the results of
local enquiries. It may be noted that more than half the Railway servants,
directly or indirectly employed, are paid at less than Rs. 20 per mensem and
rather more tlian one-ninth of them receive Rs. (20 — 75) a month.
The Railway Workshops including the Locomotive and Carriage Depart-
ments are 19 in number, distributed as noted in the
margin. The Lahore Workshops are the largest mecha-
nical concern in the Province, They consist of : —
(1) the Locomotive, (2) the Carriage and "Waggon,
(3) the Signal and Interlocking, and '4) the Chief Store-
keeper's Departments with ten auxiliary shops. The
first three are works of considerable magnitude and
the following notes concerning these, which have been
kindly supplied by the Manager, North-Western Railway,
u
m
IS
>
station.
B
a
2
a,
O
Delhi
1
U'4
Ambala
1
261
Lahore
Eawalpindi ...
14
3
8,270
2,218
• See paragraph 64, Chapter II.
17th Februa^TsiV °^ ^°^° '^'^^^'^^'^ '° Appendix III printed with Census Commissioner's letter Ko. 248, dated the
512
Census Report, ] uiecobsion op the statistics. Chapteb
describe their important features. The figures cited differ slightly from those
given in Table XV, Part E, as the notes were written on a subsequent date.
" Locomotive IShop. — The area of the Locomotive Worksliop at Lahore is about 16
acres, situattnl to the north-east of the main line, anH about half a mile from the Lahore
KailwHy Station. They are self contained and fortified for strategic purposes. The cost of
their construction was about 8^ lakhs of rupees. The works probably compare favourably
with most other Rkilway Workshops in India, but they are out of date and wholly
inadequate for the volume of work now entailed. For this reason new works are being builfc
and will be opened in 1913. The branches of work dealt with are the general repairs to all
locomotives, pumping engine plant, repairs to portable engines and steam hoists, manufacture
of cast iron rails, chairs, sleepers, etc., etc. Electrical energy has been substituted where
possible for steam motive power and a new erecting shop for repairs to locomotives,
which can accommodate 40 engines, was built in 1908. There are 61 Europeans and 2,645
Indians employed. Besides executing all repairs to locomotives and plant generally, the
manufactures ot the workshop have obviated the necessity of importing spares, excepting
Boilers, wheels, frames, and tubes."
" Signal and Interlocking Workshops. — These workshops are intended for the manu-
facture uf all works connected with Kailway Signalling and Interlocking. Articles are
here : — [i) either wholly manufactured and put together, or {ii) partially manufactured and
then fitted to special gear or parts imported from England.
Railway Station Yards and all signals are now connected np and controlled from one
or more points in the yard by cabinmen, and these cabinmen are themselves controlled by
the Station Master by means of Electric Frames and Transmitters. By this means, therespon-
Bibility of everything, which takes place in a yard, whether for shunting operations or for
the reception or departure of trains, rests actually with one head, the Station Master.
The schemes, necessary to work on these lines, are worked out by the Signal Engi-
neer and the gear, fittings, etc., necessary for the work are manufactured in the workshops,
and erected and maintained by the Signal Department.
The nature of the work turned out in the workshops comprises all manner of wrought
and cast iron gear and fittings, woodwork, brass work and repairs of every description.
The manufactura may, roughly, be divided into two branches — Mechanical, under
which come cast and wrought iron Interlocking frames for cabins, signals complete with
all fittings, wire, etc., yard gear, consisting of cast and wrought iron brackets, cranks, rod-
rollers, redding, etc., lamp manufacture; and Electrical, under which come miniature control
frames for Station Masters, repairs and testing of Phonopores and Telephones, other electri-
cal controls and fittings as used in Signal Works.
The workshops started some 20 years ago in a small way, have been growing
ever since, being at the present time about four times as large as they were in 1900. With
the rapid advance of Railway signalling, due to the importance placed on mechanical and elec-
trical control of stations and their yards, it is reasonable to expect that with the steady growth
of traffic tliese works will double themselves within the next few years. The present work-
shops cover an ar^a of 5-20 acres and cobt approximately Rs. 3,00,000. The average daily
workirg strength of the workshop is : — Skilled labour 650 men ; Unskilled labour 250 men ;.
Total 900 men.
1 he woik manufactured is of a special line, and though ordinary fitters, blacksmiths
and all unskilled labourers are given work, the mistry and all supervising staff above his
standing (salary Rs. 50 and more) require special training. In past years it was the practice
to get experienced Foremen trained on English Railways out from home, but during the last
five or SIX years an Apprentice Class of educated Anglo-Indians and Indians has been
started. These, after five years apprenticeship and the satisfactory passing of periodical
examinations, are appointed as Inspectors of Interlocking, carrying a salary of from Rs. 100
to Rs. 400 per mensem. At the present time there are about six Anglo-Indian and six or
more Indian Inspectors working on the railway and proving satisfactory and capable
workmen. There are about twelve apprentices going through a course of training and
though the home trained man is still found a necessity, yet the needs of the department, will,,
in the future, be met to a great extent from this local source of supply.
The whole department is being steadily improved and expanded, one of the most
recent additions being a complete set of Bretta' Patent Hammers, whereby all small wrought
iron work is stamped out and not fashioned by hand. This is a great labour and time sav-
ing appliance and when in full swing, it is expected that this stamping gear will enable tho
department to reduce the number of wrought iron contractors, working within the shop
walls, from five to two."
Formerly, roughly speaking, about 70 to 80 per cent, of wrought and cast iron fittings
and other gear were imported from England. At the present time nearly every thing is
manufactured locally, the parts obtained from home having been reduced to about 10 percent,
of the whole. Nearly all the raw material is, of course, got from England, but every part of the
Mechanical and Electrical machinery for Interlocking is manufactured in Dhe workshops.
Tho only manutactured article imported complete, being pipe rodding, signal wire and chain,
phonopores, telephones and electrical block instruments; and these are got out owing to
the lack of suitable machinery for their manufacture. By having their own Signal Manu-
513
XII. DISCUSSION OF THE STATISTICS. [ Puntab, 1911.
factory, the Eailway effects a great saving and almost altogether eliminates all profits of the
private mannfacturer and middle man.
" English and American Railways meet a great part of their supply from Signal Work-
shops run by private companies, and very naturally these companies, catering as they nearly
always have to do, for two or more railways, are extensive, and possess the latest machinery
and most modern labour saving appliances. Even with these, the workshops here would
compare very favourably, for from one centre this shop is able to supply the needs of a large
Railway like the North-Western and also that of the 0. & R. Rhilway and practically
makes every thing that goes out, which is no less than works at home do.
The yearly out-turn of cast iron work formerly averaged about 450 tons ; to-day th&
yearly out-turn amounts to no less than 1,440 tons. Wrought iron work has also gone up ia
like proportion, and the machine and erecting departments of the workshops have had
naturally to expand similarly to deal with this supply. The total annual expenditure of the
workshops is now estimated at over 22 lakhs of rupees.
Carriage and Wagon Shops. — The erection of the Carriage and Wagon Shops was com-
menced in 1906 and the buildings were completed in 1910. The walled in area of the shops
comprises 192 acres, of which 20i acres is covered by buildings. The work is designed
primarily for the construction of ne«v Carriage & Wagon Stock and also for dealing with
the repairs to the stock of the line. The coat of the buildings, gas factory, permanent way,
crane, columns and girders etc. was 51 lakhs and the cost of the machinery and equipment
Rs. 21 lakhs.
The working-strength consists of 4,900 men, the work being divided into two main
branches, the oue dealing with the timber for the construction of the body of the vehicle and
the other for the construction of the steel frame work for the uuderframes aud wagons.
The shops for dealing with the timber work comprise the Saw mill. Scantling shop,
Marking out shop, Wood Machine shop, Building shop. Cabinet and Trimming shops. The
steel framework branch consists of the Underframe shop. Smithy, Wheel shop, Fitting shop
and Machine shop, and the shops common to both branches of the work are the Electric
lighting shop. Lifting shop. Gas lighting, Brake shop. Carriage aud Wagon Repair shops
and the Paint shop."
The main principle of carrying out the work is for the raw material to enter at one
end of the shops and be gradually passed forward until the completed vehicle is past on
the line for traflSc. Double handling of material has been eliminated wherever possible.
The timber logs are received in the log yard and are stacked below the overhead travelling
crane. From here they are drawn as required and passed into the Saw mill where the logs
are cut into various rough sizes. The Saw mill machinery consists of log band saws, circular
and frame saws all of which are electrically driven. In this shop 223 tons of timber logs are
cot up monthly. The timber is then cut up into scaotlings and passed on to the Marking
shop where it is marked out for boring or machining and forwarded to the Machine shop, where
the necessary machining of the timber is carried out. From the Machine shop the timber is
passed to the Carriage building shop. Repair shop or Cabinet shop as required and used for
the erection of new carriages and carriage furniture and for the repair of existing vehicles,
as the case may be.
In the other branch of the work, most of the steel and iron work for the underframes
and carriage bodies is obtained from England and the underframes are erected in the
underframe shops, and then passed to the Building shops, for the carriage bodies to be
erected thereon. In the case of all steel wagons, these are obtained complete from England
and erected in shops.
The smithy at present chiefly deals with repairs and also the manufacture of ironwork
from the raw material. About 20 per cent, of the iron work for revenue renewals, which was
formerly imported, is now made from the raw material. When the machinery and plant for
this shop is completed and in full working order, it is expected that most of the light iron work
will be made from the raw material. About 100 tons iron work is turned out monthly. The
iron Machine shop and Fitting shop deal with the machining and finishing of iron work
and fittings. The Wheel shop deals with repairs to wheels, the wheels when necessary
being re-axled and re- tyred, all new wheels being imported.
In the Crriage and Wagon Lifting shops, the vehicles are lifted and all running gear
examined and repaired. The whole of the stock of the line comprising 2,624 caiTiages and
22,777 wagons are lifted and examined once in every 12 months.
New carriages and existing carriages, which have been repaired, are finished in the
Paint shop, where they are placed for painting, and internal decoration.
Generally the workshop represents the latest practice in Carriage aud Wagon con-
struction, each shop being equipped with the most modern type machinery driven by electric
power and provided with overhead electrically driven travelling cranes and surface traver-
sers for the transportation of material and completed vehicles. About 20 miles of railway
track is provided inside the works for the reception of new, repaired and damaged stock,
the works being the largest of their ki7id in India.
The works are equipped with a modern gas factory worked on the Pintseh's
system, where 2,000,000 eft. of gas is produced monthly, the gas being transfen-ed to tra-
veUing gas holders, which are despatched to the various stations for charging the gas re-
Census Report, ]
514
DISCUSSION OF THE STATISTI08.
Cbaptbe
Capacity of Saw mill 455 logs or 223 tons monthly.
Do. Building shop 48 tinits or 24 bogie carriages
monthly.
Do. Carriage Repair shop 150 units monthly.
Do. Paint shop 300 do.
Do. Coaching lifting do. 320 do.
Do. Goods do. do. 400 do.
Co. do. repairs 288 do.
Do. Forge and Smithy 100 tons of iron work
monthly.
Note. -A imit is one-four wheeled vehicle.
A bogie vehicle is equal to two-four wheelers.
Labourers em'
ployed on rail-
petrol fire engine
the oat-turn capacities of the various shops when fully employed
ceivers of gas lighted carriages. The works
are also equipped with a fire protection scheme
consisting of a 53,000 gallon high service tank
and a system of high pressure water pipes
and hydrants served by electrically driven
pumps. There is also a 300,000 gallon low
service tank, serving a system of water sumps,
placed at intervals round the buildings and
to work in conjunction with a travelling
The marginal table gives
The
ill the number of coolies employed on Railway construction
Post Office,
Telegraph
and Tele-
phone Ser-
vices.
(Order 230
increase i
warconstrac- (and their dependants) from 16,721 to 30,140, i.e., by 80 per ceut. would appear
*'""• to be more or less in keeping with the extension of Railways, but the present
(Group 104). figures do not represent the total strength of such workmen, the majority of them
having appeared as coolies without qualification in group 167. The Departmental
total of coolies employed on the Railway lines is 33,746, while the actual workers,
returned in the occupation table, aggregate 17,881 only.
638. The Post, Telegraph and Telephone Services are the exclusive means
of support of 23,787 persons now against
18,953 in 1901. This is in accordance
with the extension of postal and tele-
graphic connections. The strength of the
establishment, ascertained through the
Departmental heads, is noted in the margin.
The wonderful organization of the Postal
Department is worked by only 52
European and Anglo-Indians and 10.689
Indians. Of these two Europeans and 723
Indians belong to the Railway Mail Service
and 243 Indians are attached to Combined
Post and Telegraph Offices. The Tele-
graph Department has 13 European and
Anglo-Indian Officers and 364 Signallers,
while there are two Indian Officers,
81 Indian signallers, 75 clerks, 317
skilled workmen and 946 other servants.
Against the Departmental total of 12,539
persons in Postal and Telegraphic service,
the number of actual workers shown in
table XVA, is only 8,622. But the 2,278
miscellaneous agents in the Postal Depart-
ment are Sub-Postmasters who are not
regular employes and only receive small
allowances for carrying on postal work in
addition to their other dutieg. Some of the road establishment, who are mailcart
men have been returned in group 99 and the runners often take up the service
of the Postal Department as a work subsidiary to their principal occupation of
agriculture. The difference in the two sets of figures is, therefore, only apparent.
Sub-Clasa V.— Trade,
Bankmana- ggg^ As a corollary of the freer circulation of money, the number of
gers, money pgj,gon8 living on occupations connected with banking and money lending has
lenders, etc increased from 179,501 to 193,890, i. e., by 8 per cent., although the growth has
(Order 24.) j^^gj^ dwarfed by the establishment of numerous Banks and Mutual relief funds,
with co-operative credit, which carry on banking on an extensive scale, while the
shareholders continue to belong to their respective principal occupations. The
group is strongest in all the districts of the Delhi Division except Simla, the
districts of the Lahore Division, Hoshiarpur, Jullundur and Gujrat and the
Patiala State.
Brokers, 640. The number of brokers is on the decline, as the establishment of
etc- agencies for the transaction of various kinds of transfers of property and of shops
(Order 25). with fixed prices, which encourage direct dealing, has reduced the necessity of
"Si
a .2
Class of persons employed.
00 X
2 6
ED
_ea
'3
Postal Department.
Grand Total
52
10,689
(a) Postal (Proper) ._
50
9,723
Supervising Officers
9
C8
Post Masters
14
609
MiscellaneouB agents
1
2,277
Clerks
26
1,290
Postmen, etc.
...
3,395
Koad establishment
■ ••
2,084
{b) Railmay Mail Sen-ice. Total ...
2
723
Supervising Officers ...
1
16
Clerks and sorters
1
487
Mail guards, etc.
220
(c) Combined Officers. Total
243
Signallers
...
85
Messengers, etc.
...
158
Telkgbaph Department.
Total ...
877
1,121
Administrative establishment
13
2
Signalling
364
81
Clerks
75
Skilled labour
317
Unskilled labour
• ••
594
Messengers, etc.
.*•
352
515
i]I, DISCUSSION OF THE STATISTICS. [ Puniab 1911
Gujrat
.. 11,527
Mill tan
4,670
Delhi
.. 9,726
Patiala
4,552
Amritsar .
.. 8,445
Lahore
4,163
Sialkot
.. C.259
Bahawalpur
4,017
Gujranwala
... 2,779
Gurdaspur
.. 1,544
Lahore
... 2,773
Amritsar
.. 1,506
Sialkot
... 2,603
Hoshiarpur
.. 1,310
JuUundur
... 1,956
Multan ... <,
.. 1,201
Jhang ...
... 1,898
Montgomery
.. 1,179
middlemen. Moreover brokers etc., working ia special branches of trade, have
now been classed under the appropriate head, instead of being included under
this group. The strength of the group has fallen 43 per cent, since 1901,
641. Trade in textiles has been very brisk indeed during the past 10 years Trade in
and the growth of the population depending upon this source of income from 58,773 piecegoods,
to 1,13,260 i.e., to almost double the figures of 1901 is nothing to be wondered etc.
at. The largest figures have been returned from (Order 26.)
the districts noted in the margin. The figures
of Gujrat, which tops the list, would appear to
be suspicious, but the manufacture of cotton
check and other cloth there and the old trade route to Kashmir, which though less
important now compared with those through Rawalpindi and Sialkot, has yet
not been given up altogether, place the district in a favourable position in respect
of trade in cotton and woollen piece-goods.
642. Trade in skins does not engage any considerable proportion of the Trade in
population, but its growth during the past few years has been phenomenal. Only skins etc.
6,482 persons lived by this trade in 1901, but as many as 29,762 now belong to (Order 27.)
the profession. A great impetus has been given to the export of raw hides by the
imposition of heavy duties in European countries on tanned leather, while uncured
skins are exempt from taxation*. An idea of the way in which raw hides
etc., are being drained off can be formed by a visit, at any time of the year, to
the goods office of any of the larger railway
stations in the Province. The trade is mostly
in the hands of Khojas and the largest
figures are found in the districts noted in
the margin.
643. Trade in metals is insignificant, although it is coming into pro mi- Trade in
nence the strength of the group having risen from 486 in 1901 to 5,918. The metals,
principal branches of the trade are sale of sewing machines, steel trunks, cane (Order 29.)
press and other machinery, as also of articles connected with building and furni-
ture, such as scissors, hinges, locks and the like.
644. Trade in pottery, on the other hand, is on the decline and the Trade in
number of persons dependent on this occupation has fallen from 12,617 to 933. pottery.
The demand is now confined to articles which are sold largely by the manufac- (Order 30.)
turers themselvesf and the shops, at which earthen work is sold, can now be
counted every where on fingers ends. The use of earthen cldrdghs (lamps) has
gone completely out of fashion and cooking utensils, dishes, etc., of clay are
seldom requisitioned except by the poorest classes.
645. Only 277,996 persons have now been entered as depending on trade other trade
in food-stuffs other than drinks and on hotels, serais, etc., against 717,711 in 1901. in food
This decrease is due mainly to the classification under group 135 (shopkeepers stuffs-
unspecified) of the universal supplier of the villages, who stocks cloth, tobacco, (Order 38.)
oil etc., besides food grains. But it is also true that the extension of Railways
and the consequent establishment of the agencies of large exporting firms, at
most of the Railway Stations, has driven out of the market a very large number
of average grain dealers, who used to carry on business as the connecting link
between the seller of surplus produce in the village and the larger grain dealer
of ih.6 Mandis (trading centres).
The sale of fish, in the towns, is not sufficiently large to afford whole time Fish dealers,
occupation to a large number of traders. In the rural tracts, the fishermen sell (0'^°"P ^i^)-
the fish they catch. The number returned under this group has fallen from
3,366 to 656. But this does not mean that tlie actual workers and dependants,
who live by dealing in fish, are no more than 656. A number of shopkeepers sell
fish along with some other articles, which usually constitute his principal occupa-
tion. Grocers and sellers of vegetable oil, salt and other condiments (group 117)
have also suffeied apparently by the exclusion of the village universal supplier.
The Provincial figures for vegetable, fruit and betel leaf sellers, etc., have Vegetable,
gone down from 162,389 to 91,240, i.e , by 44 per cent. This can be accounted ^^^l^^^^^f ^.^
for only by the general causes of decline of population and the tendency in the sellers.
' • See Latiti's Industrial runjab, page lUU. ^ 'roup .)
t The streogth of potteries has increased, see paragraph 632.
Censas Report, ]
516
DISCUSSION OF THE STATISTICS.
Chapter
Grain and
palae dealers.
(Group 121).
Tobaooo,
opium, ^nja
etc., sellerB.
(Group 122).
smaller to-wns to combine the occupation with other kin(3s of trade. The decrease
is much amaller (only 9 per cent.) in the three cities.
Grain and pulse dealers have decreased by 72 per cent., but the real
1901 322,«93 variation is not anything like so great. The mm, tel or pav'
1911 ... 00,807 chu7i shop, which combines the .sale of all kinds of foodstuffs
from grain, pulses and flour to sugar, salt, spices, tobacco, tea and oil, with textiles
and miscellaneous articles such as matches, &c., and is so common in the rural
tracts, has been excluded from this head and classed in group 135 ' Miscel-
laneous.' But there is also a real contraction in the strength of large grain
dealers, owing to the diversion of trade in food grains from the trading centres
to most Railway stations and the direct dealing of the European exporting
firms with the producers.
The sellers of tobacco, opium, etc., have decreased from 10,006 to
7,647, but it must not b« inferred that there is any real fall in the consumption
of tobacco. Cigars and cigarettes, which are sold by general merchants along
with other articles, have largely replaced the country tobacco, and this
explains the decrease in the number of indigenous tobacconists. The cheap
cigarettes of American manufacturej which can be had at the rate of 10 for 9
pies or those manufactured at Monghyr (in India) and sold at 4 to a pice (3 pies),
are now used freely by the artizans and menial sei'vants, including sweepers,
partly because smoking the bubble bubble is going out of fashion and partly owing
to the convenience of being able to smoke at all odd times, sitting, walking or lying
do w n without being tied down to the encumbrance of a bubble bubble, which needs
water, tobacco, chilam (the fire receptacle) and fire before it can be made use of.
Notwithstanding an efficient control of the sale of
intoxicating drugs, the prohibition of the cultiva-
tion of poppy and the restriction of opium licenses
from 1,655 in 1900-01 to 1,057 in 1910-11, as noted
in the margin the consumption of opium has risen
from 54,458 seers to 63,372 or from 50 to 58 tons.
The sale of hemp has decreased but slightly from
119,614 seers to 116,884.
Year.
Opium licenses.
Wholesale.
Retail.
Total
1900-01 ...
1910-11 ...
239
144
1,416
913
1,655
1,057
Dealers in
sheep, goats
and pigs.
(Group 123).
Trade in
ready mad e
clothing ,
etc-
(0rderS4).
Trade in
articles of
luxury &c.
(Order 39).
Trade of
other sorts-
(Order 41).
Shopkeepers
otherwise
nnspeoiBed.
(Group 135).
Only 9,006 persons have been returned under the group " Dealers iu
sheep, goats, etc.," against 85,048 in 1901. This seems to be according to facts,
as the number of dealers is hmited. The persons selling sheep, goats, etc., to the
butchers are really breeders or shepherds and the decrease here seems to have
been compensated by an increase under group 12.
646. Trade in ready made clothing and toilet requisites is on the increase.
This is a very extensive group embracing the sellers of ready made clothes, boots
and shoes, socks and other hosiery, umbrellas, soap, lace, scents, combs, tronser-
strings and hair ribbon, tooth powder, turbans, bats, caps, etc. These occupations
are strongest in the cities and larger towns.
647. Trade in articles of luxury now supports 28,702 persons against
33,271 in 1901, not that such trade has decreased but because the general
merchants are taking more and more articles of luxury within their purview. The
only noticeable feature is the decrease in publishers, booksellers, dealers in
musical instniments, etc., sellers (group 133) from 5,812 to 2,827 or by 51 per
cent. The Press Act prevents the multiplication of publishers of limited means
and the larger book sellers are monopolizing the trade to the discomfiture of the
smaller shopkeepers, who are being driven out of the trade.
648. Under trade of other sorts, there is a large increase from 370,331
to 676,945. The chief component of this group is the common parchun (miscella-
neous) or nun, tpl (salt and oil) shop. The wide range of articles sold on such
shops made it difficult to classify shops of this type and it was decided eventually
to include it in this group. As many as 652,220 persons or 96 per cent, of the-
whole group depend upon shops of this kind.
Sub-Class VI.— Public Force,
Army. 649. According to the Census returns, 65,299 men are employed in the
i^j^kii*^^' Imperial Army (group 139). These figures include soldiers, employed outside the
Army. Provioce, who happened to be at their homes, at the time of the Census, and camp
(Group 139). "^ > f
517
XII. DISCUSSION OF THE STATISTICS. [ Punjab, 1911.
followers.* Tho corresponding figure of 1901 was 46,867. The increase is due main-
British officers ... 959 ly to the ffrosvth of the Reservists unit. With their
British wurraut and non-com- j j ^ • ^T•l•I. • iio niM
missioned officers and men ... 16,359 dependants, persous in Military service 118,217
Indian officers, non-commission- muster strong:, Compared with 94,217 in 1901.
ed officers and men ... ... 25,473 ~, • ii lie i j.i j_ i
The marginally noted figures show the actual
Total ... 42,791 strength of the Imperial Army in the Province. Tho
Artillery 2,826 total 42,791 does not include Reservists. It may be
Cavalry '..'. ^',393 of interest to note that 23,310 of the 25,473
Sappers and Minera 196 t j- • • j.t. t • i * j. i- j
Infantry 13,386 ludiaus scrvmg in the Imperial Army stationed
Transport Corps and Cadres ... 6,600 within the Proviuce, in March 1911, Were Panjabis,
ta7,400 distributed in the manner indicated in the margin.
The number of Panjabis serving in the Imperial Army outside the
Province, on Ist May, 1911 was : — In India 69,173, outside India 2,218.
The present strength of the army of the Native States including followers Army Native-
Actual workers Table xvA 9,375 and dependant?, is 19,012 against 23,224, ten years ^'**®^-
strength according to De- ^go. The uumbor of actual workers is compared in (Group 140.)
par men gmres ... — ^ — the margin with the Departmental figures. The differ-
Difference ... 430 gjjgQ pf 430 obviously represents men on leave, etc.
650. The Police Force, according to the occupation table, consists of 27,412 Police,
actual workers and 39,912 dependants making a total of 67,324. The correspond- (Order 44.)
ing strength of 19C1, shown in Subsidiary Table VII, is 84,471, which would mean Police.
a decrease of 20 per cent., but these figures are not reliable as one of the old groups .„ .^ .
(No. 4 constables, messengers, warders, etc.) has had to be split up, by rule of "^""^
thumb, to obtain the figures corresponding to the present strength of constables.
The variation has apparently been in the opposite direction. The actual number
of officers and men employed in the Police, in March 1911, according to the
Departmental returns, was 26,086. The slight excess of 1,326, in the Census
returns, evidently represents men on leave, as shown by the fact that the district
of Rawalpindi, which borders on the North-West Frontier Province, alone exhibits
an excess of 790 in the Census figures. Similarly the Attock and Mianwali
Districts show excesses of 198 and 117, respectively, over the Departmental figures.
That the Police Force has expanded, is obvious from the fact that the
sanctioned strength of 1901 (officers and men) was only 17,976, which means
an increase of 45 per cent, in the actual workers, according to the Departmental
figures, and assuming that the proportion of dependants remains the same, there
has probably been about an equal increase in the total strength of the population
supported by this occupation.
Village watchmen and their dependants now number only 61,178 against vuiago
161,360 in 1901. Village chaukidars are not always whole-time servants and conse- watchmen.
quently many of them have returned themselves under the occupation, which they (Group i43,>
pursue when they are off duty, as is clear from the fact that against the Depart-
mental figures of 37,179 for village chaukidars, daffadarsand jamadars, the number
of actual workers under this group, shown by the Census returns, is only 20,162.
It may also be noted, in support of the above explanation, that 2,795 rent-payers
and 268 field labourers have returned chaukidari as their subsidiary occupation.
Sub-Class VII. —Public Administration.
651. Persons dependent for their means of livelihood on public adminig- public ^d-
tration have increased over 15 percent., during the past 10 years, and now miniatra-
aggregate 150,885 or 6 per miUe of the total population. (Order 45.)
Service of British Government would appear to show a decrease of 10 service of the
per cent., but this is due to the classification of all employes of the Native States state.
under the corresponding group, in 1901, instead of being classed separately. (Group 144.)
Taking the service of British Government and the Native States together, there
has been a substantial increase of J 5 per cent. There can be no doubt about the
expansion of the service of the State in British territory.
The service of tho Native and Foreign States embraces 24,681 persons, the service of the
largest figures coming from the prominent Punjab statft of Patiala (9,397). For Native and
reasons given in the preceding paragraph, the figures of 1901 were not reliable states.
and consequently the increase (from 8,222), shown in Subsidiary Table VII, is ^«roup i*5>
greatly exaggerated.
* There were 16 females among the camp followers.
t Including 4,090 stationed at Abbottabad without whom the total is 23,310.
518
Census Report, .1
DISCD88I0N OF THK STATISTICS.
Chapter
lianicipal
and other
local serTices,
and village
cfiBciale, etc.,
other than
watchmen.
(Groups 14G
•nd 149.)
Religion.
(Order 46)
Actual
worJi&rs
Dependants,
State.
Males.
Males.
Females.
Total
42
95
284
Loharu
*
7
Dujaaa
6
12
Pataiidi
3
5
Kaleia
,,
4
Nahan
4
6
Simla Bill States
28
66
170
Mandi
5
Suket
1
I
Kapnrthala
4
8
Maler Kotia
4
10
Faridkot
1
10
Chumba ...
2
1
Patiala
• ••
14
Jind
11
Bahawalpnr
...
20
(Group i45o). This group includes the Chiefs of the Native States and their dependants.
It was intended to show their Rtiength in
a separate group (145 A.) but it was not
found possible to complete the figures, owing
to the persistent objection of the Nabha Dur-
bar to allow these and some other figures
being supplied by the Census Superintendent
of the State. Such statistics, as have beon
obtained from the other states, are repro-
duced, in an incomplete form in the margin.
The local services, including the Munici-
pal, District Board, Cantonment servant?,
the zaildars, lambardars, patwarii^, etc., now
support 70,912 persons against 60,981 in
1901, i.e., 16 per cent. more. This is dne partly
to the expansion of Local Self-government
and partly to the development of villages and the system of revenue administration.
Sub-Class Vlll.—Protossion and Liberal Arts.
652. The total strength of persons, depending on occupations connected with
religion, is 342,553 or over 14 per mille. It has shown a small decrease of about
] ^ per cent, chiefly because members of the traditional priestly classes are receiving
education and taking to productive occupations. In the distribution over groups,
the attempt to classify the occupations correctly, according to the instructions,
has resulted in variations from the corresponding figures of 1901. Group 148
(Priests, ministers, etc.), which contains the bulk of the population faUing within
the order, has gained about 29 per cent, at the expense of group 149 (religious
mendicants, inmates of monasteries, etc.), group 150 (catechists readers, church
and mission service), which now includes only the missionaries, reciters of the
Koran, the Hindu scriptures, and the Granth Sahib, and group 151 (temple,
burial or burning ground service, etc.).
Law. 653. The legal profession now claims 23,046 adherents against 29,955 in
<Order 47) 1901, which means a decrease of 23 per cent. The decrease has been caused by the
gradual disappearance of the Kazi as a referee of religious and legal questions.
The mulldns or maulvts, who preside at mosques, etc., generally officiate at the
marriages and other ceremonies and also decide religious questions. They have,
however, been classed under group 148 as priests or ministers. The suppression
of toutism appears to have led to a decrease in the number of persons passing
as lawyers' clerks, without being attached to any particular lawyer. Otherwise,
the legal practitioners, etc., appear to have grown considerably in numbers.
Medicine. 654. The medical profession has shown a welcome increase of about 16
(Order 18) per cent., the present strength being 49,496. The number of actual workers
under each of the two groups included under this order, is compared in the
"^ margin. The old
figures of group 154
are not reliable as
one of the old groups
corresponding to it
has had to be split up
and the number of
actual workers has
had 10 be calculated proportionately. The number of medical practitioners
of all kinds, both males and females, has increased, much more than is
indicated by the figures,* although it is possible that the well known
shrinkage in the strength of the indigenous female doctors, who used to
deal with diseases of infants, may have reduced the strength of female workers.
The figures connected with group 155 admit of no doubt, as whole groups of 1901,
have been classed against it. The increase in the number of midwives, vaccinators,
compounders, nurses, etc., is obvious, and a very healthy feature of this growth
is that the old hereditary bat untrained midwife is being replaced very largely by
femah-s properly trained at the various female hospitals. Examinations are held
annually at the Medical College, Lahore, and diplomas and certificates are grant-
* Female medical practitioners, according to tba tigurea of Subsidary Table Vll, aciually show a decreaee.
Occupation.
ACTDAL WOKKERS.
&
19J1.
1901.
1
Males.
Females.
Males.
Females
154
155
Medical practitioners of all kinds
including dentists, oculists and
veterinary surgeons
Midwives, vaccinators, compound,
ers. nurses, masseurs, etc.
8,363
4,111
438
7,175
8,226
2,102
764
6,382
XII.
519
DISCnsSlOK OF THE STATISTICS.
[ Punjab. 1911.
f Midwives ... 31
i Dais ... 58
( Midwives ... 2
iDais ... 32
/Midwives ••• 10
1 Dais ... 18
( Midwives
"Dais ... 13
Ferozepore[^>^--' ;;; -3
Ladbiaoa
Amritsar.,
Lahore
Delhi
Ambala ,
Jhelam .
Fatiala .
Kamal .
Sialkot .
f Midwives
^Dais
{Midwives
Dais
( Midwives
(, Dais
t Midwives
H Dais
Midwives
Dais
1
ed to those passing the tests pre-
scribed for midwives and daia
(nurses). Tie number of candi-
dates who passed the examinations
successfully, during the 10 years
(1903—1912), are noted in the
by districts. That the
margin
£t>
tD
jt s
M
District or State.
o g-
O
-'oS
OS
« B a
3
o « "*
O
St.
<1
Lahore
2,981
1,22-1,
Amritsar ...
2,450
848
Sialkot
2,428
080
Jallandnr
1,776
547
Oujranwala
1,693
603
Delhi
1,653
634
Fatiala
1,641
631
Multan
1,529
618
Gurdaspur
1,713
556
Bohtak
1,537
470
supply of skilled Indian midwives and nurses is totally inadequate, can be judged
from the fact that on an average only 14 (Za?s and 4 midwives qualify every
year in the whole of the Province.
655. The teaching establishment (excluding technical instruction, e.g.. Instruction
medicine, law, music, etc.) maintains 40,131 people (Order 4a)
against 27,91 5 in 1901. The increase amounts to about professors
44 per cent, and is commensurate with the spread of aod teachers,
education. The subject is discussed at length in(GTODpi56.)
Chapter VIII. The largest figures have been returned
from the chief educational centres noted in the margin.
656. The only important groups under the head ^®**^"'
'Letters, arts and sciences' are 159 and 160. The^^.*°^°^
former, which includes aathoi-s, artists, etc., not ppeci- ^*^^^°*^^^-
fied in any other group, has decreased in strength, ^^^^^ ^'^
owing to closer attention to the proper classification of
occupations. It may be noted that 234 actual workers
with 545 dependants (total 779) live by astrology and
12 men in the whole Province work as horoscope
casters and have 13 dependants. Group 160 (music composers, masters, players,
etc.) has increased from 46,582 to 128,071, i.e., by 175 per cent, in ten years,
mainly owing to the inclusion under this head, now, of Bhats (bards) and Mirasis
(singers). The decline in high class Indian music is being replaced by harmonium-
players and parties playing on European band instruments, who are not only
common in towns but are also spreading to the stronger villages.
Sub-Class IX.— Persons living on thoir own Income.
657. Proprietors (other than of agricultural land). Fund and Scholarship- Persons
holders, and Pensioners, with their dependants, number 58,971 and have fallen ijyj^g ^^
slightly (8 per cent.) since 1901. This group covers jagirdars, pensioners, their own
students drawing scholarships and persons living on interest or rent of houses, income.
Sub. Class X— .Domestic Service.
658. Domestic service maintains 507,727 persons — i.e., one in every 50 of Domestic
the total population. Over one half of the total number are actual workers, the service,
proportion of female workers being 291 to every 1,000 males. Private grooms,
coachmen, etc., (group 163) have increased by 16 per cent., but the other classes
have gone down from 568,010 to 476,505. The variation seems to be due to
the rise in the wages of private servants. The water-carrier is being largely
dispensed with in the larger towns, which are served by water-works. People
of scanty means cannot afford to keep half as many servants now as they could
.20 years ago, and the majority of them have to go without any.
Sub-Class XI.— Insufficiently described occupations.
659, The insufficiently described occupations nowinclude only 264,030 persons. Insufficient-
or 11 per mille of the population, Hgainst 854,164 in 1901. The decrease of 69 per ly described
cent, in this order is the resultof efforts to specify the occupations as far as possible, occupations.
Subclass XII.— Unproductive.
660. Only 14,405 persons wore enumerated in the jails and lunatic or leper Inmates of
asylums. The inmates of hospitals, preferred without jails, asy-
exception, to return the occupation which they foliowodlumsand
before admittance to the hospitals. The figures of the hospitals,
last two Censuses are compared in the margin. (Order 54.>
Undertrial pvisonors in Judicial and Police lock-ups,
i.e., outside the jails, were not recorded as inmates
of jails and consequently some of the under-trial prisoners got to be excluded
from the group. This may account for a part of the decrease in the number
of inmates of jails. But even excluding the uuder-trial prisoners of 1901
altogether, the number of prisoners has gone down from 15,730 to 13,520, i.e.,
14 per cent. Tlie Departmental figures obtained from the Inspector-General of
Inmates of
1911.
1901.
Jails ._
Asylums
13,520
763
17,578
498
Censns Report, ]
520
DISC083ION OF THE STATISTICS.
Chapter
Jail Indu3'
tries.
Prisons for British Territory and printed in the margin,
also show a contraction of 13 per cent, in the strength
of prisoners. It is satisfactory that, in spite of an in-
crease in the criminal work as evidenced by the larger
number of under-trial prisoners, fewer persons are now
convicted, although the larger strength of civil prisoners
is a somewhat ugly feature in the relation between the
debtors and creditors. The lepers and insane, enumer-
atedinthe asylums, show an increase owing to the
popularity of these institutions. The subject has been dealt with in Chapter X.
The industrial work perf onned by the prisoners is indicated by the marginal
Statisticsof.ailfaotoe.es. statistics. There are
March
1901.
March
1911.
Onder trial
cw;i
Convicted
826
27
12,604
1,101
44
10,625
Total
13,457
11,770
DeaoriptioD.
T otal
Textile Indostribs.
Weaving factory ...
Cotton weaving, durri, munj and chick
making factory ...
Munj factory
Woollen carpet and weaving factory...
Mbtal Industries.
Blacksmith's work
Indcsteies connbctbd with
chemical fboducts.
Paper factory
[ndustbies of dress.
Tailoring
.Fcrnitdbe Indostbiss.
Tent factory
Ohick factory
Cane work
Industries of luxdbv.
Printing press
B
a
20
Classification.
Directors,
Supervisors
and Clerical
work.
Workmen.
o
=1 o
a; ^-
o. eo
o a
^<
2,355
191
1,244
82
40
23
560
22
71
44
22
50
J*
00
245
36
10
41
i
106
25
1,225
115
760
29
5
187
22
40
14
22
Beggars,
vagrants-
prostitutes,
etc-
<>Order 55).
20 jail factories in the
Province, with 20 or
more workers, which
afford industrial occu-
pation to 2,355, or 17
per cent, of the total
population of the jails,
and it is interest-
ing that there are as
many as 1,225 skilled
workmen against 882
unskilled hands, who
assist at the jail manu-
factures— that is to
say, the professional
talent of the prisoners
does not remain quite
unemployed while
they are undergoing
imprison me n t .
Weaving, particular-
ly in the line of carpet
(Ourrie) making, is
the commonest occu-
pation provided to
employ their time,the
Multan, Montgomery and Ferozepore Jails having the largest weaving factories.
Paper is manufactured in the Delhi, Gujranwala, Multan, Rawalpindi, Gurdaspur
and Ludhiana Jails ; but the industries suited to the tastes of the criminal classes,
such as nmnj mat and chick weaving, cane work, tailoring, tent-making, are not
neglected. The Delhi Jail has a smiths' shop and a printing press as well.
G61. A decrease of 26 per cent.in thestrengthof beggars, vagrants, procurers,.
^= prostitutes, criminals, gamblers, etc., from 792,788 in
strength. 1901 to 584,580, is a satisfactory feature of the occu-
pation returns. The distribution of the figures, by oc-
41
478
12
37
266
29
8
17
Occupation.
Criminal pursuits
Beggars ...
Prostitutes
Bharai
Gamblers
J, 482
572,845
5,557
4,522
174
cupations, is given in the
margin.
No one returned
himself as a receiver of stolen goods, or cattle poisoner,
but some of the members of criminal tribes, who
had no ostensible moans of livelihood, did not mind
Total ... "584,580 their being put dowu as ^araj/am pes/ia — i.e., following
' criminal pursuits. Of these, 624 entries are found in
Karnal, 210 in Gurdaspur, 66 in Rohtak, 59 in Sialkot, 53 in Ferozepore, 21 in
Gurgaon, 19 in Gujrat, 99 in Nabha, 73 in Bahawalpur
and 10 in Patiala. And 174 persons were found living
solely on gambling. The locahties to which most
of the entries belong are noted in the margin. The
figures are by no means an index of all the gambling
that goes on, particalarly in the larger cities and
towns, where the professional gamblers go about under
the garb of one occupation or another.
Actual
Locality.
Total.
work,
era.
Mianwali „,
48
U
Ferozeporo
Qnrdaspur
PatiaU
46
16
U
26
8
9
Attock
11
4
Shahpur
Multan
9
' 5
3
4
521
XII.
DI80DS8ION OF THE STATISTICS.
[ Punjab, 1911.
District.
No.
District.
No.
Delhi
730
Lahore
423
Ambala
589
AmritEar
409
Mnltan
469
District or State.
No.
District or State.
No.
Patiala
29,149
Ferozepore
23,693
Bahawalpur
28,435
Multan
23,284
Lahore
26,782
Ourdaapur
22,836
Sialkot
34,995
Ho8hiarpur ...
21,800
Gujranwala
24,502
Montgomery ...
20,923
Amritsar
24,110
Shah par
20,693
Lyallpur
24,055
Prostitutes are most
common in towns as the mar-
ginal figures will indicate.
Multan is known for abundance of
beggars, but the figures of Patiala are
the largest and some of the other dis-
tricts also show equally large figures.
The districts and states with more than
20,000 beggars are named in the
margin.
INOUBTRY-
TRADE -
MtPERHILLE
IDOO
FUNCTDNAL DISTRHUTIDN OF
^ POPULATION OF EACH NATURAL
DIVISION
ACBICULTimE — . Bi IPRDFESSIONS AND
-S 1 LIBERAL ARTS
DOMESTIC SEHVICEM
OTHER CCCUPATlDHSn
Local Distribution.
662. The distribution of the population of each Natural Division into Distribu-
the main heads of Agriculture, Industry, Trade, tion by
Professions and Liberal Arts, Domestic service Natural
and Others is illustrated by the marginal diagram. Divisions.
It will be seen that Agriculture is of prime
importance in the Himalayan, while it stands at
about the same level in the other three Natural
Divisions. Relatively, Industry is of somewhat
greater importance in the Sub-Himalayan tract
than in the other divisions, and Trade engages
the largest proportion of the population in the
Indo-Gangetic Plain. Professions and Liberal
Arts are patronized about equally in the Indo-
Gangetic Plain and the Sub-Himalayan tract
but they are of comparatively less importance
in the North- West Dry Area. The demand
for Domestic Service is also greatest in the
two former divisions. Pasture and Other
occupations support the largest proportion of
the population in the North- West Dry Area
and the Himalayan Division is the weakest, in
respect of all classes of occupations except
Agriculture. The reasons for the importance
of particular occupations in each Natural Divi-
sion have already been explained.
663. The diagram printed in the margin shows the distribution of the Distribu-
followers of each of the main religions, by occupa- tion by re-
tions. More than half the Hindus (541 per mille) ligion.
hve on Agriculture, one-fifth of them (200 per
mille) are supported by Industry, morp than one-
ninth (115 per mille) by Trade, 3 per cent, by
Profei^Bions and Liberal Arts and 23 per mille by
Domestic Service. The Sikhs are mainly agri-
cultural, with 729 per mille earning their liveli-
hood by that occupation. Only 12 per cent, of
them depend upon Industry and 6 per cent, on
Trade. Trade is the mainstay of the Jains and
supports SOS per mille of them. Their share in
Agriculture and Industry is, therefore, very insig-
nificant. Very few Jains are in dome.stic service
(only 6 per mille). The Muhammadans depend
upon Agriculture somewhat more than the
Hindus, but less than the feikhs (577 per mille),
and they also take a large share in Industry (224
per mille). But only 28 per mille of them live
on Trade. Pasture, Government service ^parti-
cularly Public Force) and other occupations not
INOO HIMA- BUB HIMA NQHTH
CANCETIC LAYAN LAYAN ,WEST DRY
PLAIN WEST : AREA
^ DISTRIBUTION OF MAIN REUCIONS
* BY OCCUPATION
ACRicuLTune
INDUSTRY
TRADE
EH
RErERENCES
SS UBERAL ARTS
- L -1 DOMESTIC SERVICCirai
OTHER OCCUPATIONS C3
522
Censas Report, ]
mSCDSSION OP THE STATISTICS.
Chapter
Occnpations
by religion.
DISTRIBUTION OF MAIN OCCUPATJONS
f BY RELIGION
REFERENCES
HINDU -^ MUHQB E3
SKH ^ CHRISTIAN- - IB
me-ntioned above, support about 17 per cent, of the Muhammadan population.
The Christians are about equally divided between Agriculture and Industry
(376 and 325 per mille respectively). Only 2 per cent, of them are dependent on
Trade, but they have the largest proportion of persons living on Govern-
ment service (particularly in the Army, Railway, etc.) and other occupations
not specified above.
The converse of the above distribution, viz., the composition of each main
occupation by religion is illustrated by the mar-
ginal diagram. It will be seeu that while, with
reference to the proportion of each religion, the
Sikhs are far more dependent on agriculture than
the followers of other religions, the Muham-
madans represent more than one-half (505 per
mille) of the agricultural population as a whole.
The Hindus come next with 839 persons per mille
and the Sikhs stand third with 150 per mille.
The Christians contribute only 5 per mille to
Agriculture. Similarly, in spite of the Christians
showing the largest proportional dependence on
Industry, the Muhammadans owing to their pre-
ponderance contribute 6 out of every 10 to the
industrial occupations, the Hindus represent 356
and the Sikhs 71 per mille, while only 13 per
mille of the industrial population is Chiistian.
Of every thousand living by trade, 640 are
Hindus, 219 Muhammadans, 114 Sikhs, and only
24 Jains, although Trade is the principal source
The Christians represent only o per mille of the population
'INDUS
CULTUR^I TRY
lOMESTC
r^SSONStSERVKZ
I AND :
lJBERAl|
I ARTS I
of their income.
dependent on Trade. The Muhammadan rehgion includes about half the popula-
tion belonging to Professions and Liberal Arts (the largest figures being those of
religious mendicants and singers, etc.) 445 per mille thereof are Hindus, 52 per
mille Sikhs, 15 per mille Christians and 1 per mille Jains. The Muhammadans
also take tlie largest share in Domestic Service (520 per mille) ; the Hindus con-
tribute 400, the Sikhs 71 and the Christians 9 per mille.
Distribu-
tion by
caste.
Adherence to
traditional oc-
capation.
664.
The castes which have adhered most to their traditional occupations,
are named in the
margin, with the
proportion of ac-
tual workers still
following that
pursuit. It will
be noted that the
castes, which are
agricultural by
tradition, have
found sufficient
attraction in that
pursuit. Of the
artizans, the Su-
nars, whose occu-
pation is fairly
lucrative, still
have 838 per mille
working as gold-
smiths. No me-
chanical appliance
had yet replaced
s bOS
S t«=>
an g
e-.sg
£t o
£ & o
ff> o ^^
03 o-t;
Caste.
Traditional occu-
pation.
1 work
le foil
iitiona
ions.
Caste.
Traditional occu-
pation.
Iwork
le toll
ditiona
ions.
Actua
mil
tra
pat
Actua
mi'
tra
pal
Kanet
Agriculturist ...
938
Mochi
Shoe maker
ti44
Dogar
Do. & cattle
breeders.
935
Say ad
Agriculturist and
Priest.
643
Gujar
Agricul t u r i s t.
921
Khokhar ...
Agriculturist
631
herdsmen and
Arora
Trader
629
milkmen.
Jhinwar ...
Village menial ...
627
Meo
Agriculturist
919
Moghal ...
Agriculturist
589
Ghirath ...
Do.
914
Tarkhan ...
Carpenter^
589
Saini
Do.
891
Lobar
Ironsmitbs
576
Jat
Do.
875
Chuhra ...
Scavenger
574
Sunar
Gold-smith
838
Faqir
Mendicants and
572
Kamboh ..■
Agriculturist
834
beggars.
Arain
Do.
831
Sansi
Crime
571
Rajput
Do- and
810
Dhobi
Washermen
571
Military service.
Bharai
Bepgars
564
Awan
Agriculturist
799
Dhanak ...
Scav e n g e r and
547
Nai
Barber
752
weaver.
Aggarwal ...
Trader
751
Pathan ...
Agriculturist and
531
Biloch
Agriculturist
718
Military ser»ice.
MaU
Do.
710
Khatri
Trade
529
Qureshi ...
Do. and
679
Kumhar ...
Potters
629
Priest.
Ahir
Berdsmen and
505
Julaha
Weaver
078
milkmen.
the barber, although the adoption of the western system of shaving one's self, parti-
cularly with the Gilette safety razor, has overcome the ancient scruples against such
procedure and reduced the necessity of Ijarbers, who consequently have only 752 per
Machhi
295
Dumna
231
Sheikh
276
Mallah
212
Kashmiri
24.0
Pakhiwara
142
Brahman
23S
Dagi-Koli
61
Jogi-Rawal ...
236
Bawaria
60
Labana
233
Harni
22
Musalli
236
Mahtam
15
523
.^11. DISCUSSION OP THE STATISTICS. [Punjab, 1911.
mille left in their traditional occupation, the others striking out new lines for
themselves. Other artizans like the Julaha, Mochi, Tarkhan, Lolnir, Dhobi, and
Kumhar have been ready to lay their liand to wliatever came in their way, while
the trading castes of Arora and Khatri have not found their traditional occupa-
tion large enough for them and, owing partly to the consequences of their banking
relationship with the agriculturists and partly to adventurous tendencies, have
engaged a good deal in Agriculture and other occupations. The menials and
scavengers have been no less anxious to better their position in society, by adopt-
ing more honourable and remunerative professions. On the whole, 654 per mille
of the actual workers belonging to the castes noted in Imperial Table XVI, still
adhere to their traditional occupations.
The castes which have been the least conservative, in the matter of
traditional occupation, are given in
the margin. The criminal tribes
of Harni and Bawaria have all but
given up their hereditary pursuits,
so have the Mahtams, who are
hunters by profession and the
Pakhiwaras, also a criminal tribe, are not far behind. There is a marked ten-
dency among the low castes, such as, Dagi-Koli and Dumna to dissociate them-
selves from their unclean professions. The Machhis, Mallahs, Musallis, and
Labanas have gone in largely for other than their traditional occupations. The
Kashmiris, who comedown mostly as weavers and traders, have settled down to
Agriculture and other pursuits. Rawals (or Jogi-Rawals) object to being called
fortune tellers by profession and have only 236 per mille in their traditional
occupation. All these are indications of emancipation from traditional bondage.
The Brahraans seem, however, to have been obhged to adopt professions other
than those originally prescribed for them, which proved too small for the increas-
ing population, in consequence of the relaxation of the discipline ordained for
them. The Sheikhs, who are really a mixed class of converts from various castes
and immigrants fi'om Arabia, have naturally not stuck to their traditional occu-
pation and the majority of them have taken to such respectable avocations as
Service, etc.
665. Agriculture, with its adjunct of cattle breeding, being the mainstay Professions
of this Province, has been most attractive to all the castes, those not originally *^°p'®^-
connected with the cultivation of land trying to change their traditional occupation,
as will be clear from Subsidiary Table VIII, appended to this Chapter. From the
Brahman, whose connection with land probably began, in the oldest days, as an
occupier of a hermitage, with sutiicit?nt grounds for the grazing of his cows and,
later on, by gifts from the Ruling Chiefs, down to the Musalh, Chuhni and the
criminal tribes, who have worked up to the stage of agricultural labourers, farm
servants, and cultivators, every caste now owns or cultivates a certain amount
of land.
The Barwaliis, Chhimbae, Dhobis, Kashmiris, Khojas, Musallif, Machhis,
and Sheikha have taken largely to various branches of Industry, but all other
castes partake to a large or small extent, in industrial pursuits.
Transport has mostly attracted Biloches 78 per mille, Kashmiris 54,
Khatris 61, Kumhars 100, Pathans 74, Sheikhs 55, andArains 40. The Brahman
76, Harni 64, Jogi-Rawal 43, Kamboh 40, Pakhiward 284, Kumhar 28, Pathan
57, and Qassab ] 73, per millo, have taken largely to trade.
The castes, sharing most in the Pubhc Administration, rtre Kliatri 47 per
tnille, Sayad 31, Sheikh 30, Moghal 26, Qureshi 23, Pathan 22, Kashmiri 19 per
mille. Village Service embraces 18 per mille of Bawarias. Some of tho highest
castes have found an opening in domestic service, e.g., 62 per mille of Sheikhs, 21
of Sayads, 19 of Qureshis and Rajputs, 41 of Pathans, 28 of Moghals, 45 of
Khatris, 33 of Brahmans, 18 of Aggarwals, and 22 of Aroras.
The castes which live mostly by begging, etc., are Jogi-Rawal* 373, Mirasi
364, Sayad lOS, Sansi 99, Qureshi 93, and Musalh 58.
* Not the oculist Rawals, but mainly the Jo^'i-Rawals known as Bhatras.
524
C«iisas Report, ] wscdssion op the statistics. Chaptbb
Selected occu- 666. Taking the occupations for which etatistics have been separately
castor ^ given in Table XVIA, the strength of the most important castes living ou income
frotxi rent of agricultural land is Jat 85,763, Rajpat 23,665, Brahman 15,271,
Arora 12,196, Arain 8,289, Khatri 7,852, and Tarkhau 5,080. On the whole, there
are 73,686 Hindus, 68,370 Sikha and 97,301 Muhammadans representing 31, 28,
and 41 per cent, respectively of the total population of the group for each religion.*
The Imperial Army contains 11,61'?^ Hindus, 10,867 Sikhs, 21 Jains and 20,060
Muhammadans, the principal castes in the Army being Rajput 9,815, Jat 8,529,
Pathau 6.627, Gurkhii 3,275, Awan 1,810, Mazhabi 1,626, Brahman 1,100, Sheikh
1,044, Biloch 899 and Sayad 849.
To the Army of the Native States, the Jats contribute 2,685, the new caste
of KhiilsH 1,795 and the Rajputs 1,349. The Police is composed by religions aa
follows :— Hindus 7,698, Sikhs 2,379, Jains 53, Muhammadans 17,122 ; and the
main castes making up the Police Force are Jat 5,855, Rajput 4,246, Pathan
2,058, Brahman 1,804, Kalal 1,349 Khatri 1,337, Sayad 1,298, Sheikh 1,188 and
Awan 935. The Barwalas contribute nearly half the strenotli of group 143 ' Vil-
lage watchmen ' (9,406) and the only other castes of importance under the group
are Rajput 954, Julabti 702, Kashmiri 523, and Gujnr 499. In the service of the
State (group 144), the Hindus take up 7,280 places, the Sikhs 1,561, Jains 99, and
the Muhammadans 8,090. The service is composed principally of the following
cast-es :— Jat 2,377, Khatri 2,305, Brahman 1,919, Rajput 1,817, Arora 1,609,
and Sheikh 1,228.
In the service of the Native and Foreign States there are 4,457 Hindus,
1,060 Sikhs, 41 Jams, and 3,678 Muhammadans. The Brahmans (1,045) are the
strongest. Next to them come Khatris 1,096, Jats 930, Rajputs 852, Sheikhs 589,
Pathans 444 and Aggarwals 403. Municipal and otker local services are composed
mainly of Jats 949} Brahmans 757, Khatris 676, Rajputs 524, Sheikhs 498 and
Aroras 425. Only 861 Chuhras appear under group 146 in Table XVI A. These
are not all the Chuhras iu the sei-vice of Municipalities, etc. The scavengers,
whether employed by Municipalities or special departments, were to appear under
group 93 (scavengers, etc.) but these 861 men returned their 0(!cupation as ' Mu-
nicipal service,' not liking to call themselves scavengers, with the result that they
have appeared under group 146 insteadof 93 (see paragi'aph 651).
Most of the members of the legal profea!?ion are Khatris (412) ;
the Sheikhs come next (333), followed by Rajputs (220), Jats (205), Sayad
and Brahmans (208) each, Aroraa (195) and Aggarwals (J 57). The Khatris also
take the lion's share in group 153, 'lawyers' clerks, etc' The Brahmans
contribute 485 men, Aroras 384, Sheikhs 298, Jats 291, Aggarwals 240 and
Rajputs 210.
The Brahmans are the most numerous (1,033) in the Medical profession
(group No. 154), the Jats coraw next with 913 and Khatris contribute 866. The
Fema. Sayads 772, Sheikhs 628, Rajputs 575 and Aroras 524 follow
lei. in tJie order of numerical strength. Tbe profession also in-
cludes 252 Jogi-Rawals who practise as oculists. Group 155
(midwives, vaccinators, compounders, nurses, etc.) is made up
principally of the castes noted in the margin. The female
workers represent the midwives and nurses. An overwhelm-
ing majority of the midwives belongs to the Jogi (Muham-
madan) caste.
The profession of teaching (group 156) is still mostly in the hands of the
Brahmans (4,647) and Ulemas (3,697). The Khatris (841) and the Aroras (499)
also take a large share in the work of Instruction.
Castes filUng 667. With a view to examine the proportion of higher Government
high Govern- appointments held by each caste, information regarding the caste of such officers
ments*''^'"" has been collected from the General and Departmental records.
* There are 307 Jains whose proportion does not come up to 1 per mille
Jogi
5
2.048
Gagra
298
721
Khatri
466
82
Kayasth ..
. 351
45
Brahman ..
. 30.S
137
Jat
. 266
66
Bajput
. 203
60
Sheikh
. 204
45
:xii.
525
SISCDSSION OF THE STATISTICS.
[ Punjab, 1911.
The marginal table shows the distribution of gazetted appointments given in
Btatement showing the castet of (he Gazetted officerg of Government,
Caste or Nationality.
Arain
Arora ...
Awan ...
Bangali ...
Baoia ..,
Bhat
Bhatia ...
Biloch ...
Brahman
Dhobi ...
Gurkha
Jat
Kakkezai
Kalal ...
Kashmiri
Kayasth ...
Khalsa .,.
Khatri ...
Moghal ...
Mahajan ...
Pathan ...
Qazilbash
Qureshi
Rajput .,.
Total
Sheikh ...
Sud
Tarkhan...
Zoroastrian
Christians
Unspecified
tl,0S2
6
42
1
1
24
1
2
2
44
1
1
13
3
8
2
20
1
93
6
1
23
3
3
22
22
50
7
6
2
t589
33
170
160
182
3
17
10
"*1
1
10
6
1
2
1
i
1
28
4
16
1
2
15
7
23
2
I
24
2
18
Medical.
«
40
€
Q
87
81
■a
3)
101
1
8
1
28
8
13
P. W. D.
C3 H
53
37
10
177
U
13
1
no
11
33
12
10
13
14
14
11
_ cial History
"^ of gazetted
officers.* It
will be no-
ticed that
589 appoint-
. ments out of
J a total of
°_ 1,032 are
15 held by Eu-
~ ropean and
b2 other Chris-
■•• tians, who
... observe no
•;; distinc t i o n
... of caste. Of
" the remain-
3 ing 443 ap-
■'■ pointmen t s ,
.« the Khatris
;;| t a k e up
• by far the
;;■ 1 a r g e s t
•share (21 per
::: cent.) The
••• Sheikhs, hold-
;;;ing 50 posts,
• rank next in
import ance
- and are well
... represe n t e d
:^iin the high-
est branches
of
15
service,
two of them being in the Punjab Commission, 23 in the Provincial Service and
one in the Indian Medical Service. The Brahmans come third with 44 appoint-
ments, holding three of the Punjab Commission and one Civil Surgeon's appoint-
ments, but the rest of posts held by them are confined to the Civil, Educational,
Medical and Public Works Department services. The Aroras fill 42 of the posts
mainly in the Provincial Service and the Subordinate Medical line. The numerical
order of the other castes holding more appointments than 10 is Bania 24, Pathan
23, Riijput and Sayad 22 each, Kayasth 20, Jat 13.
In March 1911, the highest appointments open to Indians were filled as
follows. The Punjab Commission had 10 Indian members : — Brahmans 3 (one
I.C.S.), Kalal 1, Pathan 1, Rajput 1 (I.C.S.), Sayad J, Slid 1, Sheikhs 2 (one I.C.S.).
The Indian Medical service had 1 Arora, 1 Brahman, 1 Khatri, 1 Pathan, 1 Sheikh
and 1 Slid. There were two Indian Chief Court Judges — one Arain and one Khatri.
G68. It will be seen from Part III of Table XV E that 43, out of the 443 share of
factories (with 20 operatives or more), are owned by companies, of whish the «=*«'«? "ili-
directors are Europeans or Anglo-Indian.'^ in 15, Indians in 2G, and mixed in 2, fop^^^.*^'^^
There are 56 factories owned by Government and 32 by Europeans and Anglo-
Indians. Indians are proprietors of 312. The
castes of the owners are given in the margin. All
the sporting works in the Province belong to the
KhatriP, so does the only hosiery factory ; and
they own most of the brick and tile kilns (25),
tea factories (6) and printing presses (5) and take
♦March 19)1. ~~
t Ii^cluding 71 belonging to Police (Imperial), 12 to Education (Imperial), 5 to Prison, and Ito Foliiical'
Departments.
Khatri
.. 78
Kalal
12
Arora
.. 52
Kashmiri
C
Shoikh
.. 34
Pathan
5
Aggarwal
.. •■'I
Mahajan
5
Jat ...
.. 20
Sud
5
Rajput
.. 15
Khandehval..
5
Brahman
.. 12
Others
32
526
Cessus Keport, 1
■ DISCUSSION OP THE STATISTICS.
Chapter
Castea of pri-
sionei's.
a large share in textile industries (nest only to the Aroras), with 17 cotton
ginning and similar factories. In food industries, too, they stand second to none
but the Aroras having 8 factories to themselves. They own the only cigarette
factory in the Province. The Aroras lead in textile industries with 23 factories
and in food industries with 12. They are well represented in ceramics, having
11 Brick and Tile kilns, and possess three Printing presses. The Sheikhs own 2
out of 3 Leather factories and the only Kankar quarry and Cane and button
factory in the Province. They are largely interested, in textile industries, witb
14 factories, possessing the only silk filature and the cotton and wool carpet
weaving factory in the Punjab. They also have three Printing presses and take
a share in many other industrial undertakings. The 2 glass factories belong
exclusively to Aggarwals, and they have directed their attention chiefly to
textile (11) and food (4) industries and brick and tile kilns (9). They also possess
2 out of 7 Iron workshops. The Jats have 5 Tea factories, 7 Brick and Tile
kilns and 5 Food factories to their credit. One dairy farm shown as belonging
to the Jats is owned by the Patiala State. The Kajputs have 4 Tea factories, 6
Brick and Tile kilns and three Metal factories. The principal Brahman concerns
are Tea (4), Printing presses (3) and Food industries (2). To the Kalals belong the
only rope acd tent factory in the Province and they also possess one of the two
Indian owned Breweries, the otlier belonging to the Nabha State. The Only notice-
able industrial undertaking of the Kashmiris is in the line of textiles, 8 carpet
weaving factories out of 7 (Indian owned) belonging to them. The Pathans have
two Tea factories, one Brick and Tile kiln, one Brick and Lime factory and one
Cotton weaving factory. The Malmjans are mostly engaged in the tea industry,.
having three such factories, and the Suds own nothing but Tea factories. The
Khandelwals, who are a class of Banias, have directed their attention mostly to
metal industries, 4 of the 5 owned by them being Metal fuctories.
The castes entrusted with the management of factories are detailed
^8 in the margin. The management follows the same lines, more
S2 or less, in respect of caste. Leaving alone the Christians
(mostly Europeans), who are indispensable to the manage-
ment of the larger concerns, the Khatris, Arords, Sheikhs,
Aggarwals, Eajputs, Kashmiris, Pathans, Mahajans generally
manage most of their own factories. The Brahmans take^
a much larger share in the management of concerns.
Besides running most of their own, they manage 11 Tea fac-
tories, 2 Coal mines, 5 Ginning factories, one smith and
carpentry works* etc., 4 Brick and Tile kilns, 1 Flour and
rice factory and one Surkhi grinding mill, belonging toother
Total ... 443 castes. The management of only half the factories owned
by Jats is in the hands of that caste, the others, belonging mostly to the Phulkian
States, are managed by employes of other castes and persuasions. The Arains are
entering into the department of industry but have not yet got to owning factories.
They have 4 Brick and Tile kilns, 1 Flour mill and 1 Woollen carpet weaving fac-
tory in their hands. The Khandelwiils and Siids manage less factories than they own.
669. Tbe classification of prisoners by religion, caste and sex, given in
Subsidiary Table XI, will indicate
the criminal propensities of certain
classes. The more important
figures are cited in the margin. The
religious distribution of the total
number of prisoners is as follows: —
Hindu 2,927, Sikh 1,518, Muham-
madan 8,886 and Native Christian.
46. In other words the Jail po-
pulation was composed of 219
Hindus, 114 Sikhs, 664 Muham-
madans and 3 Native Christians
per millo. There were 408 female
prisoners in Jails and the propor-
Owned by the Bahawalpai State.
Christian
Ehatri
Arora
Sheikh
Brahman
Aggarwal
Bajput
Jat ...
Kalal
Kashmiri
Pathaa
Arain
Mabajan
Khandelwal
Sud ...
Others
35
35
32
16
10
9
7
7
6
5
3
2
46
443
XQ.
527
BISCtJSSlON OP THB STATISTICS.
[ Punjab, 1911.
tion of females to every 1,000 males for each religion was : — Hindus 29, Sikhs 26
and Mnhammadans 33, against 32 for the total of all religions. There was do Indian
Christian female in Jail. The proportion of females for the different religions was
thiJs pretty nearly the same. As regards the castes, the Jats, Pathans and Rajputs
are the largest constituents of jails ; but relatively to the total strength of each caste,
the Sansis come first with 76 persons for every 10,000 of population. They get into
trouble mainly over thieving. The Pathans, who are known for their turbulent
spirit, have 55 out of every 10,000, in Jail. The proportion then drops suddenly to
14 among the Biloches, who are backward in education. On the one hand they
are ready to come to blows on mere trifles and on the other, amoog them the lower
classes do not object to tliieving, when they are hard up. The Awans come next
with a proportion of 11. They are also a fighting tribe, but go in for all classes of
crime. The Sayads with 10 persons, for every 10,000, are given largely to
theft and counterfeit coining, particularly in the western Punjab, where
some of them have been known as professional murderers by poison, of a highly
ingenious type. The Sayads of Sadhora in Ambala had, at one time, acquired
great reputation in forgery, and three years ago I had occasion to deal with a
Sayad criminal who forged the signature of a Superintendent of Police, which
would defy all but a most minute and technical observation. The Sheikhs have
a proportion of 9 and the Jats, who represent 28 per cent of the Jail population
have only 7 prisoners for every 10,000 of their total population. The Jat does
not mind breaking his adversary's skull, in fair conflict, or chopping off his head,
at night or after having waylaid him and is given to kicking up tremendous
rows under the influence of liquor. Nor does he mind committing highway robbery,
at time?. But he generally considers thieving below his dignity and that is what
accounts for the comparatively low proportion of Jat prisoners. The Rajputs
with a proportion of 6 are mostly Mnhammadans and are given to a certain
amount of cattle lifting. The Chuhra is known, among the people, to be addicted
more to criminal pursuits, than the proportion of prisoners of that caste would
show. Belonging to the lowest stratum of society, he is ever ready to throw in
his lot with persons of evil repute. The Gujars are also known for cattle lifting.
The other castes need no special comment.
670. The income tax affords a good criterion for judging the comparative vveaithof
opulence of the various castes engaged in pursuits *^*^'^^'
other than agriculture. Information based on the
district returns of 1910-11 has been collected in
Subsidiary Table XII to this Chapter. The castes
paying the largest sums as income-tax are noted
in the margin. It will bo noticed that the Banias
(including Aggarwals), the Mahajans who also
belong to the Bania class, the Khatris, the
Aroras, the Sheikhs and the Brahmans contribute
close on 4 crores of rupees, out of a total of 477
lakhs assessed on the 5 classes dealt with in the
Subsidiary Table and that all but R?. 30,66,761 are
realized from the 10 castes, enumerated, in the margin, and the European mer-
chants. The Khatris pay more than one-third of the total assessment under the
head ' Professions,' i.e., more than the Aroras, Banias, Brahmans, and Sheikhs put
together. They also take the lead in ' Industrial occupations,' but in ' Trade,' the
profits of the Banias are by far the largest, their contribution towards the
income-tax, under that head, being 1 36 lakhs, i.e., more than one-third of the total,
against 87J lakhs paid by the Aroras. The Sheikhs seem to be the largest pro-
perty owners. They pay Rs. 4,69,000 as such. Khatris run tl)em very close with
Rs. 4,27,442; the two castes, between them, being responsible for nearly one-
half of the total assessment under that head. Under the head ' Others ' the
Khatris are again facile princeps with an assessment of 9|- lakhs, the Aroras
being second with Rs. 2,89,000. The Bhabras (Jains) are a trading class and,
although they pay less than nine lakhs of rupees as Income-tax, yet they are
very well off, as quite 61 per mille of Bhabra males are assessed to the tax. The
Suds with one in forty males, assessed to Income-tax, are a particularly Well-to-
do class.
No
Caste.
Number ol
Amount,
assessees.
1
Bania
6,825
1,47,02,553
2
Khatri
5,136
1,08,32,621
3
Arora
7,037
96,88,965
4
Sheikh ...
824
21,04,207
5
Brahman ,..
807
16,23,536
e
E^iropean...
261
14,38,360
7
Mahajan ...
410
9,06,783
8
Jat
609
9,06,2Ia
9
Bhabra ...
404
8,95,947
10
Sud
285
8,02,306
11
Rajput ...
102
7,74,268
Ceusns Eeport, ]
528
UISCELLAKEOnS.
Cbafteic
Ur'ban and
rural occu-
pations.
Urban occu-
pations.
Miscellaneous.
671. Taking the figures of the 3 Cities and 6 selected towns to represent
typical urban population, the pro-
portional strength of occupations,
falling under Agriculture, Industry,
Commerce and Professions is com-
pared in the margin. Agriculture is
not an urban occupation, for there
is little arable land in cities and
towns. The difference in Industries
is not so large, but the cities and
larger towns are still the more im-
portantindustrial centres. Commerce
Pboportion per 1,000 or popu-
lation UNDXK
U
-3
i3
o
S
OQ
03
t
6
o
■3
o
Total Province
5S0
205
94
25
96
Cities and selected towns
70
336
280
49
265
Rural occupa
tions.
is confined very largely to urban tracts, its proportion in the cities and selected towns
being 3 times that in the Province as a whole. Commerce is particularly an urban
occupation. It comprises of Transport and Trade, the former embracing 95 per
mille of the urban population against 29 m the whole Province, and the latter being
the means of support of 185 per mille, in the cities and selected towns, against
65 in the whole Punjab. The Professions are also twice as strong in the urban
tracts as in the Province taken as a whole. The diagram printed in the margin
of paragraph 599 illustrates the comparative strength of the sub-classes, etc., in
the urban tracts with that in the total population. The occupations, of which
the strength in the cities and selected towns is
shown in column 6 of Subsidiary Table I to be
20 or more per cent., are noted in the margin.
Furniture Industries and Construction of
means of transport are naturally peculiar to the
requirements of the urban population and show
the fairly large percentages of 41 and 85, respec-
tively. In spite of extensive construction works
going on in the rural tracts, the headquarter
oflBces of the Railways and their workshops are
all situated in cities and towns, besides the large
establishments needed at these Railway stations
for traffic requirements, and go to swell the
proportion of the population connected with
Railway. Telephone service is peculiar to
the cities. The Post office and Telegraph
establishments are also strongest there. The
branches of trade peculiar to the urban tracts are
those concerned with; — clothing and toilet arti-
cles, articles of luxury, etc., metals, textiles and
chemical products. The sale of furniture and
building material flourishes in towns, while
brokerage and commission agency, hotels, cafes,
restaurants, etc., also prosper there. Trade in
refuse matter, though very small in extent, is
carried on more in the cities than in the rural
tracts. The troops being stationed mostly at the
Cantonments, the Army shows 56 per cent, of its
constituents in the cities and selected towns.
Of the professions, Law has a fairly high percentage of 31 in urban tracts,
notwithstanding the inclusion of Kiizis, etc., belonging to rural tracts under
this head. Persons living on their income and domestic servants are fairly nume-
rous in the cities and selected towns, and the largest Jails being also situated
in such units 53 per cent of the inmates of Jails and Asylums were found therein.
With ihe functional revolution, that is in progress, the old days, whea each
villnge was a self sufficient uait, replete witb the industries, trades and professions,
necessary for its modesb local requirements,* are over. The construction of
* la para. 13, Chapter IX of the Punjab Census Report of 1901, Mr, Rose gave a vivid description.
"a
1
ployed
ai se-
8.
Occupation.
o
a
£§5
O.-^TS
a '^ u o
1
s
i.gs
o
CL,
III.— Inddstbt.
14
Furniture industries
41
16
Construction of means of
transport.
IV.— Transpobt.
35
22
Transport by rail
34
23
Post office, Telegraph and
Telephone servicas.
V— Trade.
27
25
Brokerage, conunission and
export.
30
26
Trade in-textiles
23
29
Trade in metals
32
31
Trade in chemical products...
21
32
Hotels, cafes, restaurants, etc.
29
34
Trade in clothing and toilet
articles.
38
35
Trade in furniture ...
20
86
Trade in building materials
20
89
Trade in articles of luiurv, etc.
36
40
Trade in refuse matter
VI.— POBLIO FOEOE.
57
42
Army
VIII. — PaOFKSSION AND LIBE-
BAL ABT8.
66
47
Law
31
51
IX.— Persons living on
THRIB OWN INOOMK.
28
52
X.— Domestic Skrvicb
XII. - Unprtductive.
21
64
Inmates of jails and asylums,
53
XII.
529
UISCEIXiNEOUS.
[ Punjab, 1911.
Kailways riinning through all prosperous tracts have led to the disintegration of
trade and industry. Small Railway stations act as exporting centres and
factories have been established, in oiit-of-the-way places, on or in the vicinity
of the Railway. The extensive use of imported cloth has displaced the
formerly indispensable weaver, and many small villages have no local dealers in
textile fabrics. The emancipation of the menial classes has allured them from
their homes for enterprise in avenues previously closed to them and some
of the villages have to do without the Mirasi, the barber and sometimes
the water-cnrrier. The equipment of the average village of the present
time may be described as follows: — The Agricultural implements are
indispensable and consequently every village must have a smith. He very often
works both as a carpenter andfi blacksmith, but in the stronger villages there are
separate artizans in each branch of the industry. The potter is essential for
well-irrigated tracts, but in tracts, irrigated by canals or dependent on rain alone,
people can buy the necessary pottery from the larger villages in the neigh-
bourhood. The scavenger is a necessity and he also assists, at harvesting
time, in the winnowing of grain, but for reaping operations, ppople only depend
on streams of periodic migration. The washerman is a luxury, which only the
larger villages can now enjoy. But except in the new colony villages, every
village has its own shoe-maker. The religion
is always represented. Every village has either
a Brahman or Dharmsdlid (Sikh priest) or a
Mullan. The occupations, peculiar to the rural
tracts, are named in the margin, with the pro-
portion per cent, of the persons depending on
each occupation, which are found outside the
cities and pelected towns. Pasture and agri-
culture, fishing and hunting, mining, quarries
of hard rocks, extraction of salt, transport by
water {i.e., plying boats), trade in means of
transport (plying pack animals, etc., on hire)
are occupations which can be followed princi-
pally in the rural tracts. But most of the
weavers are still found in the villages. Tan-
ning and other industries in hides and skins are
also mostly confined to villages, where the
material for tanning is easily procurable. The
carpenters, smiths and potters, who contribute
most of the figures to industries in wood and
in ceramics, the oil pressors, indigo churners,
classed under chemical products, the shoe-
makers, included under industry in dress and
the scavengers are, also most numerous in the
rural tracts. Religion, as noted above, is well
represented in villages and in spite of the large
number of beggars, etc., frequenting the cities
and towns, 95 per cent, of them eke out a liv-
ing in the villages. Fuel comes from the rural tracts and trade connected
therewith is also carried on mc'stly in the villages.
672. As already noticed, there is no reason to believe that workers were in Workers
many cases recorded as dependants, contrary to the instructions. Taking all and depen-
professions together, there are 39 actual workers and 61 dependants for every 100 dants.
Numher of dependevts per cent, of ©f the total population. Thc occupatious, which show a
larger percentage of dependants are mentioned in the
margin. Except in the Himalayan Natural Divisions
females do not, as a rule, actually assist in agriculture.
On the other hnnd, females of Maliars, Arains and other
growers of vegetable products and gardens assist the
males in various ways, particularly in disposing of the
produce. 'I'hey have, therefore, as many dependants as
workers. The breeders of cattle are materially assist-
a
1
^3
g- .
*o
s g
Occupation.
CO ^^
E
fe^
CJ t..
P^ 3
ij
(S
»- i-.
o
V
o _.
•s
&.9
o
A^
I.— Exploitation OF the
SDRFAOE OF TBB EABTH.
1
Pasture and agriculture
99
2
Fishing and hunting
II.— EXTBACTION OF MINEBALS.
92
S
Mines
100
4
Quarries of hard rock
100
5
Salt, etc
111.— Industey.
90
6
Textiles
94
7
Bides, skins, etc
94
8
AVood
93
9
Metals
90
10
Ceramics
97
ai
Chtmical products, etc.
95
13
Industries of dress and the
toilet.
92
19
Industries concerned with re-
fuse matter.
IV.— Tbanspobt.
95
20
Transport by water
v.— Trade.
99
37
Trade in means of transport
93
38
Trade in fuel
VIII.— Professions and
LIBEEAL ABTS.
91
46
Religion
XII. — Unpboductitb.
94
65
Beggars, vagrants, etc.
95
total (u-orkers and dependmtts).
Pasture and Agriculture ...
62
Mines
62
Post, Telegraph and Tele-
64
phone services.
Trade
65
Public Administration
65
Religion
62
Law
72
Instruction
63
Censng Report. ]
530
mSCELLANEODS.
Chaptee
ed by their females and children who usually tend the cattle at home or
take tliem out for graziug, and consequeutly the percentage of actual workers
in iSub-group I. D. (see Subsidiary Table I) ie as high as 66. On the whole, there-
fore, the head 'Pasture and Agriculture ' shows only a slight excess in dependants
over the provincial average. Comparatively few females work in mines, which,
have registered 62 per cent, dependants, but quarries of hard rock need no skilled
labour and female labourers are freely employed, thus reducing the percentage of
dependants in that group to 49. The percentage of ludustry, taken collectively, is
below the provincial average, but workers in hides and skins, wood, metal and
pottery, oil pressers, and persons employed on industries of dress and furuiture,
construction of the means of transport and industries of luxury take little assist-
ance from females and children and every one of those Orders shows an appreciably
large pei'centage of dependants. The proportion of dependants is not high in any
, of the occupations connected with Transport except Post Office, Telegraph and
the Telephone Service. Dependants are comparatively numerous in all occupa-
tions, connected with trade, excejit pottery, where females often sit at the
pottery shops, and trade in refuse matter which is insignificant. Public Adminis-
tration has 65 dependants for every 35 workers and the professions connected with.
Religion, Law and Instruction have 62, 72 and 63 per cent, of dependants
respectively. Generally speaking, the proportion of dependants is low in occupa-
tions connected with unskilled manual labour, where the females and children of
working classes augment the family income, by working in common with the
adult males.
Occnpationi 673. Of the actual workers, there is one female to every seven males and
of females, while 62 malesout, of every hundred, work for their livelihood, the similar proportion
amongst females is only one in 9. The
)
5
17
19
22
24
25
26
81
45
62
5G
67
58
67
68
90
91
93
112
120
124
130
155
160
102
Occupation.
Income from rent of agricultural land
Tea. CoSee, etc., planters
Mines and metallic minerals
Rock, sea and marsh salt
Cotton spinning, sizing and weaving
Rope, twine and string
Other fibres, &c.
Wool cotton spinners and weavers, etc.
Other industries, embroidery, etc. ...
Makers of glass and crystal ware ...
Manufacture of dyes, paint and ink
Rice pounders and flour grinders, etc.
Bakers
Grain parchers
Hat, cap and turban makers
Tailors, etc
Makers of trouser strings ...
Toy, kite, cage, fishing tackle, 4c., makers
Sweepers, scavengers, etc. ..„
Trade in pottery
Betel leaf, vegetable, etc., sellers
Deal«rs in hay, grass and fodder
Oealers in firewood, charcoal, cowdung, etc.
Midwives, vaccinators, etc.
Music composers, masters and players
Cooks, water-carriers
9 .
aiss
occupations in which females work,
in considerable proportion, are noted
in the margin. In food industries and
hat making, there are more female
workers than males. In rice pounding,
flour grinding, etc., there are about
four times as many female workers as
there are males and the number of
female grain parchers, etc., is more than
double that of males. In the group
of midwives and vaccinators, etc., there
are 1,745 female workers against
every 1,000 men. Cotton and wool
spinning and sizing, and embroidery
are assigned to females in the indigen-
ous industries and even the factories,
employ a sufficient number of females.
The occupations of females may be
divided into three classes, i.e., (1) in
which they work independently of
males — under this clas.s would fall
'income from rent of land,' ' food in-
dustries ' such as of ' flour grinders,'
' hat making,' ' manufacture of trouser strings,'
(2) where females assist the males at the
399
399
383
372
426
412
4-.;3
567
799
392
316
3,708
739
2,036
1,131
3:59
423
403
764
595
557
534
359
1,7+5
304
316
' bakers and grain parchers,'
' midwifery ' ' dancing and singing
workshops, «.(/. makers of glass bangles, etc., or by working for them, as in the case
of scavengers by disposing of the produce of kilns in the case of potters, selling
special products of land such as vegetables, betel leaves, etc., or grass, by tho
wives of Chamars, grasscuts, etc. ; and (3) where males and females work together
and earn independent wages, e. g., field labourers, tea and coffee planters and
workers in salt mines. Under textile industry, a few females act as auxiliaries
to the male oper.-itives, a.s in the case of weavers, but most of tho female
cotton and wool spinners and embroiderers work independently. Similarly
tho majority of female tailors work on their own account, but a few assist their
husbands and male relatives by sewing. The case of dealers in firewood, cow-
XII.
531
MISCELLANEOUS.
[ Ptmjab, 191L
NUMBER OF FEMALE TO EVERV
1000 MALE WORKERS
dung, etc., is similar. The Gujar women prepare cowdung cakes and sell them
for their husbands, while there are several, who collect dried cowdung in grazing
ai'eas and sell it on their own account. When females take up work as cooks they
are independentj but males and females work simultaneously as water carriers,
although they earn separate wages.
The proportion of female to male workers, for each Natural Division By locality,
is : — Himalayan Division 293, Indo-Gangetic Plain West 148, Sub-Himalayan
139, N.-W. Dry Area 86, per mille.
The map printed in
the margin indicates the pro-
portion of female workers, in
different units. The largest
proportion appears in Man-
di, where women take about
an equal share in work with
the males, particularly in
agriculture, 4 women contri-
buting materially towards
earning their iivelihood
against every 5 men. Kan-
gra comes next with
340 workers per mille.
The other units of the
Himalayan tract also show a
fairly high proportion,except
Simla {^o), where the num-
ber of female workers is
comparatively small, and the
Nahan State (54), where the females of Sirmauri coolies, who earn plenty of
money at Simla, during the summer, have no occasion to work for their
livelihood in the winter. As regards tbe other units, the tendency, with certain
exceptions, appears to be for a larger number of females to work as earuing
members of their families in eastern and central Punjab, than in the western.
The factory Census has shown that 3,905 females were employed as opera- ^^!^^^ a°^
tives against 45,418 males; in other words there was 1 female worker to every 11 ing in fao^
males. Tliat the proportion of female workers, on the whole, as shown by occupa- tories,
tion tables, was 1 in 7 may be taken as a proof of the fairly accurate registration of
actual workers and dependants. It will also be interesting to know that 2,239 male
and 552 female children under 14 years of age, i.e., 5 and 14 per cent, of the male
and female workers, rt^spectively, were employed among the operatives, and there
is reason to believe that a number of well fed children, who were really under 14,
may have passed as above that age, since such a course is advantageous both to
the workers, who earn higher wages and to the managers, who can employ them
for longer hours.
Census B«port,]
532
STTBSIDIABT TABLES.
Chaptee ^
SUBSIDIARY TABLE I
•
General distribution by occupation.
Number per
Pkboentage in
Percentage of
Peeobntagk of
10,000 OF TOTAL
EACH Class, Sdb-
actdal wobkbrs
DEPENDANTS TO
Class, Sob-clabs and Obdgb.
POPULATION.
or
^ U \JI*±/tlil^
employed.
ACTDAL TCORESBS.
d.
ji
i;
00
—
—
p ,
= T3
O
o
m
09
U .
00
(3
h4
a ■£
^^
,_
'a
.2
3 S
.*
=^ s
(D O
|2
g
'o
u £
'S
&4 9>
o
<
Q
a
£3
1— «
a
a ^
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
CLASS A.-PRODUCTION OF RAW MATERIALS
6,010
2,256
37
63
1
99
102
167
SUB-CLA3S 1— EXPLOITATION OF TEE SURFACE
5,995
2,249
38
62
1
99
103
167
OF THE EAKTH.
Order I. P»8ttire and Agricnltnre
5,990
2,247
38
62
1
99
103
167
(n) Ordinary cultivation
5,795
2,m
37
63
1
99
100
174
(()) Growers of special products and market
S
5
50
50
15
85
196
85
gardenivg.
(c) Forestry
19
9
48
52
9
91
84
109
(d) Raising of farm stock
168
111
66
34
1
99
100
51
(e) Raising of small animals
■ ..
...
41
59
...
100
...
144
Older 2. Fishing and HnntiDg ...
5
'" 2
42
58
8
92
108
142
SUB-CLASS II.- EXTRACTION OF MINEBALS
15
7
47
53
4
96
68
116
Order 3. Mines
1
1
38
62
• •■
100
50
162
Order 4. Quarries of hard rocka ...
7
3
51
49
100
100
97
Order 5. Salt, etc.
7
3
44
66
"lO
90
68
131
CLASS B-PREPARATION AND SUPPLY OF
2,977
1.182
40
60
9
91
147
152
MATERIAL SUBSTANCES.
SUB.CLASS IlI.-INDUSTEY ...
2,032
831
41
59
7
93
138
145
Order 6. Textiles
450
192
43
57
6
94
143
134
Order 1. Hides, skins and hard materials from the animal
37
13
34
66
6
94
159
1S2
kingdom.
Order 8. Wood
200
74
37
63
7
93
115
175
Order 9. Metals ... ... ]..
99
34
34
66
10
90
172
192
Order 10. Ceramics ...
146
55
88
62
3
97
110
168
Order 11. Chemical products properly so called and
53
19
35
65
5
95
147
188
analogous.
Order 12. Food industries
120
59
49
51
11
89
131
99
Ordir 13. Induftries of dress and the toilet...
475
182
38
62
8
92
140
163
Older H. Furniture induetties ...
4
1
37
63
41
59
154
184
Older 1? Building indnstries
112
46
41
59
13
87
146
144
Older 16. Conslj notion of means of tiansport
1
...
36
64
35
65
179
177
Older 17. Production and tiar.snitsiou of physical
1
■ ..
43
57
12
88
291
111
forces, etc.
Order 18. Indnstries of Inxnry and those pertainicg to
90
31
35
C5
19
81
178
191
literstnre snd the arts and tciences.
Order 1!1. Indnetries concerned with refuse matter
244
125
51
49
5
95
88
85
SUP-CLAfS IV.— TRANSPORT. .. • ... ^
293
121
41
59
15
85
128
146
Order 20. Transport ty water
44
21
46
54
1
99
384
114
Order 21. Tranpport by road
177
69
39
61
11
89
112
161
Order 22. Transport by rail
62
27
44
56
34
66
130
126
Order 23. Post t flice, Tel» graph and Telephone services
10
4
36
64
27
73
107
179
SUB-CLASS v.— TRADE
652
230
35
65
13
87
178
184
Order 24. Banks, Establishments of ciedit, exchange and
80
23
29
71
10
90
132
256
insurance.
Order 25. Brokerage, commission and export
11
4
38
62
30
70
184
153
Order 26. Trade in textiles
47
15
32
68
23
77
224
214
Order 27. Trade in skinp, leather and fnrs ...
12
4
31
69
12
88
224
221
Order ii8. Trade in wood ,.. ... \\[
7
2
35
65
17
83
182
187
Order 29. Trade in meials
2
1
27
73
32
68
254
270
Order 30. Trade in pottery
51
49
15
65
30
110
Order 31. Trade in chemical products
'"'l8
'" 6
33
67
21
79
210
199
Order 32. Hotels, cafes, restaurants, etc.
4
2
40
60
29
71
143
154
Order 33. Other trade in food stuffs
115
47
41
59
18
82
171
136
Order 34. Trade in clothing and toilet articles
15
5
36
64
38
62
175
185
Ordtr 35. Trado in furniture
4
1
33
67
20
80
280
188
Order 36. Trade in building materials
1
37
63
20
80
145
175
Order 37. Trade in means of transport
20
7
35
65
7
93
132
192
Order 38. Trade in fuel ... ... "/
10
5
46
54
9
91
1H2
109
Order 39. Trade in articles of luxury and those pertaining
12
4
36
64
36
64
186
176
to letters and the arts and sciences.
Order 40. Trade in refuse matter...
53
47
57
43
73
111
Order 41. Trade of other sorts ...
294
"io4
35
65
6
94
169
185
XII.
533
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
[ Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE I.
General distribution by occupation
— concluded.
CLiss, Shb-clasb and Obdee.
Ndmbeb per
10,000 OF TOTAL
POPULATION.
Percbntagb in
E.4CH Class, Sob-
CLASS AND OkDEB
OF —
Percentage of
aitdal workers
employed.
Pekcentageok
dependants to
actual workers.
o. -^
JA
m
tn O
0
<
is
0
§
■a
a
s.
0
03
.2
a
CL*
.£
'S
a
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
CLASS C-PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND
LIBERAL ARTS.
446 181
41
59
19
81
97
158
8DB-CLASS VI.— PUBLIC POaCE
110 60
46
54
39
61
48
161
Order 42. Army
Order 43. Navy
Order 44. Police
57 31
"53 "l9
54
"37
46
63
56
■"12
44
■"88
31
"168
150
■170
SDB.CLASS YII.— PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION'
(Order 45).
63 i 22
1
35
65
16
84
199
188
SUB-CLASS VIII.— PROFESSIONS AND LIBERAL
ARTS.
249 99
1
1
40
60
9
91
157
152
Order 46. Religion
Order 47. Law
Order 48. Medicine ...
Order 49. Instruction...
Order 50. Letters and art8 and sciences
142 51
9 3
20 1 8
17 i 6
61 , 28
38
28
41
37
45
62
72
59
63
55
6
31
15
19
6
94
C9
85
81
94
138
244
174
163
13G
165
261
14'3
173
119
SUB.CL.\SS IX.— PERSONS LIVING ON TEEIR
INCOME (Order 51).
24 10
1
42
58
28
72
132
141
CLASS D.-MISCELLANEOUS
567
279
49
51
13
87
84
106
SUB-CLASS X.— DOMESTIC SERVICE (O.der 52) ...
21U
105
50
50
21
79
91
102
SUB. CLASS XL- INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED
OCCDPATIO.VS (Order 53).
109
50
46
54
12
88
142
115
SUB-CLASS XII.— UNPRODUCTIVE
248
124
50
50
7
93
34
105
Order 54. lumatea of jails, asylums and hospitale
6
f)
04
6
53
47
9
4
Order 55. BeggarSjVagrants, prot-urers, prostitutes, receiv-
ers of stolen goods, cattle poisoners.
242 I lis
49
51
5
1
95
45
107
1
Census Report, ]
534
SOBSIDIAEY TABLES.
CHAPrEE
SUBSIDIARY TABLE II.
Distribution by occupation in Natural Divisions-
OCCUPATION.
SUB-CLASS I. -EXPLOITATION OF THE SURFACE OF
THE EARTH.
Agriculture
(o). Rent receivers
(b). Rent-fayers
(i). Oultiratiug proprietors ...
(ii). Tenants
(c). Others ... ... ...
Pasture
FishiDg and Hunting
Others
SUB-CLASS II.— EXTRACTION OF MINERALS ...
SUB-CLASS HI.— INDUSTRY
Textile ... •■- *•• ••« ••"
Wood
Metal
Ceramics
Food
Dress and the toilet
Others ... ... ... ••• ...
SUB-CLASS IV.— TRANSPORT
SUB-CLASS v.— TRADE ...
Banks, etc.
Textiles
Foodstuffs
Shop-keepers (unspecified)
Others
SUB-CLASS VI.— PUBLIC FORCE
SUB-CLASS VII.-PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ...
SUB-CLASS VIII.— PROFESSIONS AND LIBERAL ARTS ...
Religion
Others
8CB.CLASS IX, -PERSONS LIVING ON THEIR INCOME...
SUB.CLASS X.— DOMESTIC SERVICE
Cooks and water.carriers, etc.
Others
SUB.CLASS XI. -INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED OCCUPA-
TIONS.
Labourers and workmen (unspeciCed)
Others
NdHBKB FEB HILLE OF TOTAL POPDLATION 8CFP0BIBD IN
Punjab.
314
190
SUB-CLASS XII.-UNPRODUCTIVE
Beggars, vagrants and procurers, etc.
Others
600
580
26
504
50
17
1
2
203
45
20
10
15
12
47
54
5i9
65
12
28
12
11
6
25
14
U
3
21
20
1
11
9
2
25
24
1
Indo- Gangs.
tic Plain
West.
313
157
579
S64
26
470
68
14
2ie
41
19
11
15
12
48
64
31
71
10
5
IS
26
IS
11
8
2B
15
13
3
U
23
1
24
23
1
Himalayan.
611
171
815
16
7S2
n
16
I
87
15
12
8
3
8
2K
13
25
2
2
7
10
4
7
3
12
8
4
8
8
7
1
Sub-
Himalayan.
356
150
675
563
27
505
31
10
2
232
68
23
11
12
14
52
62
23
61
10
6
11
23
11
15
5
28
17
11
2
26
24
2
23
23
North-West
Dry Area.
184
300
XII.
535
SUBSIDIABY TABLES.
[Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE III-
Distribution of the agricultural, industrial, commercial and professional
population in Natural Divisions and Districts-
AgricDltoee.
Inddstrv (in
mines)
eluding
Commerce,
Peopkssions.
Othees.
t-l
'p
S
p.
.3
u
.o
i
^1
s .
■5 1.
a
"a
'C
cc
a
p
a.
§■§■
6
tn
a
'a
a
a
"5
o. .
o a
-a
.a
li
§
«
S
B
o
a
o
1
S
CI. .
H
s
s
o
li
§
i
2
Q
o
cd
p.
hi
f
§
o
s
T3 ~S
2-5
si
^ 3
4
District, State and
^
si
<w S
t>i
^ Q
*5^
<u o
p.
a cd
^•2
s-
.2S
»'§ 1
Natdbal Division.
Xi
5 o
^ Q.
= 2
.2 ^
.a
"a
a,
3 p.
'3 a
a a
Oils
•a
.2 c
CD a.
en J3
3 00
P-a
las
hi
u o
f-.
'H -w
to u
s -*^
s °
i..
P -ki
j:? o
o
o 2
^ ^ o
o
a
m
.^^
Q
O.
P.
s
.2.2
■a
.^
c
a.
5.2
^'^
O
Q.
P.
3
m
51
O ro
S Si,
0.
a
=•1
O 3 _•
H §
^„c
ji
t£
A
i.
C6
M
(0*
.Id
Je
IB
C
c
.2 °
o
.o
1 =
o
a
.o
.lo
a
03
a
o
1 =
o
is
^ a
° -1
.l°l
c
cd
o9
cd
"S ■
c
.a
= 1
"« ™
-c
^
u O
o o
"a ./
"ca oj
75
a
a
n.=.
3 £
CD
"3
P.^
3 2
0,
s
0.0,
3 £
0,
"3
P.O
3 2
a BO
CX,'^ o
3 ■-
S
a.
o
o »
CI.
p.
o
Z-'
"S "
at
P.
o
£-^
t »
p.
0.
Q.
O
u *"*
ts »-
1> o
OOP.
O
p.
0)
(X<
a.
3
<
4
o
Oh
On
7
<
8
9
Oh
11
o
12
Q
13
Cb
a.
<
3 Ph
a.
<
20
O
21
1
2
5
C
10
14
15
16 1
7 18
19
TOTAL PROVINCE
14.036,976
580
37
63
4,951,429
205
41
59
2,284,672
94
37
63
602,576
25
40 e
02,312,097
96
51
49
1. Indo-Gangetic
6,217.036
564
38
62
2,330,555
211
42
58
1,126,837
102
38
62
302,968
28
41 £
i9 1,050,094
95
51
49
Plain West —
1. HiasRr
587,657
730
40
60
94,189
117
44
56
61,613
76
37
G3
7,929
10
40 6
0 53,501
67
57
43
2. Loharu State ...
15,460
831
34
66
978
53
63
37
723
39
61
39
119
6
52 4
8 1,317
71
67
33
3. Rohtak
328,985
607
34
66
120,097
222
39
61
46,433
86
35
65
8,646
16
42 S
8 37,328
69
51
49
4. Dujana State ...
14,180
557
35
65
5,338
209
39
61
2,740
107
27
73
451
18
31 e
9 2,766
109
43
57
5. Gargaon
406,757
632
44
56
117,375
183
46
54
54,564
85
38
62
14,171
22
36 t
4 50,310
78
54
46
6. Pataudi Stale ...
10,964
561
39
61
3,883
199
48
52
1,904
97
41
59
683
35
44 £
6 2,109
108
40
60
7. Delhi
280,015
426
38
62
184,145
280
41
59
106,859
163
40
60
20,011
30
39 t
)1 66,574
101
50
50
8. Karnal
478,460
598
43
57
168,112
210
49
51
71,603
90
41
59
16,656
21
46 c
4 64,956
81
60
40
9. Jullundur
445,114
555
37
63
194,834
243
38
62
63,742
79
37
63
30,220
38
40 e
0 68,010
85
48
52
10. KapuHhala State
146,2a2
545
32
68
67,249
251
35
65
19,874
74
35
65
7,463
28
37 6
3 27,325
102
43
57
11. Ludbiana
280,368
542
38
62
104,081
201
41
59
69,455
134
38
62
20,073
39
43 £
7 43,21 5
84
46
54
la. MaloT Kotla State
34,806
489
38
62
15,333
216
39
61
8,498
119
40
60
2,569
36
43 5
7 9,938
140
45
55
13. Ferozepore
602,883
628
33
67
174,301
182
37
63
71,175
74
37
63
20,854
22
39 6
1 90,444
94
53
47
U. Far idiot State ...
89,563
687
36
64
17,556
135
40
60
8,682
67
40
60
2,626
20
39 b
1 11,867
91
55
45
15. Patiala State ...
902,938
642
43
57
209,436
149
45
55
125,427
89
40
60
38,535
27
45 5
5 131,323
93
55
45
16. Jind State
184,356
678
35
65
45,315
167
42
58
19,152
70
34
66
5,308
20
415
9 17,597
65
51
49
17. Nabha Stale ...
152,22ij
612
37
63
38,302
154
36
64
18,658
75
39
61
7,467
3C
35 6
5 32,237
129
43
57
18. Lahore
466,535
450
35
65
234,119
226
43
57
161,463
156
40
60
36,117
35
415
9 137,924
133
51
49
19. Amritsar
329,531
374
36
64
296,287
336
44
56
115,311
131
35
65
35,008
40
44 5
6 104,591
119
49
51
20. Gujranwala ...
460,009
498
33
67
239,625
260
39
61
98,961
107
37
63
28,062
30
36 b
4 96,762
105
46
54
2. Himalayan —
1,405,224
815
u
56
151,637
88
49
51
52,602
30
47
53
20,200
12
46 J
4 94.817
55
65
35
21. Nahan State ...
114,858
829
37
63
10,969
79
45
55
2,482
18
49
51
1,285
9
48 S
2 8,926
05
57
43
22. Simla
18,568
472
44
56
7,451
190
63
37
3,147
80
53
47
1,172
30
47 5
3 8,982
228
46 54
23. Simla Hill States
353,765
875
40
60
24,305
60
48
52
6,728
17
5X
49
4,026
10
51 4
9 15,519
38
7129
24. Kangra ...
592,094
769
44
56
89,900
117
47
53
32,373
42
45
55
10,190
13
43 5
7 45,829
59
66 34
•^i. Uandi State ...
155,189
857
65
35
11,648
64
62
38
2,815
16
62
38
1,464
8
55 4
5 9,994
65
7129
26. Sx'ket State
47,745
869
48
52
2,719
50
53
47
1,915
35
46
54
1,319
24
40 6
0 1,230
22
72 28
27. Chamia State ...
123,005
905
33
67
4,645
34
56
44
3,142
23
44
56
744
6
46 5
4 4,337
32
62 68
3. Scb-HimalayAn —
3,266,813
563
35
65
1,360,043
234
41
59
483,602
83
36
64
162,627
28
38 e
2 531,996
92
52'48
28. Ambala
360,520
522
41
59
153,835
223
48
52
59,765
87
42
58
19,145
28
42 5
8 96,705
140
62 38
29. Kalsia Slate ...
32,288
577
41
59
12,701
227
42
58
3,734
67
33
67
1,057
19
44 5
e 6,129
110
57 43
30. BoBbiarpur
554,561
604
40
60
215,328
234
44
56
53,794
59
37
63
27,995
30
415
9 66,891
73
50
sa
31. Gnrdaepur
429,510
513
83
67
223,421
267
40
60
74,974
90
36
64
27,204
33
38 b
2 81,662
97
43
57
32. Sialkot
469,980
480
36
64
279,169
285
41
59
100,153
102
34
66
36,554
37
38b
2 93,697
96
46 54
33. Gujrat
432,433
580
31
69
176,664
237
34
66
65,822
88
34
66
16,021
22
34 6
6 54,094
73
42 58
34. Jheluxn
298,173
583
33
67
119,818
234
40
60
41 ,762
82
84
66
1 1,462
22
36 b
4 40,.360
79
54 4b
35, Rawalpindi
351,570
642
31
69
81,10]
148
41
59
44,829
82
40
60
10,558
19
38 6
2 59,768
109
59 41
36. Attock
337,778
C50
32
68
98,006
189
39
6)
38,769
75
33
67
12,031
23
35 6
5 32,689
63
60 40
4, Nobth-Wbbt Dry
3,147,903
559
33
67
1,109,194
197
38
62
621,631
110
36
64
116,781
21
376
3 635,190
113
47|53
Akha—
37. Montgomery ...
263,381
492
34
66
122,745
229
37
63
60,825
114
37
63
12,622
24
34 6
6 76,726
141
4753
38. Shahpur
381,604
555
33
67
148,067
215
41
58
74,182
108
35
65
14,921
22
35 6
5 68,592
100
50 50
39. Mianwali
196,538
576
31
69
58,766
172
41
59
41,286
121
32
68
5,959
17
32 6
8 38,828
114
47 S3
40. Lyallpur
527,386
615
32
68
160,364
187
40
60
68,658
80
41
59
17,157
20
42 5
8 84,146
98
47 53
41. .Ihang
42. Mnllan
261,954
508
34
66
126,920
246
36
64
70,152
1,36
31
69
12,30]
24
36 «
4 44,199
86
46
->4
373,160
458
34
66
204,611
251
38
62
123,911
152
86
64
23,060
28
376
3 90,129
Hi
50
50
43. BnhuKalpur State
478,966
614
32
68
113,569
145
36
64
64,815
83
39
61
12,566
16
38 6
2 110,725
142
45
55
44. Muzaffargarh ...
341,901
600
32
68
101,169
178
37
63
54,085
95
34
66
10,589
19
37 6
3 61,717
108
44
56
45. Dera Ghazi Khan
323,013
611
33
67
72,983
138
39
ei
63,717
121
33
67
7,608
14
35 6
5 61,128
116
46
54
Cih'cs and Selected
7.^,444
70
49
51
358^30
336
42
78
20Sfl04
2S0
3061
52,126
49
39 6
/ 281,966
265
55'
io
Tovms.
^^^
1
1
1
1
Census Report,]
536
SUBSIDIAET TABLES.
Chaptbk
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IV.
Occupations combined with agriculture (where a
occupation).
griculture is the subsidiary
OocapatioD.
Numbs
R PER MILLE WHO AUK PARTIALLY AiJBlCDLIDBISTS.
1
Indo-
Gangetio
lain West
1
Punjab.
limalayan.
Sub.
Himalayan.
Sorth-West
Dry Area.
1
2
1
3
4
3
6
SUB-CLASS 1— EXPLOITATION OP THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH
2
1
2
1
4
Agriculture
...
...
Pastnre
29
'" 21
47
■" 16
41
Fishing and Hunting
63
41
65
22
94
Others
77
84
108
86
61
SUB-CLASS II.— EXTRACTION OF MINERALS ..
29
29
9
37
3
SU3-CLAS6 m.-INDDSTRY
71
70
166
70
57
Textile
60
66
123
60
42
Wood
112
12«
168
102
84
Metal
124
122
232
131
75
Ceramics
67
63
277
68
64
Food
24
22
66
26
20
Dress and the toilet
89
81
223
88
74
Others
57
56
99
59
52
SUB-CLASS IV.— TRANSPORT
64
53
101
65
45
SUB-CLASS V.-TRAUE ...
73
65
isa
73
82
Banks, etc.
181
159
175
zu
233
Textiles
56
41
111
64
71
Foodstuffs
4U
42
138
40
41
Shopkeepers (unspecified)
76 1
66
118
64
91
Others
47 1
4(1
149
52
43
SUB-CLASSVI.— PUBLIC FORCE
165
163
81
167
189
SUB-CLASS VII.— PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ...
110
113
142
106 96 1
SUB-CLASS VIII.— PROFESSIONS AND LIBERAL ARTS ...
79
71
141
90
76
Religion
110
1U5
173
120
93
Others
42
34
80
49
53
SUB-CLASS IX.— PERSONS LIVING ON THEIR INCOME ...
187
133
m
128
139
SDB-CLASS X.— DOMESTIC SERVICE
44
48
52
38
37
Cooks and water-carriers, etc.,
45
50
53
38
37
Others
27
23
33
29
42
SUB-CLASS XI.-INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED OCCUPATIONS ...
32
22
25
47
37
Labourers and workmen (unspecified)
31
18
23
46
37
Others ••• ■ ■
46
43
65
53
43
SUB-CLASS XII.— UNPRODUCTIVE ...
31
39
40
41
20
Beffgars, vagrants and procurers, etc.
35
41
41
42
21
Others ... ••• ... '
...
SUBSIDIARY TABLE V.
Occupations combined with agriculture (where agriculture is the principal
occupation).
Landlords (BENi-KKCKivBas).
CoLTlVATORS ^ReNT-PAVERS).
FAR.M SERVANTS AND FIELD LABOCEEKS.
Subsidiary Occupation.
Subsidiary Occupation.
c
§^-
c —
- e
o _
Subsidiary Occupation.
c —
'-' S
o
CO
c o
ID O
. o
O Jl
. 0
o
K »
z S
K ^
1
2
3
4
5
6
TOTAL
2,214
TOTAL
r
rS TOTAL
671
Rent-payers
207
Rent-receivers
K
)S Rent-receivers
34
Atrricultnral labourers ...
S6
Agricoltnral labourers ...
iO Rent-pa
rers
59
(iDvernnient employes of all kinds ...
232
General labourers
V
J6 General
labourers
4H
Money-lenders and grain dealers ...
145
Government employes of all kinds ...
16 Villape watchmen
S
I Ither traders of all kinds
244
Money-lenders and grain-dealers ...
fl Cattle-breeders and milkmen
11
Priests
130
Other traders of all kinds
S3 Mill hands ...
2
Clerks of all kinds (not Government)
12
Fishermen and boatmen
3 Fishermen and boatmen
1
School Masters
12j Cattle-breeders and milkmen
SO Kice pounders
1
Lawyeis
s
Villarje watchmen
7 Shopkeepers and pedlers
6
Estate agents and managers
5
Weavers
e
!2 "lil pressors
5
Modical practitioners ...
K
Barbtrs
15 Weavers ... , .
40
Artisans (neavers, carpenters, pot-
132
Oil preseers
10 Potters
a
ters, etc.)
Washermen
3 Leather workers
50
Cart-owners or drivers
26
Pottprs _
8 Washermen
i
Others
965
Blacksmiths and carpenters
13 Blacksmiths and carpenters
8
1
Cart-owners or drivers
9 Cart-owners or drivers
7
1
1
Othei-8
3
53 Others
394
1
XII.
537
SUBSIDIAEY TABLES.
[Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VI.
Occupations of females by sub-classes, and selected orders and groups.
Number OF actdal
NUMBBK OF ACTUAL
M^
workers.
is
WORKBBS.
a d
4i a
o* Occnpation.
■si
o
Occupation.
7i
Males.
Females.
S"
Z
Males,
Females.
a
2
D ft
3
2
is.
o
4
S5
a
5
1 2
3
5
1
2
3
4
SUB-CLASS I.— EXPLOITATION
1930,229
509,676
103
Order 12. — Food inddstbibs
68,933
73,922
1,072
OF THE SURFACE OP THE
56
Rice pounders and buskers and flour
13,700
50,783
3,708
EARTH.
grinders.
Ordke 1. — Pastdee and AGRICnL-
4,925,285
509,480
103
57
Bakers and biscuit makers ...
10,867
8,035
739
TDEE.
58
Grain parchers, etc
7,060
14,377
2,036
(a) Ordinary cultivation
4,637,166
495,846
107
63
Sweetmeat makers, preparers of jam
21,370
191
9
1 Income from rent of agriculturalland
171,379
68,393
399
and condiments, etc.
3 Ordinary caltivatora
4,017,131
302,616
75
Order I3.—INDDSTRIES OF DRESS and
380,084
59,262
156
4 Farm servants and field labourers ...
444,635
124,837
281
THE TOILET.
(b) Ormvers of special products and
8,969
1,396
156
67
Hat, cap and turban makers
179
203
1,134
market-gardening.
68
Tailors, milliners, dressmakers and
52,800
17,910
339
5 Tea, coffee, cinchona and indigo
3t)l
144
399
darners, embroiderers on linen.
plantations.
69
Shoe, boot and sandal makers
173,913
19,639
113
6 Fruit, flower, vegetable, betel, vine,
8,608
1,252
145
70
Other industries pertaining to dress-
1,820
350
192
areoanat, etc., growers.
gloves, socks, gaiters, belts, buttons.
(c) Foreslery
20,004
2,301
115
umbrellas, canes, etc.
8 Woodcutters ; firewood, lac, catechu,
17,669
2,268
128
71
Washing, cleaning and dyeing
58,837
8,636
147
rubber, etc., collectors and char-
72
Barbers, hairdressers and wig makers
92,446
12,520
135
coal burners.
73
Other industries connected with the
89
4
45
(d) Raising of farm stock
259,137
9,937
38
toilet (tattooers, shampooers, bath
9 Cattle and buffalo breeders andkeepers
17,832
1,456
82
houses, etc.).
10 Sheep, goat and pig breeders
2,914
91
31
Order 15. — Building industries ...
102,356
9,112
89
12 Herdsmen, shepherds, goatherds, etc.
237,646
8,372
35
78
Stone and marble workers, masons
63,978
4,871
76
Order 2. — Fishing and Hdnting
4,941
196
40
and bricklayers.
14 Fishing
3,951
196
50
79
Others (thatchers, building contract-
34,824
4,173
120
S0B-CLiVSS 11— EXTRACTION OF
15,460
1,409
91
ors, house painters, tilers, plumbers.
MINERALS.
locksmiths, etc.).
Oeder 3.— Mines
1,275
147
115
Order 18. — Industries OB luxury and
72,338
2,777
38
16 Coal mines and petroleum wells
1,215
124
102
THOSB pertaining TO LITE-
17 Mines and nietallie minerals (gold,
60
23
383
RATURE AND TREI ARTS AND
iron, manganese, etc.).
SCIENCES.
Oeder 5.— Salt, etc.
6,457
793
123
89
Workers in precious stones and me-
63,550
786
12
19 Rock, sea and marsh salt ...
1,595
593
372
tals, enamellers, imitation jewellery
20 E.xtraction of saltpetre, alum and
4,862
200
41
makers, guilders, etc.
other substances soluble in water
90
Makers of bangles, rosaries, bead and
2,669
1,129
423
SUB-CLASS III.— INDUSTRY ...
1,569,652
441,111
281
other necklaces, spangles, lingams
Order 6 —Textiles
380,663
133,413
404
and sacred threads.
21 Cotton ginning, cleaning and pressing
29,02u
4,676
161
Order 19. — Industries concerned
171-703
131,215
764
22 Cotton spinning, sizing and weaving
265,181
112,943
426
WITH REFUSE MATTER.
23 Jute spinning, pressing and weaving
473
137
290
SUB-CLASS IV.-TRANSPORT ...
277,427
14,331
52
24 Rope, twine and string
2,607
1,073
412
Order 20. — Transport by water ...
45,730
3,920
85
25 Other fibres (coooanut, aloes, flax,
11,463
4,847
423
96
Persons employed on the mainte-
38,412
3,792
99
hemp, straw, etc.).
nance of streams, rivers and canals
26 Wool carders and spinners, weavers
5,479
3,107
567
(including construction).
of woollen blankets, carpets, etc.
Order 21.— Transport by road ...
158,603
9,106
57
27 Silk spinners and weavers
5,035
1,337
266
98
Persons employed on the construc-
16,767
2,2s2
13«
30 Dyeing, bleaching, printing, prepara-
6,503
1,573
242
tion and maintenance of roads and
tion and sponging of textiles.
bridges.
31 Other (lace, crape, embroideries,
4,669
3,729
799
99
Cart owners and drivers, coachmen,,
23,676
212
9
fringes, etc.) and insufficiently de-
stable boys, tramway, aail carriage-
scribed textile industries.
etc., managers and employes (ex
Order 7. — Hides, skins and hard
28,516
2,322
81
eluding private servants).
\
MATKRIALS FBOM THE ANIMAL
101
Pack elephant, camel, mule, ass and
74,555
1,721
23
KINGDOM.
bullock owners and drivers.
32 Tanners, curriers, leather dressers.
24,951
2,134
86
102
Porters and messengers
42,43si
4,891
115
leather dyers, etc.
Order 22.— Transport by rail
64,482
1,295
20
ObdkrS. — Wood ...
168,304
10,590
63
103
Railway employes of all kinds other
47,563
333
7
36 Sawyers, carpenters, turners and
134,b93
1,494
11
than construction coolies.
joiners, etc.
104
Labourers employed on railway con-
16,919
962
57
37 Basket makers and other industries
33,411
9,096
272
struction.
of woody material, including leaves.
SOB-CLASS v.— TRADE
519.778
37,152
71
Order 9.— metals
81.135
1,634
20
Order 24.— Banks, Establishmints
52,710
3,713
70
41 Other workers in iron and makers of
65,949
1,196
18
OF CREDIT, BXCHANOE AND
implomeniB and tools, principally
INSURANCK.
or exclusively of iron.
Order 26. -Trade in textiles ...
34,992
822
23
Order 10.— Ceramics
120,257
12,111
101
Order 30. — Trade in pottery
296
176
595
45 Makers of glass and crystal ware ...
983
385
392
Order 32.— Hotels, cafes, bbstau-
3,598
185
51
47 Potters and earthen pipe and bowl
91,363
9,585
105
rants, etc.
makers.
114
Vendors of wine, liquors, aerated
2,906
21
7
4S Brick and tile mukors
27,709
3,141
77
waters, etc.
Order 11.— Cusmioal peoddcts pro-
40,49-.i
4,404
109
115
Owners and managers of hotels, cook-
692
164
237
perly so called and analo-
shops, sarais, etc., and their employes
GODS.
Order 33.— Other tbadb in food-
93,346
21,253
228
52 Manufacture of dyes, paint and ink...
263
83
316 STUFFS.
5a Manufacture and refining of vege-
37,747
4,239
112 117 Grocers and sellers of vegetable oil,
salt, and other condiments.
1,891
205
108
' table and uiirieral oils.
Census Report, ]
538
SDBSIDIARY TABLES.
Chaptee
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VL
Occupations of females by sub-classes, and selected orders and groups-
-condnded.
o
118
119
120
121
122
124
126
Ocoapation.
JSDMBEB OF ACTUAL
WOBEEBS.
2
Sellers of milk, butter, ghee, poultry,
eggs, etc.
Sellers of sweetmeats, sugar, gur and
molasses.
Cardamom, betel-leaf, vegetables,
fruit and arecanut sellers.
Grain and polsB dealers
Tobacco, opium, ganja, etc., sellers
Dealers in hay, grass and fodder ...
Obdeb 34.— Trade IN clothing and
toilet articles.
Order 35.— Teade in fdbnitcbb ...
Trade in furniture, carpets, curtains
and boddinp.
Order 38.— Trade in fuel
Order 39. — Trade in articles of
luxory and those pertain-
ing to letters and the arts
and boiences.
Dealers in common bangles, bead
necklaces, fans, small articles, toys,
hunting and fishing tackle, flowers,
etc.
Order 41. — Trade op other sorts
Shopkeepers otherwise unspecified
Itinerant traders, pedlers, hawkers,
etc.
137 Conjurors, acrobats, fortune tellers,
reciters, exhibitors of curiosities
and wild animals.
SUB-CLASS VI.— PUBLIC FORCE
Order 42.— Army
Order 44. — Police
SUB-CLASS Vn.- PUBLIC AD-
MINISTRATION.
132
135
136
Males.
Females.
15,541
4,822
27,772
32,361
2,50C
5,203
11,742
2,647
890
8,055
9,094
4,903
245,556
232,950
4,384
7,223
122,232
74,658
47,574
51,339
e-3
£ a
1,8S7
34
15,475
758
50
2,779
708
165
145
2,888
1,162
1,162
5,008
4,227
483
285
16
16
"784
121
1
557
62
163
359
128
o
148
149
150
23
20
534 151
60
Occupation.
155
237
20
18
110
39
15
160
162
16;
k umber of actual
woeeebs.
SUB-CLASS Pni.— PROFESSIONS
AND LIBERAL ARTS.
Order 46. — Religion
Priests, ministers, etc.
Religious mendicants, inmates of
monasteries, etc.
Catechists, readers, church and mis-
sion service.
Temple, burial or burning ground
service, pilgrim conductors, oiroum'
cisers.
Order 48. — Medicine
Midwives, vaccinators, compounders,
nurses, masseurs, etc.
Order 49.— Instbcction ...
Order 50. — Letters and arts and
sciences.
Music composers and masters, players
on all kinds of musical iuBtruments
(not military), singers, actors and
dancers.
SUB-CLASS IX.— PERSONS LIV-
ING ON THEIR INCOME.
S UB-C LASS X.— DOM ESTIC SER-
VICE.
Cooks, water carriers, doorkeepers,
watchmen and other indoor servants
SUB-CLASS XL— INSUFFICIENT-
LY DESCRIBED OCCUPATIONS,
Labourers and workmen otherwise
unspecified.
SOB-CLASS XII.-UNPRODUCTIVE
Order 55. — Beggars, vaqbants and
prostitutes. &c.
Males.
Females.
197,575
112,682
102,051
1,205
1,296
7,530
12,474
4,111
12,879
53,060
45,507
19902
196,830
181,195
102,259
90,413
248,039
234,939
§■3
40.973 207
17.576
16,298
132
340
806
7,613
7,175
1,945
13,839
13,839
156
159
110
262
107
610
1,745
151
261
304
4,781 240
57,263; 291
57,263
19,296
18.968
51,931
51,531
316
210
209
219
XII.
539
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
[Punjab, 1911
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VIL
Selected occupations 1911 and 1901-
d
Population
Population
Percentage
^
OCCUPATION.
Bupported in
supported in
of varia-
§
>
1911.
1901.
tion.
1
2
3
4
CLASS A.-PRODUCTION OF RAW MATERIALS
14.538.276
14,169,329
+ 26
SOB-CLASS I.— EXPLOITATION OF THE SURFACE OP TBB EARTH ...
14.502,14}
14,152,642
+ 2-5
Obdee 1. — Pastdre and Ageichltdbb ...
/4,.l'j'y,V4.5
11,142,156
+ 2-5
(o). Ordinary Cultivation
14,01U,U4
13,887,950
+ -9
1
Income from rent of Agricultoral land
625,869
8,915,669
— 93-0
2
Ordinary cultivators
12,188,142
4,537,431
+ 168-6
3
Agents, managers of landed estates (not planters), clerks, rent collectors, etc.
9,946
1,197
+ 730-9
4
Farm servants and field labourers
1,192,187
433,653
+ 174-9
(6). Orowers of s'pecial products and market gardening
20,832
23,649
-11-9
5
Tea, coffee, cinchona and indigo plantations
711
6,273
— 88-7
6
Fruit, flower, vegetable, betel, vine, arecanut, etc., growers
20,121
17,376
+ 15-8
(c). Forestery
46,081
20,832
+121-2
8
Wood-cutters ; firewood, lac, catechu, rubber, etc., collectors and charcoal burners
40,593
15.315
+ 165-1
(d). Raising of Farm stock ...
406,766
209,723
+ 94-0
9
Cattle and buffalo breeders and keepers ...
39,444
19,322
+ 104-1
W
Sheep, goat and pig breeders
6,328
S2,s53
— 72 3
11
Breeders of other animals (horses, mules, camels, asses, etc.) ...
2,096
7,525
— 72-1
12
Herdsmen, shepherds, goatherds, etc.
358,898
160,023
+ 124-3
Order 2.— Fishing and Hontinq
12,290
10,486
+ 17-3
14
Fishing
10,162
7,326
+ 38-7
15
Hunting
• 2,137
3,100
— 32-4
8UB.CLASS II.— EXTRACTION OF MINERALS ...
36,132
16.687
+116-5
Order 3.— Minbs ...
3,715
2,4'22
+ 53-4
16
Coal mines and petroleum wells
3,489
2,408
+ 44-9
18
Oedeb 4.— QnAEBiEs OF HARD ROCKS— (Other minerals, jade, diamonds, limestone, etc.)
16,119
8,493
+ 898
Obdeb 5. — Salt, etc.
16,298
5,772
+ 182-4
19
Rock, sea and marsh salt
4,752
54
+8,700-0
20
Extraction of saltpetre, ainm and other substances soluble in water
11,546
5,718
+ 101-9
CLASS B.-PREPARATION AND SUPPLY OP MATERIAL SUBSTANCES
7,199,969
7,218,386
- -3
SUB-CLASS III.— INDUSTRY
4,915.297
5.145,524
- 4-5
Oedeb 6.— Textiles
1,088,481
1,305,006
— 10-6
21
Cotton ginning, cleaning and pressing ...
89,743
139,301
— 35-6
22
Cotton spinning, sizing and weaving
883,156
959,688
— SO
23
Jiite spinning, pressing and weaving
1,449
1
+ 144,800-0
24
Rope, twine and string
8,349
23,979
— 65-2
25
Other fibres (cocoanut, aloes, flax, hemp, straw, etc.)
32,223
1,232
+2,515-5
26
Wool carders and spinnera, weavers of woollen blankets, carpets, etc.
17,023
32,361
— 47-4
27
Silk spinners and weavers
13,584
16,885
— 19-5
28
Hair, camel and horse hair, bristles work, brush makers, etc. ...
593
9S2
— 39-6
30
Dyeing, bleaching, printing, preparation and sponging of textiles
18,7«6
91,949
— 79-6
31
Other (lace, crape, embroideries, fringes, etc.), and insufficiently described textile in-
dustries.
23,575
38,628
— 39-0
Order 7.— HiDBS, SKINS AND HARD MATEBUtSFEOM THE ANIMAL KINGDOM ...
89,577
316,573
— 71-7
32
Tanners, curriers, leather dressers, leather dyers, etc.
77,284
312.250
— 75-2
33
Makers of leather articles, such as trunks, water- bags, etc.
12,094
3,788
+219-3
34
Furriers
8
21
— 61-9
35
Bone, ivory, horn, shell, etc., workers
191
.'514
- 62-8
Oedkr 8. — Wood ..
484,749
374,926
+ 293
36
Sawyers, carpenters, turners and joiners, etc.
380,649
275,420
+ 38-2
37
Basket makers and other industries of woody material, including leaves ...
104,100
99,506
J- 4-6
Obdeb 9. — Mktals
240,096
326,525
- 26-5
38
Forging and rolling of iron and other metala
937
1,806
— 48- 1
39
Plough and agricultural implements makers
20,390
127,141
— 84-0
40
Makers of arms, guns, etc. ...
115
884
— 87-0
41
Other workers in iron and makers of implements and tools, principally or exclnsively
of iron.
Workers in brass, copper and bell metal ...
197,537
171,334
+ 15-3
1
42
18,943
19,577
— 3-2
Obdeb 10. — Cebamics
352,704
309,831
+ 13-8
45
Makers of glass and crystal ware
3,079
7,663
— 59-8
47
Potters and earthen pipe and bowl makers
284,496
270,043
+ 5-4
48
Brick and tile makers
64,788
31,838
+ 103-6
Order 11. — Chemical proddcts properly so called and analogods
128,225
127,063
+ -9
62
Manufacture of dyes, paint and ink ... ... ...
644
2,215
- 70-9
53
Manufacture and refining of vegetable and mineral oils ... ...
120,650
114.798
+ .VI
Obdrb 12.— Food inddstbies
289,684
335,091
— 13-6
56
Rice pounders and buskers and flour-grinders
113,318
173,458
- 34-7
57
Bakers and biscuit makers
38,728
38,830
— -3
56
Grain parohers, etc.
35,682
53 358
- 33-1
58
Butchers
46,456
89,990
+ 16-2
62
Makers of sugar, molasses and gnr
1,964
3,254
— 39-6
6E
Sweetmeat makers, preparers of jam and condiments, etc.
51,796
22,411
+131-1
64
Brewers and distillers ... ... ... ... ... ,„
246
1,765
— 86-1
Order 13.— Industries OF DRESS AND THB TOILET
1,147,862
964,788
+ 19-0
6f
Tailors, milliners, dress makers and darners, embroiderers on linen
151,966
108,963
+ 39-5
Census Report.]
540
60BSIDIAKY TABLES.
Chaptek
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VII.
Selected occupations 1911 and 1901— continued.
y>
OCCUPATION.
69 Shoe, boot and sandal makers ... ... ... ... ...
71 Washing, cleaning and dyeing
72 Barbers, hair dressers and wig makers ...
Obdke 14.— FoRNiTDRE Industries
Cabinet makers, carriage painters, etc. ...
Upholsterers, tent makers, etc.
OrDEK 15. — BCILDINO INDDSTBIES
Lime burners, cement workers
Excavators, plinth builders and well sinkers
Btone and marble workers, masons and bricklayers
Others (thatchcrs, building contractors, house painters, tilers, plumbers, locksmiths, etc.]
Oedee lC.—CoNSTBDcTioN' OF MEANS OP Transport
Cart, tarriagc, palki, etc., makers and wheelwrights...
Saddlers, harness makers, whip and lash makers
Ship and boat builders
Order 17.— Production and transmission of Physical forces, etc. (Gas works,
electric light and ice factories).
Order 18.— Inecstries of LUXtniT and those pertaining to litebatoee and the
arts and sciences.
Printers, lithographers, engravers, etc. ...
S5J Newspaper and magazine managers and editors, journalists, etc.
87! Makers of musical instruments
8Si Makers of watches and clocks and optical, photographic and surgical instrnments
S9i Workers in precious stones and metals, cnamellers, imitation jewellery makers, guild-
I era, etc.
Makers of bangles, rosaries, bead and othei necklaces, spangles, lingams and sacred
threads
Order 19. — Indcstbibs conceened with eeposb matter (Sweepers, scavengers, dust
and sweeping contractors).
SVB-ChASS ir— TRANSPORT
Order 20.— Transport by water
Ship owners and their employes, ship brokers, ships' officers, engineers, mariners and
firemen
Persons employed on the maintenance of streams, rivers and canals (including constrac-
tion).
Boat owners, boatmen and towmon
Order 21. — Transport by boad
Persons employed on the construction and maintenance of roads and bridges
Cart owners and drivers, coachmen, stable boys, tramway, mail carriage, etc., managers
and employes (excluding private servants).
Palki, etc., bearers and owners
Pack elephant, camel, mule, ass and bullock owners and drivers
Potters and messengers
Order 22. — Transport by bail ^
Bailway employes of all kinds other than construction coolies ...
Labourers employed on railway construction
Okder 23. — Post Office, Telegraph and Telephone services ...
SUB-CLAS3 V, -TRADE
Order 2*.— Banks, Establishments of credit, exchanqe and insurance (Bank
managers, money-lenders, exchange and insurance agents, money changers and brokers
and their employes). .
Order 25. — Brokerage, commission and export (Brokers, commission agents, com.
mercial travellers, warehouse owners and employes).
Order 26. — Trade in Textiles (Trade in piece-goods, wool, cotton, silk, hair and
other textiles).
Order 27.— Trade in skins, lbatheb and fobs (Trade in skins, leather, fnrs, feather,
, horn, etc).
110 Order 28. Trade in wood — Trade in wood (not firewood), cork, bark, etc.
111 Order 29.— Trade in metals (Trade in metals, machinery, knife, tool, etc., sellers) ...
Order 30.— Trade in pottery
Order 31. — Trade in chemical pboddctb (Drags, dyes, paints, petroleam, explo-
sives, etc.).
Order 32.— IloTELS, CAFES, restaubants, ETC.
Vendors of wine, liquors, airated waters, etc.
Owners and managers of hotels, cookshops, sarais, etc., and their employes...
Order 33.— Other TRADE IN food STUFFS
iiv,i Fish dealers ... ■•• ••■ •■•
117 Grocers and sellprs of vegetable oil, salt and other condiments ...
118 Sellers of milk, bntter, gheo, poaltiy, eggs, etc
74
75
76
77
7S
79
80
8;
82
83
84
90
93
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
IDS
109
112
113
114
115
116
119
120
121
122
123
Sellers of sweetmeats, sugar, uur and molasses
Cardamom, betel-leaf, vegetables, fruit and areca-nnt sellers
Grain and poise dealers
Tobacco, opium, ganja, etc., sellers ... ...
Dealers in sheep, goats and pigs ...
Population
supported in
1911.
640,490
177,671
271,061
8,759
8,734
35
272,168
1,805
6,G04
164,031
99,728
3,531
1,684
1,797
50
1,610
216,581
4,869
270
365
1,784
190,892
8,919
591,270
709,130
108,140
491
86,101
21,148
437,750
41,347
58,919
2,231
213,618
111,635
149,453
119,313
30,140
23,787
1.575,542
193.S90
26,282
113,260
29,762
77,427
5,918
933
4!i,420
9,474
7,288
2,186
277,996
656
5,248
45.5
11,695
91,240
90,807
7,647
9,006
Population
supported in
1901.
Percentage
of varia-
tion.
440,253
126,146
282,158
3,026
2.251
775
132,357
3,337
5,331
106,989
16,700
4,051
2,620
1,208
223
890
158,795
5,873
437
1,102
734
135,240
3,660
786,602
455,809
55,553
610
31,703
21,650
288,484
22,938
42,211
2,044
203.238
18,083
92.819
76,098
16,721
18,953
1,617,003
179,501
46,017
58,773
6,482
13,254
486
12,61
14,610
12,05
3,940
8,117
717,711
3.366
65,364
51,489
34.314
162,389
322,893
10,006
35,048
+ 22-8
+ 40-8
— 39
+189-5
-f287'6
— 95 5
+105-6
— 45-9
-f 23 9
+ 53-2
+ 497-2
— 128
— 35-7
+ 48-8
— 77-6
-f 80-9
+ 36-4
— 171
— 38-2
— 66-9
+ 143-1
+ 41-2
—160-5
— 24-8
+ 55-6
+ 94-7
— 37
+171-6
— 2-3
+ 48-3
+ 80-3
+ 39 6
+ 9-1
+ 5-1
+518'0
+ 610
+ 56-8
+ 80-3
+ 25-5
— 2-6
+ 8-0
— 42-9
+ 92-7
+3591
+ 31-5
+ 1,117-7
— 92-6
+190-3
— 21-4
+ 850
— 73 1
— 61-3
— 80-5
— 90 5
— 11-6
— 659
— 43-8
— 71-9
— 23-6
— 74-3
XII.
541
BCBSIDIARY TABLGB.
[Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VII.
Selected occupations 1911 and 1901— concluded.
S5
124
1^5
126
127
128
]29
130
131
132
133
135
136
138
139
140
142
143
144
145
146
147
14>S
149
laO
151
152
153
154
155
15(i
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
167
168
169
OCCUPATION.
2
Dealers in hay, grass and fodder
Ordbb 34 — Trad« in clothing and toilet articles — Trade in ready-made clothing
and other articles of dress and the toilet (hats, umbrellas, socks, ready-made shoes,
porfames, etc.).
Order 35 — Tradb in fdrnitube
Trade in furniture, carpets, curtains and bedding
Hardware, cooking utensils, porcelain, crockery, glass-ware, bottles, articles for gar-
dening, the cellar, etc.
Order 36 — Trade in building materials — Trade in building materials (stones,
bricks, plaster, cement, sand, tiles, thatch, etc.).
Order 37 — Trade in means of tkansport— Dealers and hirers of elephants, camels,
horses, cattle, asses, mules, etc.; sellers (not makers) of carriages, saddlery, etc.
Obdkr 38 — Trade in fuel (Dealers in firewood, charcoal, cowdung, etc.)
Order 39 — Trade in articles of luxury and those pertaining to letters and
the ahts and sciences.
Dealers in precious stones, jewellery (real and imitation), clocks, optical instruments,
etc.
Dealers in common bangles, bead necklaces, fans, small articles, toys, hunting and fish-
ing tackle, flowers, etc.
Publishers, booK-sellers, stationers, dealers in music, pictures, musical instraments
and cariosities.
Order 41 — Trade of other sorts
Shopkeepers otherwise unspecified
Itinerant traders, pedlars, hawkers, etc. ...
Other trades (including farmers of pounds, tolls and markets) ...
CLASS C.-PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND LIBERAL ABTS
SUB-CLASS VI.— PUBLIC FORCE
Order 42 — .4^rmy ... ... ... ... ...
Army (Imperial) ...
Do. (Native States)
Order 44— Police
Police ... ,,,
Tillage watchmen
SUB-CLASS VII.— PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION— Ohdsb. 45 ...
Service of the State ... ... ... ... ...
Service of Native and Foreign States
Municipal and other local (not village) service
Tillage officials and servants other than watchmen ...
SUB-CLASS VIII— PROFESSIONS AND LIBERAL ARTS
Order 46— Keligiok
Priests, ministerH, etc. ... ,.,
Religious mendicants, inmates of monasteries, etc. ... ...
Catechisls, renders, church aud mission service ... ... ...
Temple, bnrial or burning ground service, pilgrim conductors, circumoisers
Order 47 — Law ... ...
Lawyers of all kinds, incladiog Kazis, law agents and mukhtiars
Lawyers' clerks, petition-writers, etc.
Okdek 48 — Medicine
Medical practitioners of all kinds, including dentists, oculists and veterinary surgeons
and their clerks.
Midwives, vaccinators, compounders, nurses, masseurs, etc.
Ordeh 40 — iNsTKUCTioN (Professors and teachers of all kinds,* and clerks and servants
connected with education).
ObDKB 50 -LRTTKRS AND arts AND SCIBNOKS
Otlien (authors, photographers, artists, sculptora, astronomers, meteorologists, botanists,
aatrologere, etc.).
Music composers and masters, players on all kinds of musical instruments (not military),
singers, actors, and dancers.
SUB-CLASS IX. -PERSONS LIVINQ ON THEIR INCOME.— O&der 51— Persons
LIVING PBiNCiPALLv oN THEIR INCOME —Proprietors (othor than of agricultural land),
fumi and scholarship-hoklerH anil pensioners.
CLASS D.- MISCELLANEOUS
SUB-CLASS X.—DOMESnC SERVICE.— Oaj)m52
Cooks, WHter carriern, doorkeepers, watchmen aud other indoor servants ...
Private grooms, coachmen, dog boys, etc. ... ... .. ...
SUB-CLASS SI.-INSUFFICIENTLY DESCRIBED OCCUPATIONS.— O&deu. 53—
GeNKRAL terms WHICH DO NOT INDICATK A DEFINITE OCCUPATION.
Manufacturers, business men, and contractors otherwise unspecified
Cashiers, accountants, book-keepers, clerks and other employes iu unspecified otliceB,
warehouses imd shops.
Labourers and workmen otherwise unspecified
SUB-CLASS XII. -UNPRODUCTIVE ...
Order 54 Inmatks of jails, asylums and hospitals
Obdkr 55 — Beggars, vagrants, procurers, prostitutes, keceivees of stolen goods,
cattle poisoners.
Population
supported in
1911.
16,168
34,969
8,627
3,230
5,397
3,132
47.397
23603
28,702
9,890
15,985
2,827
711,593
676,945
12,337
2,370
1,078,163
265,731
137,229
118,21
19,012
128,502
67,324
61,178
150,885
55,292
24,681
22,250
48,662
602,576
342,553
313,990
4,197
4,010
20,356
23,046
10,338
12,7('8
49,496
29,578
19,918
40,131
147,350
8,594
128,071
58,971
507.727
476,505
31,222
261,630
13,207
26,846
224,144
508,985
14,405
584,580
Population
supported in
1901.
42,842
25,964
14,271
1,034
13,237
15,352
31,767
9,965
33,271
16,309
11,150
5,812
424,905
370,331
31,778
5,007
1,083.085
363,313
117,441
94,217
23,224
245,831
84,471
161,360
130,712
61,5U9
8,222
28,421
32,560
525,083
347,396
244,148
27,786
31,433
44,029
29.955
15,726
14,229
42,697
26,613
16,084
27,915
■ 77,120
18,2U6
46,582
63,977
2,259,900
594,872
56«,()lli
as 86
85i,164
16,081
85,048
747,874
810,864
18,076
792.788
Percentage
of varia-
tion.
Except law, medicine, music, dancing aud drawing.
Census Report, ]
542
SDBSIDIARY TABLES.
Chapter
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VIII-
Occupations of selected castes.
Caste and occupation.^
AHIR—
I.— EXPLOITJITION OF TH« SURFACE OF THB SOIL...
Cnltivatorg of all kinds
Raisers of livestock, milkmen and herdsmen ...
Others ...
IV. — Transport
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
Others
Others
ARAIN—
I. — Exploitation or thb sdrkace op the soil ...
Cultivators of all kinds ...
Raisers of livestock, etc.
Others ...
III.— IndcsTRIks
Artisans and other workmen ... ...
Others
IV. — Transport
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
Others
v.— Trade
Others
AROBa—
I. — Exploitation of the scrfacb op the soil ..
Income from rent of land „,
Coltivators of all kinds ... ..
Others
III. — Indcstrisb
Artisans and other workmen
Others
IV.— Transport
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
Others
v.— TRADE
X.— Domestic service ...
Others
AWAN-
I. — Exploitation op the surf ace of the soil ..
Ctdtivators of all kinds
Raisers of livestock, etc.
Others
III.— iNOnsTRIES
Artisans and other workmen ...
Others
IV. — Transport
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
Others
VI. — PdBIIC FORCE
XIII. — Beggars, prostitutes, etc. ...
Others ... ... ...
AGfJARWAL—
I. — Exploitation of thr surface of the soil..
Income trom rent of land
Cultivators of all kinds
Others
ni. — Inddstrifs
Artisans and Other workmen
Others
v.— TRADE ...
IX.— Persons living on thbib incohe
Others ,
BARWALA—
I. — Exploitation of the surface of the soil
Income from rent of land
Cultivators of all kinds
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
Raisers of livestock, etc.
Others
^ a
S S "
in
0) o
5
w S "■
S O a
Ca8TE and occupation.
1§ °
— > 12
I, " "
S 4> C
912
393
505
14
23
22
1
65
854
831
19
4
34
33
1
24
22
40
48
157
53
90
14
80
4
42
35
7
629
22
70
848
799
48
1
42
41
1
21
2U
1
20
20
49
115
19
8K
8
38
35
3
751
32
64
148
12
71
35
= ^
S O <8
3 if e
19
43
6
14
10b
9
hARVf ALk— concluded.
III. — Industries
Artisans snd other workmen
Others ...
IV. — Transport
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
Others
ri.— PUBLIC FORCE ...
X. — Domestic service ...
XII.— Labourers unspecified
XIII. — Beggars, prostitutes, etc...
Others
BAWARIA—
I. — Exploitation of the surface of the soil
Income from rent of land
Cultivators of all kinds
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
Raisers of livestock, etc.
Others ...
III. — Industries
Artisans and other workmen ... ...
IV.— Transpoet
6 Labourers, boatmen, etc.
13 Others ...
2 v.— Trade ...
4 XII.— Labourers nNspF.ciFiED
92 XIII.— BEGGARS, PROSTITUTES, CRIMINALS
lUl AND INMATES OF JAILS ANDASiLVMb.
2 Others
] BHARAI—
1 I. — Exploitation ok the surface of the soil...
Cultivators of all kinds
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
Raisers of livestock, etc.
a Others ...
III. — Industries
Artisans and other workmen
5 VIII.^Arts and profkssions
4 XIII.— BEGGARS, PROSTITUTES, CRIMINALS
16 AND INMATES OF JAILS AND ASTLUMS.
85 Others
87 BILOCH—
15 I. — Exploitation of the surface of the soil...
Ctdtivators of all ktnds
I Kaisers of livestock, etc.
Others ...
III. — Industries
22 Artisans and other workmen
111 Others ...
IV. — Transport
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
24| Others ...
XII. — Labourers unspecified
XIII. — Beggars, prostitotrb, etc.
165| Others
209 BRAHMAN—
I I. — Exploitation of the suefacb of the soil ...
Income from rent of land
16) Cultivators of all kinds
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
Rnisera of livestock, etc.
Others ...
8 III. — Industries
Artisans and other workmen
Others ...
21
2
3S5
7
32
28
4
318
21
22
25
42
745
ll:i
407
157
5S
11
50
50
35
34
1
27
43
31
387
204
61
32
10
34
34
41
567
51
802
718
82
2
39
38
1
78
74
4
20
20
41
552
36
478
20
17
1
23
19
4
44
45
14
17
55
23
40
3
9
21
129
75
77
11
11
11
114
43
64
6
6
8
1
24
113
114
20
10
10
84
86
12
12
14
8
17
37
15
G3
50
68
Note. — Under each caste, its traditional occupation is given in Italics.
XII.
543
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
[ PuBjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VIII.
Occupations of selected c^Qtes— continued.
Cabtb and occdpation.
SRAB.UA'S— concluded.
IV. — Transport
Lnboarers, boatmen, eto
Others ...
v.— Trade ...
VIII.— Arts and professions
Beligion ...
Others
X. — Domestic sebvicb ...
XIII.— Beggars, PEOsTiTDTEs, ETC.
Others
CHAMAK-
I. — Exploitation of thb sueface of the soil
Cultivators of all kinds
Field labourers, wood cntters, etc.
Baisers of livestock, etc.
Others
III. — Indosteies
.Artisans and other worJcmen ...
Others
IV.— Transpoet
Luboarers, boatmen, etc.
Others
XII.— LABOCSERB nNSPEClFIED
Others
CHHIMBA—
I. — Exploitation of the surface of the soil
Income from rent of land
Cultivators of all kinds
Field labourprs, wood cutters, etc.
Raisers of livestock, etc.
Others
III.— Indostries
Artieans and other workmen
Others
v.— Trade ...
Others
CHUHRA—
I. — Exploitation of the surface of the soil ,
Cultivators of hU kinds ...
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc,
Raisers of livestock, etc.
Others
III. — Indosteies
ArttsaiiB and other workmen ...
Others
Others
dAgi and KOLI—
I.— Exploitation of the surface of the soil .
Cultivators of all kinds
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
Raisers of livestock, etc.
Others
III. — Industries
Artisans and other workmen
Others
X.— DOilESTW SERVICE
Others
DHANAK-
I, — Exploitation of the surface of the soil .
Cultivators of all kinds ...
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
Roisers of livestock, etc.
Others
III.^Inddstries
Artisans and other workmen
Others ... . .
IV.— Transpoet
Labourers, boatmen, etc
9 c eg
o a.
S S o
■ S 9
25
J3 ^ o
= P s
23
lb
7
76
214
236
6
38
29
20
428
191
190
36
496
490
6
25
24
1
22
29
259
10
190
41
16
663
655
22
56
302
77
197
2.5
3
626
62.5
1
72
847
774
38
29
G
46
43
3
68
301
111
134
53
3
583
579
4
26
26
1
2
2
14
15
7
11
25
21
18
29
18
2
24
1
28
2)s
14
32
21
8
s
20
20
12
5
10
66
60
4
18
29
2S
33
61
19
31
34
3
18
41
19
13
32
45
43
Caste and occupation.
o o
2 ° a
a ? S
DH A N A S.— concluded.
XII. — Labodeers unspecified
Others ... ... ...
DHOBI—
I. — Exploitation op the sdrfaoe op the boil
Cultivators of all kinds
Field labourers, wood cutters, eto.
Raisers of livestock, etc.
Others
III.— Industries
Artisans and other workmen
Others ...
Others
DOGAR—
I.— Exploitation of the surface op the soil
CiLltivators of all kinds
Others ... ... ...
Others
DDMNA—
1. — Exploitation of the surface op the soil
Cultivators of all kinds
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
Kaisers of livestock, etc.
Others
111. — Industries
Artisans and other workmen
Others
IV. — Transport
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
Others ...
XII.— Labourers UNSPECIFIED
Others
FAQIK—
1. — Exploitation of the burpace of the soil
Income from rent of land
Cultivators of all kinds
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
Raisers of livestock, etc.
Others ... ... ...
III.— Inddstrirs
Artieaua and other workmen
others
Till. — Arts and professions
Religion ...
Others
XJl/. -BEGGARS, PROSTITUTES, CRIMINALS
AND INMATES OP JAILS AND ASYLCMS.
Othkrs ... ... „,
GHIKATH—
1. — Exploitation of toe surface op tmb soil ..
Cultivators of all kinds ...
Raisers of livestock, etc.
Others
Others
GUJAU—
i. — kxploitation of thesurfacb of the soil..,
Cultivators of all kinds
Others ... ... ... ]"
, Others
HARNI—
I.— Exploitation of the surface ok the soil ,.,
Incomo from rent of land
Cultivators of all kinds
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
Kaisers of livestock, etc.
III.— Indcstbies ... ... ."
Artisans and other workmen
V.-Trade ... ... ..]
XIII.—BXOOARS, PROSTITUTES, CRIMINALS
AttD INMATES UF JAILS AND ASYLUMS.
OniKK.s
Bog
a e e
33
57
158
113
21
14
10
785
7S2
3
57
937
63
554
28ti
244
21
3
343
34U
3
21
14
7
39
43
288
2fl
192
43
23
1
36
34
1
42
29
13
578
57
912
014
27
1
58
810
si
6441
69
16
50
50
64
33
43
56
41
11
2
10
2?.
22
1
14
5
5
"l9
37
36
41
12
51
52
14
2
922 10|
927 /(
I 41
78 15
1
2
I
13
4
4
43
23
Note, — Under each caste, its traditional occupation is given in Italics.
Census Reporti ]
544
SDBSIDIAKY TABLES.
Chaptee.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VIII.
Occupations of selected csistes—contiyiued.
^
t
(r 1,000
gaged on
ation.
g
U
O C 1
o o 1
® .
a, o
F
u
Castb and Occcpaiion.
o.gg-
o
Caste and Occupation.
O
Number
workers
each occ
Number
workers
males.
Number
workers
each occi
Number
workers
males.
1
2
3
1
KAN EX.—
2
3
t
JAT.—
I. — Exploitation of the sdbface of tub soil ...
970
33
I.— Exploitation op thb soaPAOE op the soil ...
911
6
Cultivators of all kinds
ns
33
■ 1
Cultivators of all kinds
S75
6
Raisers of livestock, eto.
30
30
Raisers of livestock, etc. ..i
37
2
Others
2
9
.
Others ...
2
3
Others
30
24
III. — Industries
24
43
KASHMIRI.—
Artisans and other workmen
23
45
I.— Exploitation of the scrfacb of the soil ...
151
5
1
Others
1
12
Income from reut of land
13
20
Others
62
6
Cultivators of all kinds
Field labourers, wood-cutters, eto.
111
11
4
6
JHINWAE.—
Raisers of livestock, etc.
14
2
I.— Exploitation of the scbfaoe op thb soil ...
184
9
Others
2
C
Cultivators of all kinds
111
7
III.— iNDDSTBIES
396
24
Field labourers, wood-cutters, etc.
49
IG
Artisans and other workmen
391
24
Raisers of livestock, etc.
15
2
Others ...
5
7
Others ...
9
8
IV. — Transport
54
2
III.— Inddstsibs
96
49
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
49
1
Artisans and other workmen
91
51
Others
5
16
Others
4
2
V.— TtiADE ...
240
6
IV.— Tba.vspobt
20
6
VIII. — Arts and professions
23
33
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
19
5
Keligiou ...
10
13
j
J
Others ...
1
26
Others ... ... ... ...
13
57
X.— DOMESTIC SERVICE
652
57
X. — Domestic service ...
30
18
Othees
49
14
XII.— Labourers unspecified
XIII.— Beggars, pbostitotbs, etc. ...
23
24
28
38
JOGI— RAWAL.—
Others
59
3
I. — Exploitation of the sobfacb of tbb soil ...
193
8
KHATRL—
Income from rent of land
It;
17
I. — Exploitation of the surface op thb sou ...
146
10
<'
Cultivators of all kinds
143
7
Income from rent of land
53
19
Field labourers, wood-cutters, etc.
10
15
Cultivators of all kinds
80
6
Raisers of livestock, etc.
17
2
Others
13
5
Others ...
7
2
III.— Industries ... .„
79
48
III. — Inddsikies
45
161
Artisans and other workmen
69
58
Artisans and other workmen
45
164
Owners, managers, clerks, etc. ...
10
3
1
v.— TRADE ,„
219
8
IV. — Transport
61
1
VIII. — Arts and professions
65
23
Owners, managers, ships' officers, etc.
28
...
1
XIII. — Beggars, peostitdtes, etc. ...
373
9
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
33
1
t
Others
4f
21
v.— TRADE
Vll.— Public administration
529
47
3
JULAHA.—
VIII.— Arts and professions
34
" 4
I. — Exploitation or the subfaci of the soil ...
164
15
Lawyers, doctors and teachers ...
24
3
Cultivators of all kinds
105
15
Others
10
6
Field labourers, wood-outtera, etc.
31
20
X. — Domestic service ...
46
6
Raisers of livestock, eto.
21
4
Others
59
12
Others ...
7
21
KHOJA.—
III.— Indosteies
738
30
I. —Exploitation of the sueface of thb soil ...
176
4
Artisans and other taorkmen
737
3<j
Income from rent of land
15
9
Others ...
1
12
Cultivators of all kinds
115
2
IV. — Teansport
25
16
Field labourers, wood-cntters, etc.
30
9
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
24
16
Raisers of livestock, etc.
13
• •. ■
J
Others ... ... ...
1
n
Others
3
1
Others ... ... •.•
73
17
III. —Industries
230
"58
Artisans and other workmen
227
59
KAMBOn.—
Others
3
16
I. - Exploitation of the bdeface of the soil ...
857
3
IV. — Transport
25
3
Cnltivators of all kinde
834
o
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
22
3
Raisers of livestock, etc.
21
...
Others
3
• »•
Others ...
2
"" 1
r.— TRADE ...
469
2
III.— Industkies
34
38
XIII.— Beggaes, prostitutes, eto. ...
26
28
Artisans and other workmen
33
37
Othkrs
74
14
Others
1
14
KHOKHAR.-
IV. — Transport
20
6
I. — Exploitation of the surface of thb soil ...
670
4
Labourers, boatmen, ete.
IS
5
Cultivators of all kinds
631
i
Others ...
2
10
Raisers of livestock, etc.
35
2
v.— Trade ...
40
15
Others ...
4
3
Others
4S
10
III.— Industries
Artisans and other workmen
Owners, managers, clerks, etc. ...
156
146
10
37
41
1
J^ofe.— Under each caste, its traditional occupation is give in Italics.
xn.
545
SUBSIDIAET TABLES.
[ Praijab, 191L
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VIIL
Occupations of selected csistes— continued.
§ § l»^ 1
= n
® 0
o
eo o
B °
«Si
T-r-o
a-^
-H-a
a
per
ation.
CD
OH B.
er
Dgage
ation.
u
OasTE and 0CCDP4T10N.
a
o
Caste and occupation.
0.5 g.
0
iber
rkers
h occ
-2 .
.Sis
ber
rkera
h 0CC1
S S 5
E gd
a g d
a OS
= .,
= .B
= ,§
.,B
1
2
3
1
2
3
KHOKHAR— concZuded.
MAHTAM— concluded.
IV. — Transport
36
1
Kaisers of livestock, etc.
21
• ••
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
38
1
Fishing and hunting ... ... ...
15
li
Others ...
3
Others
4
VIII. — Aets and PBOFESSIONfi
21
'" 7
III.— Industries
131
">
Religion ...
li
1
Artisans and other workmen
129
7
Others ...
7
20
Others
2
14
X.— Domestic srbvicb ...
24
13
Others
58
1
XIII— Begqaes, peostitutes, etc.
Others
29
16
MALI—
64
6
I.— Exploitation of the suefaob of thb boil ...
871
1
KUMHAR-
Cultivators of all kinds
796
2
I.— Exploitation of the subface of the soil ...
281
10
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
35
3
Cultivators of all kinds
173
9
Raisers of livestock, etc.
36
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
27
29
Others
4
1
Raisers of lirestook, etc.
Others ... ..,
22
3
III.— Inddstries
26
5
9
15
Artisans and other workmen
22
6
III. — Industries
591
15
Others
4
...
Artisans and other twrkmen
589
15
IV. — Teansport
26
1
Others ...
2
4
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
25
1
IV. — TEANaPOET
100
4
Others
1
..*
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
95
4
X. — Domestic service ■;;.
3^
1
Others ...
5
2
Others
4S
2
v.— Trade ...
28
4
MALIAR—
Othkrs
50
17
I.— Exploitation of the surface of the soil ...
857
LABANA—
Income from rent of land
12
3
I.— Exploitation of the sdefacb of the soil ...
632
11
Cultivators of all kinds ...
797
Income from rent of land ...
98
17
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
23
2
Cultivators of all kinds
484
9
Raisers of livestock, etc.
34
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
29
42
Others
1
3
Raisers of livestock, etc.
19
8
III. — Industries
51
11
Others . .
2
Artisans and other workmen
51
11
m. — Indostries
249
"32
v.— Trade
20
14
Artisans and other ivorkmen
247
32
Others
62
1
Others ...
2
42
MALL.AH-
IV. — Transport
33
1
I. — Exploitation of the sdeface of the soil ...
510
Laoourers, boatmen, etc.
31
1
Income from rent of land ...
57
Others ...
2
4
Cultivators of all kinds
312
VI. — Public korck
33
Field labourers, wood x!utters, etc.
67
1
Others
53
16
Raisers of livestock, etc. ...
31
lohar—
Fishing and hunting..-.
41
I.— Exploitation of the bdbface of the soil ...
304
15
Others ...
2
3
Income friim rent of laud
13
32
III. — Inddstries
154
4
Cultivators of all kinds
240
14
Artisans and other workmen
150
4
Field labourers, Wood cutters, etc.
32
29
Others ...
4
2
Raisers of livestock, etc.
16
6
I v.— Transport
241
Others
3
9
Lnbourers, boatmen, palki-hearers, etc.
240
III. — Inddstries
644
5
Others ...
1
Artisans and other workmen
642
5
XII. — Lahodrers unspecified
30
"1
Others
2
2
XIII. — KEGUAR3, PR0STITDTB3, ETC.
80
3
Others
52
13
Others
45
2
MACHHI—
MBO —
I.— Exploitation of THB.snRFACE of the soil ...
326
2
I. — Exploitation of the surface of thb soil ...
962
5
Income from rent of land
15
7
Cultivators of all kinds
919
5
Cultivators of all kinds
194
1
Raisers of livestock, etc.
31
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
86
4
Others
12
Raisers of livestock, etc.
24.
2
Othkrs ... ..;
38
2
Others ... ...
7
I
MiaASl-
III.— Inddstries.
254
174
1 . — Exploitation of the surface of the soil ...
78
Artisans and other workmen
250
178
Cultivators of all kinds
48
Others
4
41
Field labourers, woodcutters, etc.
15
1
IV. — Transpoet
32
3
Others
15
Labourers, boatmen, etc. ... ••«
31
3
111. — iNDDSTRIBB
41
6
Others
1
1
Artisans and other workmen
40
6
X.-DOMESTIC SERVICE
317
25
Others
1
2
Others
71
33
Vin.- ARTS AND PROFESSIOHS
464
2
MA UTAH—
X. — DomEstio service
21
1
I. — Kxploitation of the surface of the soil ...
811
2
XHI. — Reggaes, prostitutes, btc.
364
2
Income from rent of land ...
55
6
Others
32
Cultivators of all kinds ...
683
1
MOOHI—
Field labourers, wood catters, etc.
33
17
I. — Exploitation of thbsurpacb of thb boil ...
Cultivators of all kinds
178
114
Note. — Under each caste, its traditional oocapatio» is given in italici.
Cesaus Report. ]
546
SUBSIDUBT TABLBS.
Chaptsb
9TJBSIPIARY TABLE VIH-
Occupations of selected castes— '•on^Miucd.
CiSn USD OCODPiTION.
MOCHI— roncJudei.
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
Kaisers of liveatock, etc.
Others
III. — ISDCSTBIEg ... M.
^rdjonj and other tcorkmen ...
Others ••■ ••• •.
Othkss •••
MUGHAL—
I. — Exploitation of TnK scbface of thb soil .,
Cultivator) of all kinds ...
Kai.sers of livestock, etc.
Others ... ...
III.— Industries
Artisans aod other TTorkmen ...
Others
IV. — Tbansport
LabouTers, boatmen, etc.
Others ... ...
v.— Trade
VI. — Public kobce
VII.— Public administeition
VIII. — Arts and PBoFESsioNs
X. — Domestic bervice ... ... .
XUI. — Bkggabs, pkostiidtes, etc. ...
Others ... „.
MUSSALLI—
I. — Exploitation of the scbface of thb boil .
Cultivators of all kinds ... .
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
Raisers of livestock, etc.
Others
III. — Indcstbies
ArtiBans artd other viorTcmen
Others
IV.— Transport
Labourers, boatmen, etc. ...
Others
XIl. — Labockers cnspeoifif.d
XIII.— Beggars, prostitutes, etc, ...
Othebs ...
NAI-
1. — Exploitation of the surface of the soil ,
Income from rent of land
ColtivHtors of all kinds ... .
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
Raisers of livestock, etc.
Others
III.— Ikdistries
Artisans and other workmen
Others ... •■■
Others
PAKHIWaKA—
i.— eiploitation of the surface of tbi soil
Income from rent of land
Cultivators of all kinds
Field labourers, wood cotters, etc.
Kaisers of livestock, etc. ...
Fishiog and hunting...
Others
III. — Indcbtbies
Artisans and other workmen
IV. — Transport ... „,
Labourers, boatmen, etc. ...
Others ..,
v.— T»AD«
OJ o
S 2 S
3 fc g
3J O ID
a fi S
32
17
10
756
754
2
71
617
589
23
3
131
127
7
45
38
7
35
26
23
28
24
84
324
157
131
25
11
496
494
2
33
32
1
47
58
42
179
11
138
16
13
1
779
778j
1
42
348
15
22:2
22
a
44
1
90
90
40
39
1
284
3
14
2
11
12
12
«
17
6
6
2
"17
17
4
1
1
8
10
18
23
3
3
24
24
13
15
15
14
14
57
12
10
18
7
38
Caste and occcpation.
g §
O
*§ ft
2 §
fe S 5
1-2 ■=
a o s
o fe g
PAKHIwARA— concluded.
Xll. — Labouekbs unspecified
illl.—BEOOARS, PROSTITUTES, CBIMlNAia
AND INMATES OF JAILS AND ASYLUMS
Othebs
PATHAN—
I. — Exploitation of the surface op the boil ...
CuUivatora of all kinds „.
Raisers of livestock, etc.
Others
III. — Industries
Artisans and other workmen
Others
IV. — Tbansport
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
Others ,«. ...
V. — Trade ... „.
VII. — Public administration ...
X. — Domestic service ... ...
XII.— Labourers unspecified
XIII.— Beggars, prostitutes, etc. ..,
Others
QASSAB—
I. — Exploitation of the surface of the boil ...
Cultivators of all kinds
Field labourers, wood cutters, eto.
Kaisers of livestock ...
Others ... .., ...
III. — Inddstries
Artisaiis and other workmen
Otbers
IV.— Transport
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
Others
v.— Trade
Others
QUKESHI-
I.— Exploitation of the surface of The soil ...
Cultivators of all kinds ...
Kaisers of livestock, eto.
Others
III.— Industries
Artisans aud other workmen
Others ... ... ...
IV. — Transport
1 aboureis, boatmen, etc.
Others ... ...
VII.— Public administration
XIII. — Beggars, prostitutes. Etc
Othebs ... ...
16
16
43
22
36
RAJPCT—
I.— Exploitation of the surface op the boil
Cultivators of all kinds
Knisers of livestock, etc.
Others
III. — iNDUBTBIKS
Artisans aud other workmen
Others
IV.— Transport
Labourers, boatmen, eto.
Others
Oth«r8
SAINl—
I.— Exploitation of the surfaob of the soil .
Cui(>i'a(0''s of all kinds
Kuisers of livestock, etc.
Others
Others ...
ss
.2.3 '
e S'
OSS
37
191
10
55b
531
32
Vi
138
132
tj
74
ti7
7
57
22
41
39
39
35
220
128
34
51
7
495
492
3
46
43
3
178
704
679
20
5
70
67
3
29
22
7
28
93
81
848
610
36
3
51
49
2
27
23
4
74
921
i>91
24
6
79
Note. — Under each caate, its traditional occupation is given in italics.
XII.
6«7
SGBSIBIART TABLSS.
[ Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE VIII.
Occnpations of selected castes — concluded.
|g
•s§
0 a
S 0
IS
— "t3
«> p.
0
M
S c «
O^n* AND OCCDPATION.
P- S o.
o
Cabtb and occupation.
3
0
s|i
feSa;
sis
oj 9 a
■O-^JS
X3J4 «
^■^j:
.S.^ "
BoU
S S S
S 0 s
S So
= S S
o & S
0 e §
a ^ g
2
Z
z
Z
1
8
3
1
8
3
SiNSI-
TARKHAN-cancJuded.
I. — Exploitation of the scbfacb op the boil ...
225
11
III.— Industries ... ...
659
4
Cultivators of all kinds
91
2
Artisans and other workmen
656
4
Field labourers wood cutters, etc.
11
35
Others ...
3
8
Raisers of livestock, etc.
62
5
Others
44
14
Others
7
2
III. — INDCSTEIES
20
91
TELI —
Artisans and other workmen
19
98
I. — E-tPLOlTATION 0» THE 80RFACB OF THE SOIL ...
330
8
Others ...
1
Income from rent of land
l(J
14
v.— TEiDE ...
29
"24
Cultivators of all kinds
216
7
XIII.—BEQOARa, PROSTITUTES, CRIMINALS
ero
65
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
57
17
AND INMATES 0FJAIL9 AND ASYLUMS.
Raisers of livestock, etc.
45
1
Otbirs
56
12
Others
2
1
8AYAD—
III. — Industries
54&
15
I.— Exploitation of the surfacb of the soil ...
657
7
Artiiians and other workmen
543
15
Culiivators of all kinds
643
7
Others
2
3
Kaisers of livestock, etc.
12
1
IV.— Transport
36
4
Others ...
2
5
Labourers, boatmen, eto.
33
3
III.— INDDSTBIES
60
40
Others
3
11
Artisans and other workmen
68
41
v.— Trade ...
33
4
Others
2
3
Othbms
56
20
lY. — Tbanspobt
38
...
Labourers and boatmen, etc. ...
30
...
EUROPEAN—
Others
8
...
IV.— Transport
51
1
v.— Tkadb ...
20
2
Owners, managers, ship's offiaers, eto.
29
2
VI.— P0BHC FORCE
27
...
Labourers, boatmen, eto.
22
VII. — Public administbation
§1
VI. — Public force
825
...
X.— Domestic SBBVICB ...
21
'" 7
Commissioned and Gazetted Officers
41
• •.
XIII. — Begqabs, pbostitotes, etc. •..
108
15
Others
784
Others
38
11
VII.— Public administration
33
5
SHEIKH—
Gazetted Officers
11
I. — Exploitation of the sdrfacb of thb soil ...
244
6
Others
22
*' 7
Income from rent of land
31
17
VIII.— Arts AND PROFESSIONS
44
lOO
Cultivators of all kinds
167
3
Keligion ...
17
lU
Field labourers, wood cutters, etc.
24
12
Lawyers, doctors, etc.
30
81
Haisers of livestock, etc.
18
7
Others
7
124
Others ...
4
2
Others
47
44
III.— Indobtbies
199
28
Artinans and other workmen
192
29
ANGLO-INDIAN—
Others ...
7
3
III. — Industries
24
27
lY.— Tbanspobt
55
1
Artisans and other workmen
16
46
Owners, manngers, ship's officers, etc.
12
2
Others ...
H
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
43
1
IV.— Transport
477
■■■ 2
v.— TRADE ...
278
3
Owners, managers, ship's officers, etc.
263
4
YI. — Public force
22
• ••
Labourers, boatmen, eto.
314
• ••
VII —Public administration
80
v.— Trade
33
70
VIII. — Arts and professions
40
■'10
VI.— Public force
46
Keligion ...
15
5
VII. — Public administration
115
"■ 8
Lawyers, doctors, etc.
13
9
Gazetted Officers
J 3
Others
12
18
Others
132
"" 9
X. — Domestic sebtice ...
62
14
VIII. — Arts and professions
161
77
XIII.— Beogabs, pbostitotes, etc. ...
40
28
Keligion ...
20
44
Others
32
14
Lawvors, doctors, etc.
93
54
Others ...
4N
18!1
8CNAR—
IX.— Persons living on thbib income
33
90
I.— E-xploitation op the sdrfacb of the soil ...
77
14
X. — Domestic bkrvice ...
35
242
Cultivators of all kinds
56
14
XI.— Contractors, clerks, etc.
21
Others
21
16
Others
25
"27
III. — Industries
875
4
Artieans and other workmen
874
4
ARMENIAN—
Others
1
30
IV.— Transpokt
250
Others
48
20
Owners, managers, ship's officers, etc.
Labourers, boatmen, etc.
200
50
...
TARKHAN—
v.— Tkade ..
50
...
1.— Exploitation of the surface or the soil ...
297
10
VI. — Public force
100
...
Income from rent of land
22
24
Vll— Public administration
100
Cultiviitora of all kinds
240
H
VIII. — Arts and professions
350
"250
Field Inbonrers, wood cutters, etc.
22
32
Lawyers, doctors, etc.
250
400
Baisers of livestock, etc.
13
3
Others
100
100
IX. — Persons living on their income
100
100
X.— Domestic service ,.,
50
Note. — Under each caste, its traditional occupation is given in italics.
Censas Report, ]
548
6CBSID1AKY TABI.I3.
Chapter
SUBSIDIAKY TABLE IX.
Distribution
by religion.
1
1
DiSTRlBDTlON BY BELIOION OP 10,000
DlST
RIBCTIO
0,000
H BY OOCDPATION OP 1
d
Class, Scb-class, Obdib and Sblbcted Gboufs.
PKESONS FOLLOWING EACH OCCUPATION.
PERSONS or BACH BILIGION.
CL
a
. a
i-s
00
d
i c
0
.2
!°
D
e
T5
s
.a
ix
'S
00
0
0
0
a
a
■5
la
.a
.a
0
14
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
CLASS A.-PRODUCTION OF RAW MA-
3,377
1,461
2
5,104
52
4
5,596
7,364
588
6,044
3,819
7,896
TERIALS.
SOB-CLASS 1— EXPLOITATION OF THE SDR-
3,375
1,464
2
5,102
53
4
5,579
7,361
587
6,027
3.818
7,896
FACE OF THE EARTH.
ObDEK 1. — PiSTOKE AND AGEICDtTOaB
3,377
1,465
2
5,099
53
4
5,577
7,36i
587
6,019
3,8/7
7,895
(a). Ordinary cultivation
3,386
1,500
2
5,054
53
5
5,410
7,289
577
5,770
3,760
7,839
I
Income from rent of Agricultural land
2,802
2,210
18
4,965
5
...
200
480
245
2.'i3
14
2
2
Ordinary cultivators
3,248
1,53C
1
5,196
20
" 5
4,512
6,467
315
5,159
1,183
7,646
4
Farm servants and field labourers
5,110
818
>■•
3,641
429
2
694
338
9
354
2,562
191
(b1. Growers of special products and marlcet gar-
5,192
103
2
4,640
63
12
1
1
8
7
...
dening.
5
Tea, coEfeo, cinchona and indigo plantations ...
7,707
56
...
1,871
366
...
• ••
...
1
...
6
Fruit, flower, vegetable, betel, vine, areoanut,
etc., growers.
5,102
105
2
4,738
53
...
12
1
1
'" 8
6
...
(c). Forestery
3,176
851
1
6,440
32
17
6
...
24
7
2
Order 2.— Fishing and Hontikg
1,501
76
8,39s
24
"1
2
8
1
i
SUB-CLASS II.— EXTRACTION OF illSERALS
4.039
205
"l
5,723
2
17
■" 8
'" 1
17
1
•••
Ordkb 3. — Minks
2,627
92
7,2S1
1
...
2
• ••
16
Coal mines and petroleum wells
2,399
97
...
7,504
1
...
...
2
17
Mines and metallic minerals (gold, iron, manga-
nese, etc.).
6,150
3,850
...
...
...
...
...
...
Order 4.— Qcaeeics of hard boces
4.256
406
1
5,337
8
3
...
7
...
Order 5. — Salt, etc.
4,212
32
1
5,750
'"' 5
S
• !•
8
1
CLASS B.-PREPARATION AND SUPPLY
4,151
811
56
4,875
108
1
3,407
2,025
8,670
2,859
3,813
1,032
OF MATERIAL SUBSTANCES.
SUB-CLASS in.— INDDSTRT
3,558
708
4
5,599
132
1
1,994
1,203
458
2,^2
3,257
265
Order 6. — Textiles
2,309
e4i
5
7,041
3
1
2S7
243
114
624
19
83
21
Cotton ginning, cleaning and pressing
1,276
193
6
8,518
6
1
14
6
11
62
2
15
22
Cotton spinning, sizing and weaving
2,433
584
3
6.977
3
• *.
245
179
53
502
15
18
23
Jute spinning, pressing and weaving
3,499
1,580
• ••
4,921
■ <*
1
1
...
1
24
Hope, twine and string
1,358
3,W01
13
4,707
2]
1
11
" 2
3
"" 1
25
Other fibres (cocoanut, aloes, flax, hemp, straw,
etc.).
Wool carders and spinners, weavers of woollen
3,261
2,778
3
3,954
4
12
31
2
10
'
...
26
2,100
1,446
26
6,411
1
16
4
9
lO
9
32
bUnkets, carpets, etc.
27
Silk spinners and weavers
2,705
215
2
7,067
>••
11
4
1
1
8
18
Ordkr 7.— Hides, skins and hard materials
7,711
773
...
i,5;5
1
79
24
■ •■
11
FROM THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
32
Tanners, curriers, leather dressers, leather dyers,
etc.
Bone, ivory, horn, shell, etc., workers
7,524
882
1.593
1
66
24
...
1(S
...
H5
1,047
8,9.=)3
>••
Order H. — Wood
2,844
i',763
'"3
5,379
11
• ••
"i57
"296
'"29
'213
'"27
1
36
Sawyers, carpuuters. turners and joiners, etc....
2,399
2.194
3
5,401
3
• ••
104
289
28
168
7
1
37
Basket makers and other industries of woody
material, including leaves.
4,470
189
1
5,301
39
...
53
7
1
45
20
Oedke 9.— Mbtals
2,464
917
5
6,609
4
1
• 68
76
23
129
5
26
38
Forging and rolling of iron and other metals ...
1,334
8,335
331
2
39
Plough and iigricultnral implement makers
3,461
1,896
4,642
1
8
"13
"' 8
• ••
...
40
Makers of arms, puns, etc.
2,522
1,304
, ,,
5,913
261
...
...
• ••
41
Other workers in iron and makers Of implements
and tools, principally or exclusively of iron.
2,205
849
1
6,943
1
"l
"■50
" 58
'" 4
"ii2
1
■"26
42
Workers in brass, copper and bell metal
4,338
707
43
4.894
18
10
5
17
7
2
...
43
Workers i:i other metals (tin, zinc, lead, quick-
silver, etc.).
1,343
106
84
8,467
...
...
...
2
1
44
Workers in mints, die-sinkers, etc.
257
82
9,661
...
...
...
...
1
*..
Order 10.— Ceramics
2,874
249
...
6,820
57
116
"30
"" 2
196
101
'" 4
45
Makers of glass and crystal ware
3,355
6,645
• ••
...
1
...
2
...
• •■
46
Makers of porcelain and crockery
7,484
1,793
660
63
1
47
Potters and earthen pipe and bowl makers
2,679
218
7,101
2
■ 87
'"21
2
"l64
'" 4
" 4
48
Brick and tile makers
3.686
393
5,619
300
27
9
...
30
97
>•*
Order 11. — Chemical produots peopeelt so
1S6
19
'"2
9,79;
2
3
1
7
102
1
• •*
CALLKD, AND ANALOOODS.
50
Manufacture of matches and explosive materials
232
203
9,565
• ■■
...
3
52
Manufacture of dyes, paint and ink
2,236
47
7,515
202
1
53
Manufacture and refining of vegetable and
mineral oils.
136
8
...
9,856
...
...
2
'" 1
...
'"97
...
54
Manufacture of paper, cardboard and papier
macb^
90
...
9,910
...
...
...
1
...
55
Oihers (soap, candles, lao, cntoh, perfomes and
miscellaneous drugs).
2,088
133
123
7,624
32
...
1
...
5
1
...
...
Order 12. — Food inddsteibs
3,949
535
31
5,473
11
1
130
64
192
729
17
19
5fa
Kice pounders and buskers and flour grinders ...
4,539
647
19
4,782
12
1
59
26
45
44
7
14
57
Bakers and biscuit makers
1,698
335
7,931
36
7
5
25
7
5S
Gr.iin porchprs, etc.
3,108
214
...
6,675
3
13
3
...
19
1
XII.
549
8DBS1DIAEY TABLES.
[ Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IX.
Distribution by religion— continued.
Distribution by rkugion
OF 10,000
Distribution by occupation op 10,000 |
Classi Sdb-class, Obdrb andSblicted Gbocfs,
PEE80N8 following BACH OCCUPATION.
PEBSONS OF EACH RELIGION.
p.
§
a
■a
a
3
J3
c3
c
. a
0 a
■Hi
a
.2
u
m
0
3
a
3
■3
1-5
. a
II
a
'u
0
2
0
XI
*>
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
59
Butchers ... ... ... „.
95
18
9,885
2
38
1
62
Makers of sugar, molaesea and gnr
8,330
250
"lO
1,385
10
"15
'" 2
..'.
...
...
...
"" 4
63
Sweetmeat makers, preparers of jam and condi-
ments, &o.
8,278
1,133
132
456
1
...
49
""20
146
"' 2
...
...
64
Brewers and distillers ...
6,382
2,398
366
813
41
.,.
...
1
1
66
Manofactarers of tobacco, opium and panja
1,193
295
"20
8,465
27
...
"" 1
"■ 1
.*•
Order 13.— Indusibies op dbess and the toilet
3,119
712
2
6J56
11
408
"284
61
576
60
'"26
67
Hat, cap and turban makers
2,069
621
7,310
• ..
1
...
68
Tailors, milliners, dress makers and darners,
embroiderers on linen.
2,524
1,292
"is
6,146
19
'"1
"44
""68
"'57
76
15
"'23
69
Shoe, boot and sandal mafeers
3,892
637
5,463
«
...
240
120
...
241
22
...
70
Other industries pertaining to dress — gloves,
socks, gaiters, belts, buttons, umbrellas, canes, &c.
1,357
711
"24
7,890
18
...
1
1
2
3
...
71
Washing, cleaning and dyeing
1,434
377
8,187
2
29
23
119
2
3
72
Barbers, hairdressers and wig makers
3,049
759
6,176
16
...
94
72
2
136
21
...
Order 14.— Fubnitdbe Indi'stbies...
1,418
1,667
' ' 7
6,839
69
1
5
1
5
3
...
74
Cabinet makers, carriage painters, &o.
1,424
1,664
7
6,835
70
1
5
1
5
3
...
Order 15.— Building Industries ...
2,745
631
1
6,586
37
85
60
9
146
50
2
76
Lime burners, cement workers
1,873
183
55
7,889
...
...
*.*
...
2
1
*..
77
Excavators, plinth builders and well sinters ...
2,340
130
7,530
...
...
2
1
• •,
4
...
•••
78
Stone and marble workers, masons and brick-
layers-
2,896
900
...
6,151
53
54
51
1
82
' 43
...
79
Others (thatchers, building contractors, house
painters, tilers, plumbers, locksmiths, Ac).
2,538
231
3
7,215
13
...
29
8
6
59
7
2
OrDKB 16. — CoNSTBnCTIONOF MBANS OF TB4NSPOST
2,702
1,002
6,259
37
J
1
...
2
...
...
81
Saddlers, harness makers, whip and lash makers
1,992
28
...
7,952
28
...
...
1
...
...
Order 17. — Pboddction and transmission of
1,410
279
56
1,901
6,298
"56
...
2
51
11
Physical forces, 4o.
Order 18.— Industries of luxury and those
5,397
i,287
4
3,300
9
3
133
97
16
5S
10
81
PERTAINING TO LITERATURE AND THE ARTS AND
SCIENCES.
84
Printers, lithographers, engravers, &c.
3,266
308
23
6,192
209
2
2
1
2
2
5
1
85
Newspaper and magazine managers and editors,
journalists, &c.
1,778
889
259
6,741
333
2
...
1
...
86
Bookbinders and stitchers, envelope makers, 4c
420
62
36
9,410
72
...
...
2
2
1
...
87
Makers ot musical instruments
63l>
1,507
• ..
7,397
466
...
...
...
■ >*
...
1
...
89
Workers in precious stones and metals, enamel-
lers, imitation jewellery makers, gilders, &e.
5,754
1,428
2
2,816
...
...
125
95
6
44
...
...
SO
Makers of bangles, rosaries, bead and other neck-
laces, spangles, lingams and sacred threads.
2,678
88
22
7,261
1
3
4
5
...
91
Toy, kite, cage, fishing tackle, &c., makers, taxi-
dermists, &c.
2,736
100
...
7,073
8
83
2
...
4
...
62
Order 19. — Industries concerned with refuse
7,804
161
1,051
984
...
526
33
51
2,9i3
12
MATTER.
SVB.CLASSir.— TRANSPORT ...
3,258
816
11
5,811
102
2
263
201
160
336
361
167
Order 20. — Transport by water ...
3,479
463
8
6,019
31
...
43
17
18
53
17
...
96
Persona employed on the maintenance of streams,
rivers and canals (including construction).
4,186
570
10
5,196
38
...
41
17
18
37
17
...
97
Boat owners, boatmen and towmen
683
41
9,275
1
...
2
• ..
16
...
...
f)RDER 21.— Transport by road
2,929
948
"'5
6,078
40
...
jr43
"ki
49
212
85
14
98
Persons employed on the construction and main-
tenance of roads and bridges.
3,829
292
1
5,711
167
...
18
4
1
19
35
9fl
Cart owners and drivers, coachmen, stable boys,
tramway, mail carriage, &c., managers and
employes (excluding private servants).
2.199
696
8
7,074
22
1
15
15
10
34
7
8
100
Palki, &c., bearers and owners
8,660
7C.
...
1,264
2
...
101
Pack elephant, camel, mule, ass and bullock
owners and drivers.
J,7»56
501
8
7,695
'"10
...
44
"'37
'"35
134
"11
2
102
Porters and niesaongera
5,054
2,197
1
2,690
58
G4
85
3
25
32
4
OanuR 22. — Transpokt by bail
3,803
729
21
5,123
316
8
64
38
66
62
236
141
103
Railway employes of all kinds other than con-
struction coolies.
3,919
844
24
4,811
392
10
53
35
62
47
234
138
104! Labourers employed on railway conetruotion ...
3,344
276
7
6,356
IS
1
11
3
4
15
2
3
Order 2.'?.— Post Office, Teleobafu and Tele-
4,756
606
53
4,387
194
4
13
S
27
9
23
12
phone services.
SUB-CLASS v.— TRADE
6,404
1,137
239
2,192
25
3
1,150
621
8,054
281
195
600
Order 24. — Banks, Kbtablishmbnts or credit,
7,962
1,347
409
273
9
i76
91
1,695
4
8
2
exchange and insdbancb.
Order 25. — Brokerage, commission and export
7,694
1,091
481
719
12
3
24
10
271
1
2
10
Order 26.— Tradk IN textiles
5,858
1,355
632
2,246
5
4
76
53
1,289
21
3
54
Order 27.— Trade in skins, leather and pdes ...
1,391
133
1
7.761
714
5
1
1
19
106
...
Order 28. — Trade in wood
3,610
797
38
5,537
18
• *.
7
5
14
8
2
...
Order 29.— Trade IN METALS
7,040
816
488
1,654
...
2
5
2
62
1
1
Census Report.l
650
SDBSIDUBT TABLES.
Chaptbb
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IX.
Distribution by Yeligion— continued.
Class, Sub-class, Obdbb and Sblbctbd Geodps.
lU
Us
117
lis
119
120
121
122
123
124
DlSTRlBDTION BY BELIGION OF 10,000
PERSONS KOLLOWING EACH OCCUPATION.
131
132
133
135
136
13
138
130
140
142
143
144
145
Ordkb 30.— Trade in pottery
Okder 31.— Trade in chemical prodocts
Order 32. — Hotkls, cafes, rkbtaurants, etc. ...
Vendors of wine, liquors, aerated waters, &c. ...
Owners and m»nager8 of hotels, cookshopa,
Barais, &o., and their employes.
Order 33. — Other trade in food stdffs
Grocers and sellers of vegetable oil, salt aud
other condiments.
Sellers of milk, butter, ghee, poultry, eges, &o.
Sellers of sweetmeats, sugar, gur and molasses ...
Cardamom, betel-leaf, vegetables, fruit and
areciinut sellers.
Grain and pulse dealers
Tobacco, opium, ganja, etc., sellers ...
Dealers in sheep, goats and pigs
Dealers in hny, grass and fodder ...
Order 34. — Teade in clothing and toilet
ariicles.
Oroer 3a. — Trade in fcrnitcrb
Order 36. — Trade in building matbeials
Order 37.— Trade in means of transport
Order 38. — Trade in fdel
Ordkr 39.— Trade in articles o» lcxuey and
those pertaining to lettbrs and the arts
AND sciences.
Dealers in precious stones, jewellery (real and
imitntion), clocks, optical instruments, etc.
Dealers in common bangles, bead necklaces,
fans, small articles, toys, hunting and fishing
tackle, flowers, eto.
Publishers, booksellers, stationers, dealers in
mii.'fip, pictures, musical instruments and
curiosities.
Order 40. — Trade in befdse matter
Order 41. — Trade of other sorts
Shopkeepers otherwise unspecified
Itinerant traders, pedlars, hawkers, etc.
Conjurors, acrobats, fortune tellers, reciters,
exhibitors of curioBities aud wild animals.
Other trades (including farmers of pounds,
enll« and markets ■>.
CLASS C PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
AND LIBERAL ARTS,
SUB-CLASS VI.— PUBLIC FORCE
Order 42 —Army
Army (.Imperial)
Army (Native States)
OEDKR 44.— Police
Police
Village watchmen
aOB-CLASS VII.— PUBLIC ADillNISTRi-
TIOS (Order 45).
Service of the State
Service of Native and Foreign States
I oerviuo Ul i^utive nuu x'UACigu kii/nuca ...
Municipal and other local (not village) service
. >i Villige oificials and servants other tbaa wa:ch-
men.
SUB-CLASS nil.— PROFESSIONS AND
LIBERAL ARTS.
Order 40. — Keligion
Priests, ministers, &c. ...
Religious mendicants, inmates of monasteries, jbc
Ciilechists, readers, church and mission service...
Ordee 47.— Law
Lawyers of all kinds, including Ea/.is, law
agents and mukhtiars.
Lawyers, clerks, petition-Writers, &o.
Oedee +8 —Medicine ..
Medical practitioners of all kinds, including
dentists, oculists aud veterinary sargeons aud
their clerks.
MIdwives, vaccinators, compounders, nurses,
masseurs, *c.
Okder 4^*. — Tn'sTRTction
148
149
150
152
153
154
155
L
2
3,033
6,462
5,076
6.191
1,359
4,611
3,047
2,404
8,354
2,650
7,250
6,613
1,157
5,700
3,090
5,977
3,637
2,076
3,852
4,390
7,125
2,878
3,371
1,783
7.645
7,1\1
7,093
5,812
5,291
3,936
2,280
2,122
2,207
1,593
2,448
2,340
2,5B7
4,740
4,ni4
4,010
3,800
6,035
4.452
5,742
6,015
2,023
471
5,185
4,768
5,524
3,072
2,957
3,241
4.317
I p
S «
3
750
/,070
i,4.50
1,854
105
427
177
306
718
284
664
560
114
237
237
1,057
1,347
641
515
366
310
334
743
i,506
1,508
1,518
1,565
540
940
1,578
2,384
2,143
3,882
717
950
460
991
867
1,204
424
1,282
522
394
246
3011
3,030'
S27i
700
474
26
34
101
385
20
91
4
249
77
2
25
387
651
96
2
7
756
1,820
149
46;
184
192
37
13a
o.
9
5
5
5
13
24
1
82
71
84
SC
106
13
1
1
35
161
121
931 193
449: 21
597 19
229
814
a
6
6,2f7
1,981
3,18
1,758
7,951
4,852
5,768
7,263
835
7,061
1,831
2,740
8,679
3,992
6,258
2,313
4,920
7,238
5,595
4,450
738
6,637
5,062
8,217
652
575
1,345
2,623
2,380
4,746
5.234
3,800
3,688
4,495
6,766
6,012
6 936
3964
4,620
4,070
5,202
2,572
4,858
3,746
3,687
7,486
688
3,785
4,326
3,345
6,060
6,073
6,041
49 4.296
6
187
73
567
8
10
7
2
6
10
37
45
8
34
21
38
6
2
357
"lO
5
1,654
352
899
1.689
1,956
25
56
74
36
220
424
26
39
4
163
116
51
93
5,776
41
84
6
393
345
465
521
74
90
18
1
13
DiSTRIBDTlON BY OCCDPATION OF 10,000
PERSONS OF EACH BELIOION,
a
a
11
1
20
00
31
6
5
1
148
2
12
11
28
75
6
1
11
12
6
1
11
10
14
620
596
10
13
2 483
33
30
3
36
18
18
81
25
13
10
33
306
224
215
1
'"X4
6
8
17
10
20
16
5
S
41
10
"430
5
5
21
2
" 1
3
3
1
10
4
4
372
354
7
11
351
145
113
88
25
32
22
10
52
17
10
3
22
109
47
27
1
4
6
2
4
8
11
11
12
599
43
110\
2
IB
27
23
1
8
53
484
14
13
2
• ••
6
9
5
2S9
18
120
2
7
1
2
28
4
11
464
10
385
■ ••
51
9
28
1
2',S02
'"38
2,785
32
10
1
...
4
7
1
558
417
51
113
15
42
13
35
2
7
36
71
35
36
1
35
266
49
84
21
44
8
27
10
HI
10
170
239
8
105
4
94
3
8
...
79
7
27
4
52
3
23
25
12
15
U
10
42
14
35
15
20
1.901
1,196
1,160
1,158
2
36
25
11
166
lis
3
44
1
460
199
81
2
116
5
4
1
97
51
46
105
XII.
551
SUBSIDIARY TABLES.
[ Punjab, 1911.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE IX.
Distribution
by relig
ion-
-concluded.
Disteibotio>
BY EELIGION OF 10,000
Distribution by occupation of 10,000 |
6
Class, Scb-class, Obdeb and Selsctid Gbocps.
PBR80NS FOLLOWING EACH OCCCPATION.
PEESONS OF EACH EEUGION.
D.
o
O
3
a
(2
a
'3
•-5
1 n
■a a
a
.2
.2
o
O
3
•a
0
3
to
1 c
a
.s
n
ID
u
IS
c
1
2
3
4
b
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Oedee 50. — Letters AND aets and sciences ...
1,S40
719
6
7,360
73
2
31
37
18
88
54
35
158
Architects, surveyors, engineers, and their em-
ployes.
2,917
1,338
56
4,538
1,135
16
2
4
9
3
42
14
159
Others (authors, photographers, artists, sculp-
tors, astronomers, meteorologists, botanists,
astrologers, &c,>
2,758
489
5
6,680
60
8
3
I
1
5
3
9
160
Music composers and masters, players on all
kinds of musical instruments (not military),
singers, actors and dancers.
1,642
708
7,636
13
1
24
31
...
79
8
11
SUB-CLASS IX.— PERSONS LIVING ON
4,065
2,20g
57
3,399
267
3
27
45
71
16
79
21
THEIR INCOME (Ordee 51).
CLASS D.-MISCELLANEOUS
3,288
547
6
6,086
68
5
514
260
184
680
467
872
SUB-CLASS X.— DOMESTIC SERVICE
3,999
711
6
5,190
93
1
231
125
65
215
237
58
(Okder 52.)
162
Cooks, watorcarriers, doorkeepers, watchmen
and other indoor servants.
3,894
749
6
5,253
97
1
211
124
65
204
231
57
163
Private grooms, coachmen, dog bovs, &o.
5, GOO
133
...
4,226
41
20
1
• t>
11
6
1
SUB-CLASS XI.— INSUFFICIENTLY DES-
4,072
492
12
3,278
138
""s
123
45
70
114
183
235
CRIBED OCCUPATIONS (Order 53).
164
Manufacturers, business men and cootractors
otherwise unspecified.
4,387
1,374
77
4,046
99
17
7
6
22
5
7
27
165
Cashiers, accountants, book-keepers, clerks and
6,258
695
74
2,767
182
24
19
7
42
6
24
79
other employes in unspecified offices, Vfare-
housea and shops.
167
Labourers and workmen otherwise unspecified
3,798
415
1
5,651
130
5
97
32
6
103
146
123
SUB-CLiSS XII.— UNPRODUCTIVE
2,338
432
4
7,202
16
8
160
90
49
351
47
579
Obdeb. 54.— Inmates of jails, asylums and
2,348
1.104
...
6,513
35
4
6
7
2
HOSPITALS.
Order 55. — Beggars, vagrants, peocurbes,
2,338
416
4
7,219
15
8
156
S4
49
344
45
579
prostitutes, eeceivkes of stolen goods.
CATTLE POISONEES.
552
Censna Beport.]
1
3IIBSIDIAKY
TABLES.
Chapteb.
SUBSIDIARY TABLE X. 1
Number of persons employed on the lOth March on Railways and in the
Irrigation, Post Office and Telegraph Departments.
.2
° 2
ID*
c c ;
a'ao •
c c 2
Claes o' persons employed
03 ^
2 Indians.
Class of persons employed.
Europea
and A
ludiai
Indians.
Class of persons employed.
Europea
and A
Indiai
Indians.
1
1
3
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
RAILWAY
s-
IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT-
-concld.
POSTAL DEPARTMENT— co«cZd. |
Total persons euploved..
. 1,6
04 106-755
Upper snbordinates
15
272
Road Establishment
• ••
2.084
Persons directly employed..
. 1,6
91 69,542
Lower „
1
3,143
Railway Mail Service : —
2
728'
Officers
1
60 22
Clerks
21
930
Supervising officers ...
1
16
Subordinates drawing mor
e 9
99 60»
Peons and other serTanta
• ••
9,432
Clerks and Sorters ...
1
487
than Rs. 7i p. m.
Coolies
2,752
Mail guards, etc.
•..
220
Snbordinates drawing froi
n 4
13 12,476
Persons indirectly employed
"" 2
78,154
Combined offices :—
...
248
Bs. 20 to 75 p. m.
Contractors ...
2
2,582
Sigoallers
...
85
Subordinates drawing nnde
r
19 56,53B
Contractors' regular em-
• ••
3,373
Messengers, etc.
...
158
Ks. 20 p. m.
ployes.
Persons indirectly employee
13 37,213
Coolies
...
72,190
TELEGRAPH DEPARTMENT.
Contractors ...
10 859
POSTAL DEPARTMENT
Total
377
1,421
Contractors' regular em
3 2,608
Total
52
10,689
Administrative Establish-
13
2
ployes.
0Utf*
u
Supervising Officers
9
68
ment.
Coolies
' 33,746
Post Masters
14
609
Signalling Establishment
364
81
IRRIGATION DEPARp
ENT.
Miscellaneous Agents
1
2,277
Clerks
...
75
Total pf.rsons employed... 1
60 94,752
Clerks
26
1,290
Skilled labour
...
317
Persons directly employed... 1
58 16,598
Postmen, etc.
...
3,395
Unskilled labour
...
594
Officers ... ... 1
21 69
Messengers, etc.
...
352
SUBSIDIARY TABL
E XI.
Dist
ribution of prisoners by Reli
gion and Caste-
Caste.
Hindu.
Sikh.
iluham.
madan.
Total.
Caste
Eindu.
Sikh.
Muharn.
madan.
Total.
0
CD a
.2 4
> g
m
03
m
0
at
m
"5
5*
la m 'a
; §
at
m
"S
5
"a
CO
"a
0
a
■3
ID
S
3
"3
1 Feni
Male
ID
"3
a
10
s
0
'a
S
5
0
a
<B
1
"3
1
I
0
4
5 6 7
8
9
1
2
3
i
6
7
8
9
10
TOTAL
2,844
83
L480
38 8,57926
17 •13,357
*12,949
408
Ahfr
51 1|
5 ..
57
56
1
Khatri
...
225
8
30
1
2
266
257
9
Ariin
...
... 231 1
7 248
231
17
Khoja
• **
...
25
'13
38
25
13
Arcra
"133
3
'"17
I
154
150
4
Khokhar
...
30
7
37
30
7
A wan
...
465 1
4 479
465
14
Kori
"' 9
»••
...
...
9
9
...
Bairagi
■"28
2
1 ..
31
31
Kumhar
48
3
7
'"96
2
156
151
6
Bangali
1+
...
14
14
Labana
2
6
2
...
10
10
...
Binia
79
"i
...
,,. ^ ,,
80
79
"i
Lilari
I
...
...
7
1
S
8
1
Banvnii
...
... ■" 4
1 6
4
1
Lodhi
5
■**
5
5
...
Bawarfa
"'S5
1
...
56
55
1
Lobar
21
...
6
""57
' 2
86
84
2
Bizipar
7
• •■
1
... "" 1 ..
9
9
...
Machbi
...
...
...
176
3
179
176
3
Bhar^i ■
...
...
10
1 11
10
"i
Mahtam
...
'"26
...
6
...
11
...
43
43
...
Bbnrbbunja...
' 6
1 ..
6
6
Mali
25
Vi
2
..-
3
1
32
30
£
Bhat
h
1
"12
2 ..
23
22
1
Maliir
...
...
10
10
10
...
Bbatii
3
3
„
6
6
■ ••
Mall4h
""16
• •■
...
43
...
59
59
..
Bilocb
...
738 1
3 751
738
13
Maniir
6
...
,.,
...
2
8
8
...
Brahman
"2S6
7
""" 7
1 ..
301
294
7
Marfja
6
• •'
...
...
...
6
6
•••
Cbamar
101
3
15
2 8
1 130
124
6
Mazhabi
...
...
37
1
...
38
37
1
Chnngar
...
9
1 10
9
1
Meo
■«.
■ ■•
"'36
5
41
36
5
Chhfmba ...
8
"' 9
20 ..
37
37
Mirisi
"" 3
...
...
...
91
3
97
04
3
Chnhra
345
10
28
188
2 573
561
12
Wochi
3
...
...
97
6
106
lOO
6
Dagi and Koli
10
10
10
Mnphal
• >.
...
113
2
115
113
2
Darzi
3
... '" 7 '.'.
10
10
Mussalli
...
...
126
8
134
126
8
Dandpotra ...
15
4 19
15
"4
Nii
'"24
8
...
61
2
95
93
2
Dhanak
'" 9
"2
■ .■
11
9
2
Od
6
...
1
6
5
1
Dbobi
8
1
18
2 29
27
2
Pakhiwar
I ;;;
...
...
'u
...
11
11
...
Dojtar
...
...
••■
30 1
2 42
30
12
Pntban
...
...
...
...
1,583
32
1,615
1,583
32
Dnmnth
11
...
...
11
11
Purbia
5
.••
...
5
5
...
Faqir
17
... 86 i
4 117
103
14
Qassab
...
...
66
0
68
66
2
Gadarii
5
...
5
5
Qnrcshi
*.■
...
56
21
77
56
21
tiakkhar
...
;;'. '" 7 '.
7
7
Rajput
179
"e
14
...
800
10
1,009
993
16
Gosain
""' 3
2
5
3
"'2
Rilthi
14
3
...
...
...
17
14
3
Gnjar
75
3
"i '"i59 *
1 239
234
5
Riwat
...
...
...
.•■
...
5
...
5
5
...
JaiewAri
6
6
6
Saint
6
i
3
1
• *•
11
10
1
Jat
44^
is
1,191
27 1,'976 ';
!3 3,687
3,609
'78
Sii.si
185
1
17
2
205
202
8
J babel
12 .
12
12
Siiyad
...
236
5
241
236
5
Jhinwar
80
"5
■■'is
1 34 .
138
132
"e
Sheikh
...
286
12
298
286
12
Joiji
11
1 .
12
12
Sunir
■"74
'"20
1
28
2
125
122
3
JnUbi
15
"" 3
12>«
2 US
146
0
Tarkhin
15
...
25
3
36
79
76
3
Kalil
1(
5
9
4 28
24
4
Teli
5
...
...
128
"6
139
133
6
Kamboh
t
1
25 .
33
33
...
Ulemi
...
...
...
5
5
S
...
Kanchaa
...
...
4
3 7
4
3
Chr i s t i 1
kns
...
...
...
46
46
...
Kanet
65
3
...
68
6a
3
(Indian)
Knsbmiri
...
"' *107 '
1 108
107
1
Others
27
...
3
29
13
72
59
13
Kivnsfh
■■■ ni...|
2l
111 111...
1
_
1
* Include 46 Christians.
Note. — (o) Castes with less than 5 persons bare been shown under "Others."
(i) This table exclndeg tbe figures of the Nabha State.
XII
653
SUBSIDUEY TABLES.
[Punjab, 1911-
SUBSIDIARY TABLE XII.
Distribution of income-tax assessees
by caste (for the year 1910-11).
Caste.
A.-
— Pbofbs-
SI0S8.
B.— MandfaC
TCRERS (INDUS-
TBIAL otCD-
PiTION.)
C. — Commerce,
Trade and
Transport.
D.— Owners OF
PBOPEBTY.
E.-
—Others.
TCTAL.
01
i
a
is
Income.
s
i
S
0 .
Income.
a
.2 §
Income.
2
0 .
3 £
Income.
2
a
3 0
Income.
M
s
0
•si
Income.
° s
0 CD
00
0 g
0 i
00
° S
t4^ QQ
2
Rs.
928
4
Rb.
697
t5
d "«
8
Rs.
665
d =
10
Ra.
926
6 ■*
r,
1
TOTAL
3
Eb.
2,653,095
5
Rs.
1,952,167
6
Ra.
21,110
7
Rs.
38.613,090
9
Ra.
1,903,676
11
Ra.
2,620,481
12
Ra.
24,326
13
Rs.
47,742,509
Abir
Arain
Arori
Awin
Bania
15
118
3
88
79,982
305,401
7,800
288,416
"6
92
118
"8,939
251,270
392,699
18
8
6,637
3
6,469
22,100
12,300
8,750,572
3,650
13,610,070
"'1
60
"68
"1,350
92.722
182,600
3
4
130
1
82
13,221
5,135
289,000
1,400
228,768
21
34
7,037
7
6,82b
35,321
107,706
9,688,965
12,850
14,702,553
6h4br4
Bh4tia
Bhojki
Biloch
Bishuoi
3
4
"l
9,960
5,800
"1,000
2
1
3,100
1,100
393
119
"' 6
17
870,348
175,850
'7,000
22,400
S
9,676
1
3
10
2
2,863
9,509
16,072
6,208
404
127
10
9
17
895,947
192,259
16,072
14,208
22,400
Bohra
Brahman
Chamir
Chhimbi
Darzi
"'90
2
22'3,221
""3,200
"61
2
97,610
"2,887
32
619
11
12
6
84,293
1,101,717
14,473
16,439
8,736
27
58,474
"70
7
1
16
14'2,514
6,600
1,256
34,376
32
867
18
13
26
84,293
1,623,536
21,073
17,695
49,199
Dhund
Dhusar ...
Faqir
Ghirath
Jat
""3
"5.000
69,532
1
"22
"1,100
33,030
9
9
9
6
514
20,828
15,350
12,150
6,856
704,769
"1
1
14
"1,800
1,900
'42,717
"l
1
1
33
"4,660
1,100
1,039
56,164
S
14
12
7
609
20,828
26,810
16,250
7,895
906,212
Juliha
Kakkezai
Kalil
Kanet
Kashmiri
'5
12
"io
9,500
28,105
28,313
1
1
15
"5
1,149
1,659
16,433
'31,645
11
20
58
1
52
19,653
29,100
106,028
1,000
102,923
"2
4
4
"'9,402
22,211
"9,900
'""6
10
4
32
'11,933
11,663
8,000
68,443
12
34
99
5
103
20,802
61,594
184,440
9,000
231,224
Kiyasth
Khatrf
Khoja
KnmhSr
Lohar
27
322
3
1
75,079
963,809
7,300
3,000
178
19
1
16
453,950
35,022
4,902
26,029
2
4,178
211
19
11
2,100
8,010,923
317,04:*
29,802
20,003
14
157
9
1
1
32,810
427,442
10,849
1,373
1,800
6
301
4
1
8
32,140
976,497
6,172
6,989
28,673
49
5,136
246
23
36
142,129
10,832,021
376,386
46,066
76,505
Mah^jan
Meo
Mughal
Paricha
Pathan
6
"5
U
15,737
"8,900
40,8 10
3
"5,080
403
9
8
19
11
889,846
11,600
10,832
48,500
75,153
"3
"13
12,300
"57,530
1
1
"16
1,200
""l,800
30,731
410
9
17
19
57
906,783
11,600
33,832
48,500
209,304
Qassib
Quroshi ...
Rajp-nt
Saini ... ...
Sayad
'"s
11
3
8
'i5,456
21,770
4,900
12,492
4
"'5
'2
5,400
57,140
"4,500
66
1
66
7
11
147,335
1,149
572,854
6,800
40,370
1
1
10
"ie
1,400
2,500
85,771
33,665
3
1
10
"4
9,000
1,190
36,733
7,650
74
U
102
10
41
163,135
20,295
774,268
11,700
98,677
Sh.ikh
Slid
Sunir
Taikhan
Zoroastrian
62
11
12
1
2
131,782
40,124
15,850
1,200
3,500
51
6
54
5
2
124,112
12,019
73,638
4,650
7,800
514
246
87
31
27
l,193,80f;
669,010
109,809
67,699
100,614
121
15
1
1
11
469,000
.'iO.OOO
1,80(1
1,332
27,030
76
7
12
15
1
185,508
3i,i5;i
15,155
32,963
2,000
824
2S5
1G6
53
43
2,104,207
802,306
216,252
107,844
140,944
.» . f European
i e 1 Anglo-Indian
«~ (Indian
Others
37
6
4
5
181,153
24,481
12,900
7,6 IG
18
2
"4
278,724
10,080
"6,500
89
1
2
52
481,140
5,886
10,000
72,212
92
6
1
4
219,638
20,934
3,484
10,266
28
1
1
11
277,705
8,222
1000
18,076
2G4
16
8
76
1,438,.S60
69,603
27,390
114,670
Note. — The oaBtes having lesa than 5 asaesaeos bavo been shown under " others.
INDEX
OF THE
More Important Subjects and Terms.
Subject or term.
Para.
Page.
Subject or term.
Para.
Page.
A
A — concluded.
Abdal
594 (1)
444
Arya Smaj, philanthropic work of—
178
135
Acknowledgment
vi
Arya Smaj, social reform by —
178
135
Adi Smaj
132"(3)
110
Arya Smaj, uplifting of the depressed
Administrative Divisions
3
1
classes by—
178
135
Adwaita Vedanlis
129
106
Aryas, strength of the —
178
134
Afghan
59J, (170)
471
Assamese language .,,
457
354
Aga Khan
173
130
Atashbaz ...
594 (57)
463
Agari
594 (2)
444
Atheist \[[
186
143
Age, accuracy of the— statistics
286
197
Awan "", ['_
694 (D)
445
Age, deliberate mis-statements of— ...
288
198
Age distribution by caste
297
203
B-
Age distribution of the population ...
293
201
Age, effects of migration on—
292
201
Baba Banda
220
156
Age, mean —
29t>
203
Baba Barbhag Singh
223
158
Age, popularity of certain — periods ...
289
199
Baba Gurditta
223
15»
Age, proportion of children of both
Baba Isa
188
142
sexes to child bearing—
295
202
Baddun
594 (10)
447
Age, smoothing of errors in—
290
199
Badhi
534(208)
476
Age, unintentional mistakes in —
287
197
Badi ...
594 (26)
449
Age, variations in — distribution
294
202
Badu
594 (10)
447
Agir
594 (2)
444
Baghati dialect
468 (3)
359
Agnihotra
130, 134
107,
Baghban
594(142)
467
112
Bagri
594 (11)
447
Agricultural conditions
54
45
Bahrupia
594 (12)
447
Agricul'.ural labourer.?
58
49
Bahti
594(13),
447,
Agriculture
600
493
(47), (79)
452,
Aheri
594 (3)
444
456
Ahingar
594 (136)
465
Bairagi
144, 594
117,
Ahir
694 (i)
444
(14)
447
Ahl-i-Hadis
239 (a)
168
Bakers
626
506
Ahl-i-Koran
241
170
Bal
175
131
Ahl-i-Nasara
259
182
BalaPir
175
131
Ahl-iZikr
242
171
Balashah
175
131
Ahluwalia ...
594 (102)
460
Balashahi ...
174
131
Ahmadi
240
168
Bali
130
107
Ahmadi, strength of—
240
169
Balmik
175
131
Ajri
594 (69)
455
Bahniki ...
174, 175
131
Akshat
134
112
BalmikiSikh
224
158
American Army
261
184
Baloch or Balochi language
450
348
American Britain Church Protestant
260
182
Balrikhi^
175
131
American Brother Mission
260
1S2
Bandai Khalsa ... ...
220
156
American Mission
259
182
Banduqchi
594 (50)
452
Amrit
226
159
Bangali ...
594 (15)
an
Amritsar city, area population, &c.,
Bania — Aggarwal
594 (16)
448
of—
33
24
Bania-Khandelwal
594 (20)
448
Anandbani
355
278
Bania-Mahesari
594 (19)
448
Anglican communion
254, 267
181,
Bania-Oswal
594 (18)
148
185
Bania-Saralia
594 (17)
448
Anglo Indians
252
179
Banjara
531. b91
398,
Anuloma
128
106
(21),
448,
Arab
594 (5)
445
(132)
465
Arain
594 (6)
445
Banjari dialect
477
362
Arains, local distribution of—
588
439
Hank managers, money lenders, etc. ..
639
514
Area by Natural Divisions ...
6
3
Banks
70
56
Area, comparison of — with other Pro-
BaodoJa
185
142
vinces and Countries
7
3
Baoria ..
594 (25)
449
Armenian
255
181
Baptists
255, 268
181,
Army
649
516
186
Ararpopo
594 (36)
450
Haqqal
594 (16)
448
Arora
594 (7)
445
Barar ...
201, 594
146,
Arya
l-'8, 178
105,
(22)
448
594 18)
133,
Barari dialect
468 (d)
359
445
Barbers
628
608
Aryas, castes of —
178
137
Bailui ... :
694(208)
476
Aryas, composition of—
178
137
Barwala
594 (23)
449
Arya Sikhs
224
I5H
(24)
Arya Smaj
172, 178
130,
Basant Sahib
223
158
133
Basha
594 (29)
449
Arya Smaj, a movement, social, poli-
Basket makers
619
508
tical or religious
178
135
Batera
591 (1S3)
473
Arya Smaj , a sect or a separate reli-
Batival
594(23),(24)
449
gion
178
136
Bawarla ...
203, 511 +
147
Arya Smaj, activity during the past
(2.)
449
decade
178
135
Bawari language
478
362
Arya Smaj, educational activity of —
178
135
Bazban
594 (50)
452
Census Report, ]
u
INDKX.
Subject or tenn.
B — continued.
Bazdar ,.
Bazigar
Beldar
Bengali language
Betel leaf sellnrs
Betrothal
Betrothal, breach of eontract of—
among Hindus ...
BetrothS, breach of contract of— among
Muhammadans
Bhabra
Bhadrwahi dialect
Bhai Rakkha
Bhand
Bbandela
Bhangi
Bhanjra
Bharai
Bharain
Bharbhunja
Bharroauri dialect
Bhat
Bhatia
Bhatiara
Bhatra
Bhil
Bhojki
BhaLia (other) language— ...
Bhut yagj'a ..
Biloch
Birs
Birth and death-rates
Birih by religions
Birth in rural areas
Birth in towns ...
Birih, purification ceremonies at — ...
Birth-rate
Birth, treatment of women after
child—
Biscuit- makers
Biiibnoi
Bishshau dialect
Blindness ...
Blindness by caste ...
Blind persons, variations in the ntim-
ber of —
Bloiam's method of smoothing errors
in age
Blue patches
Boatmen
Boatowners
Boats, special arrangements for— ...
Blindness, causes of —
Blindness, causes of decrease in — ...
Blindness, in females ...
Blindness, local distribution
Blindness, local variations
Blindness, variations by aee
Bodia .;; ;::
Bohra
Bojhru
Bolta nam
Bona
Bona Kabir
Books, published during the decade...
Boot-makers ... _.
Bot , ...
Boundaries of the province
Brahman
Brahmans, local distribution of— ..!
Brahma's day .""
Brahman yagya
Brahmo Smaj '"
Brahmo Smaj, educational work of—
Brahmo Smaj, philanthropic work
of— ...
Brahmo Smaj, religious work of— ...
Brahmo Smaj, social work of —
Br&mos
Para.
Page.
594(50)
594 1 26),
(161)
594 (27),
(164)
407
645
346
348
347
594 (28)
471 (e)
175
594 (29)
594 (190)
594 (52),
(157)
594 (30\
(67)
594 (31)
594 (31)
594 (32)
471 (a)
594 (33)
59* ;34)
594 (35)
594 (33),
(36)
594 (37)
594 (38)
447
130
594 (39)
136
48
300
301
301
402
298
324
626
201, 594
(40)
468 (2)
504
507
504
290
199
591
442
635
510
635
510
m
508
381
504
379
504
379
506
380
504
279
505
380
594 (41)
451
591 (42)
451
594 (36)
450
409
303
594 (98)
460
594 (98)
460
440
334
628
507
594 (43)
451
I
1
694 (44)
452
688
438
43
35
130
107
179
137
179
138
179
179
179
128
452
449
470
449
470
354
515
271
272
271
449
360
131
449
474
453
469
449
454
449
449
450
360
450
450
450
450
450
450
348
107
461
113
40
206
206
206
3U1
204
238
506
146,
451
359
378
381
378
Subject or term.
Para.
Page.
138
138
138
106
B — concluded,
Brahmos, caste of —
Enhmos, composition of — ...
Brahmos, strength of —
Brass, copper and bell-metal industry
Brethren
Brewing and distilling industry
Brick and tile-makers
Brick layers
Bridegroom -price
Bride-price
British and Foreign Bible Society ...
Brokers
Bronze age
Buchar
Buddhist
Buddhist-Hindus
Building contractors, &c
Building industry
Bunan language
Butchers
Button factories
Cabinet makers
Canals
Canal irrigation, evils of—
Carpenters
Caste, acrobats
Caste, eBect of occupation on —
Castes among Muhammadans
Caste, astrologers
Caste, barbers
Caste, bards
Caste, basket makers and mat makers
Caste, blacksmiths
Caste, brass and coppersmiths
Cnste, butchers
Caste, carpenters
Caste, carriers by pack animals
Caste, classification by status
Caste, classification by traditional oc-
cupation ...
Castes, comparison with 1901
Caste, confectioners and grain parchers
Castes confined to certain localities ...
Caste, confusion about mejtning of
terms applied to —
Caste, connection of the king with the
— system ... „
Caste, convertible in early days
Castes, cultivators
Caste, cultivators and cattle rearers
Caste, definition of—
Caste, development of —
Caste, distillers
Caste, domestic servants
Caste, dyers
Ca»te, elevation of status
Castes, ethnographic glossary of —
Caste, extraction of minerals
Caste, fishermen, boatmen, &c.
Castes, functional— and sub-castes ...
(3asle, functional basis of —
Caste, glass and lac workers
Caste, gold and silver .smiths
Caste government
Caste, graziers and dairy men
Castes having no Panchayats
Castes, having Panchayats
Caste, hunters and fowlers
Caste in Muhammadans
Castes paying Income-tai
Caste, laboursrs
Caste, land holders
Caste, leather workers
Caste, masons
Castes, meat eating —
C. ste, mymists
Castes, new —
Castes offi cial irg at Bir.du Temples
Castes of Gazetted Officers of Govern-
ment
Castes of Indian Christians ...
Caste of prisoners
179
179
179
620
260
627
623
630
349
349
278
640
43
594 (178)
282
206
630
630
448
627
628
629
62
62
618
531
546
586
531
531
531
531
531
531
531
531
531
530
531
589
531
588
534
570
541
531
531
535
542
581
531
531
639
594
531
531
584
539
531
631
551
531
567
553
531
248
670
531
531
531
531
547
531
5S5
138
667
587
669
138
138
138
504
182
507
505
508
272
272
190
614
36
472
192
148
508
508
534
S06
607
508
51
52
502
389
410
435
398
397
39S
398
397
397
398
397
398
395
395
440
397
439
490
427
407
396
396
401
407
398
399
397
394
444
396
396
434
406
397
397
415
396
425
816
396
175
527
399
395
398
397
413
393
435
114
524
436
526
111
INDEX.
[ Punjab
1911
Subject or term.
Para.
Page.
Subject or term.
Para.
Page.
C — continued.
C — concluded.
Caste, oil pressers
s3L
398
Chhimba
594 (49),
452,
Caste, origin of—
633
399
(83)
453
Caste, origin of— system
536
492
Chhota Banghali dialect
470 (,b)
360
Csste, pedlars
531
398
Chief Khalsa Diwan
2211
157
Caste, potters
531
397
Chikband
594 (201)
475
Caste, present condition of the institu-
Child-birth, conduct of the father at—
399
299
tion of—
5i3
408
Child-birth, prohibited food before or
Caste, priests and devotees
531
398
after—
396
298
Caste, professions adopted by-
665
523
Child-birth, seclusion of women after-
397
298
Caste, racial basis of —
538
404
Childbirth, treatment of women dying
Caste, representations and demands of
in -
408
303
certain —
529
393
Children, disposal of the dead body
Castes returned as Hindu sects
201
146
of-
407
302
Caste rales and restrictions ...
5U
409
Children, unlucky— ...
403
301
C aste, Sabhis, Conferences, &c.
569
426
Chirimar
594 (50)
452
•Caste, scavengers
531
398
Chishti
594 (51)
452
Caste, seclected occupations by — ...
666
524
Christian classification of— seels
253
180
Castes, share of— in industrial defe-
Christian denomiuations of— sects ...
253
180
lopment
668
525
Christianity, conversions to-
281
191
•Caste, singers and dancers
531
399
Christian Literature Society for India
276
190
Caste, tailors
531
397
Christians, local distribution of — ...
249
177
Ciste, traders and pedlars
531
398
Christians, mission work
266
185
Caste, tribe and race, confusion about
Christians, race ...
251
178
the meaning of -
534
400
Christians, race by sects
251
178
Caste, tribe prior to—
540
407
Christians, variations in—
250
178
Caste, washermen
531
397
Christians, variations in- by race ...
251
179
Caste, weaver and carders
531
397
Christian, Vernacular Education So.
Caste, wiiters
531
399
ciety for India ...
276
190
Cataract, successful operations of— ...
504
379
Chugatta
694(155)
469
Cathoilc, apostolic
260
183
Chuhra
531, 594
398,
Cement workers
630
508
(52)
453
Census agency
ii
Chuhras, local distributions of—
088
439
Census division
i
Churahi dialect ...
471 (c)
360
Census, final — ... . .
ii
Chura Karma
130
107
Census operations, commencement of —
i
Church Mission ...
252
189
Census, procedure adopted for taking
Church Missionary Societies
267
185
the—
i
j Church of .Vfrica
259
182
Census sta5, training cf—
ii
Church of AiLeiica ...
261
184
Censuses, past and present —
...
i
Church of American Mission...
259
182
Census, result of —
43
39
Church of Christ Mission
260
183
Central pahari Isnguage
473
361
Church of God
260
183
Ceramics industry
621
504
Church of India
260
183
Chabel
594 (93)
453
Church of Jesus
359
182
tlhalri
594 (209)
476
Church of Scotland Mission
270
187
ChakM Chung
357
279
Churigar
594 (53)
453
Chakralvi
241
170
Circumcision
387
295
Chamar „,
531
398,
Circumcision, among Tibetans
391
297
5 94(45)
462
Circumcision of females
389
286
■Chamars, local distribution of —
588
438
Circumcision of males
388
296
Chamba Lahuli language
448
348
Circumcision, reasons for the — of
ChameAli dialect
471 (b)
360
females
390
297
Chamrang
594 (121)
463
Civil condition, distribution of the
S96 (169)
471
population by-
333
261
•Chanal
531
398
Civil condition, variation in—
335
262
594(46)
462
\ ivilzation, antiquity of — of the tract
43
37
Chang ...
594
447
Clan and tribe ...
583
434
(13), (47),
452,
Coal mines ... ...
602
497
(.79)
456
Code and instruction for Enumeration
**.
i
Changar
531, 594
398
Communications
64
54
(48)
452
Compilation
...
T
•Changri dialect
479
363
Conditions of decade, summary of—
71
5S
Charandasi ... ... ...
194
144
Congregationalism.
255
181
Charhoa
594 (49),
452
Co-operaiive Credit Societies
55
45
(62)
453
Cost of Census
▼
Charms
245
172
Cotton factories ...
610
499
Chaukidar
594 (23)
449
Cotton ginning, cleaning and pressing
Chemical products industry
624
5(15
industry ...
608
498
Chenab Colony,age of immigrants to —
110, 292
85,
Cotton spinning, sizing and weaving
201
industry
609
499
Chenab Colony, caste of immigrants
Cow, reverence for —
130
108
to—
109
83
Crops, introduction of new —
60
51
Chenab Colony, immigration to — ...
108
S3
Cultivable area
8
3
Chenab Colony, limits of —
108
83
Cultivated area, figures of—
9
4
Chenab Colony, occupations followed
Cultivation, extcntion of-
59
51
by immigrants to—
109
83
Customs. Hindu -followed by Muham-
Chenab Colony, population of— in 1911
108
83
niadan Moos
248
177
Chenab Colony, sex proportions of im-
Customs, Hindu— followed by Muham-
migrants into—
110
85
madan Rajputs
248
176
Chet Ramis
199
146
Cbhachhi language
450
348
D.
Chhajju panthis
198
144
Chhanchhanis
136
114
Dabgar
531, 594
398,
Chhand
S'oO
279
(54)
453
Cbhaparband
594 (201)
475
Dabistan
43
34
Chhayapatr
■ :
136
114
Dadu Dyalji
151
120
Censos Report, ]
INDEX.
Subject or term.
Para.
Page.
Subject or term.
Para.
Page.
r — concluded.
£.
Dadupanthi
151
120
Ear piercing ceremony
410
305
Dagis and Kolis
531, 594
398,
Earthquake of 1905
53
44
(56)
452
Eastern Kiulhali dialect
468 (4c)
359
Dam Darud
245
173
Eastern Pahari language
474
361
Daola
594 (56)
453
Editors
633
509
Daoli
594 (56)
453
Education by caste
420
320
Darugar
594 (57)
453
Education, figures of— for Reform
Darvesh
594 (68)
454
Societies
421
322
Darya Sahab
160
124
Education, higher—
439
333
Darzi
594(58)
453
Education in Agricultural Tribes ...
420
322
Dasha dikpal
135
112
Education in females by Caste
420
332
Dashalokapal
135
112
Education in males by Caste
420
822
Dasyu
128
105
Education of depressed classes
484
331
Date of present Census
46
39
Education, primary—
438
333
Dates of past Censuses
45
39
Education, progress— in since 1881 ..
435
331
Daud Jahanian, shrine of—
523
386
Klcctric works
632
508
Daudpotra
594 (59^
453
Embroidery
615
501
Deaf-mutes by caste
502
377
Emigration, Intra-promcial—
104
81
Deaf-mutes, local distribution of — ...
501
37H
Emigrants to Burma
96
76
Deaf-mutes, variatians in the figures
Emigration to other countries
100
78
of —
500
375
Emigration to other provinces of India
99
77
Deaf-mutism, causes of—
503
377
Emigration, variations in Intra-prov-
Dealers m goats
645
516
incial —
106
82
Dealers in pigs
645
5)6
English education
427
326
Deaths by religions
300
206
English education among Indians ...
427
326
Deaths in rural areas
30 1
206
Knglish education by Caste ...
430
327
Deaths in towns
301
206
English education by locality
428
327
Delhi city, area population, 4c. of — ...
33
23
English education by religion
429
327
Death-rate
299
205
Enumeration, preliminary —
ii
Density
10
4
Episcopal Church
260
183
Density by districts and states
11
6
Episcopal Church of the United
Density by tahsils in each Natural
Brethren
267
186
Division
11
6
Evangelic
260
181
Density, causes conducing to high
Extraction of saltpetre, alum, 4c. ...
605
498
and low— ...
10, 14
5, 9
Density, classification of districts and
F.
states according to—
11
5
Density, classification of tahsils accord-
Factories, females and children work-
ing to—
12
8
ing in—
673
531
Density on cultivated area
13
8
Fairs
116
88
Density, variation in—
76
59
Fairs, special arrangements for —
*••
ill
DevatSidh
136
113
Faith Mission ...
260
183
Dev Dharmi Sikh
224
158
Fakir
594 (68)
454
Devi cults
139
114
Famines
56
47
Devi UpasikSikha
224
158
Farm servants ...
600
494
Dev Kaja
367
281
Females, causes of high mortality in—
315
229
Dev Smaj
180
139
Females, causes of low— birthrate ...
329
235
Dev Smaj, educational work of— ...
180
140
Females, changes in the life of— at
Dev Smaj, social work of—
180
140
certain ages
321
232
Dev Smaj, strength of—
180
140
Female deaths due to early marriage...
333
232
Dev Smaj, teachings of— ... :"
180
139
Female deaths from parturition, etc....
323
233
Dev Yagya
130
107
Female education
431
328
Dhadi
594 (153^
469
Female education, kind of— needed ...
433
329
Dhai
594 (22)
44K
Female education, prejudices against—
432
329
Dhanak
531, 594
398,
1 Female Infanticide
319
230
(60)
453
Famale Infanticide, conclusions re — ...
(iviii)
258
Dharthi dialect
468 (2a)
359
Female Infanticide, examination of
Dhaugri ... ...
594 (61)
453
figures re —
(viii)
251
Dhaunkalia
172
130
Female Infanticide, history of—
(i)
243
Dhinwar
594 (94)
458
Female Infanticide, methods of — ...
(xvi)
258
Dhobi
594 (49),
452,
Female Infanticide, origin of —
(iT)
249
(62)
453
Female Infanticide, remedies-
(xix)
259
Dhok
26
18
Female Infanticide, time of commii-
Dhund
594 (63)
454
sions of —
(xvii)
25S
Dhunia
594(172)
472
Female, midwifery methods
323
23»
Dhusar
594 (64)
45i
' Females, modes of living and certain
Dikpals ...
135
112
1 customs
326
2;u
Diniiar
594(157),
469
] Female, neglect of— infant life
320
230
(199)
475
Females, proportion of— in Natural
Divorce among Hindus, Jains and
Popula ion by Districts and States
307
219
Sikhs ...
381
291
, Females, risks from abortion
327
234
Divorce among Muhammadans
381
292
1 Females, treatment of- after child birth
324
233
Divorce among the lower castes
381
292
Females, trca ment for sterility
328
235
Dogar
504 (65)
454
Fever
50
42
Dogri languago
466
358
Field labourers
6CiO
494
Domestic service
658
519
Fish dealers ..
645
515
Domra
594 (67)
454
Fithing ..
601
496
Dosali
5:J4 (66)
454
Flour grinders
625
606
Dravidian languages
4*9
348
Food, fish eating
547
413
Drein
.594 (144)
4G7
Food gr.iin, price of —
57
48
Dress and toilet industry
628
507
Food industry
625
506
Dum
594(153)
469
Food, kacha—
647
412
Dumna ...
594 (67)
454
Food, pakka —
547
412
Dwarpal
1,35
:i2
Fruit sellers
645
515
Dwija
128
=1 ' JT .
105
Furniture industry
€29
508
V
INDES.
[ Punjab, 1911.
Subject or term.
•Gadagar .-,
Gad^ria
Gaadi
Gadi
Gadi dialect
Gagra
Oahri language
Gakkhar
Gandh
GanJliila
Gaiidhili dialect
Ganesh
Ganga ban«i •..
Ganga dasi
Ganga nathi ...
Ganga paiithi ...
Ganga pir
Ganja sellers ...
Ganpati
Gara
Garhwali dialect
Gani
Gas works
Gauna
Gayatri
Gayatri Mantra
Geiri
Ghai
Ghair Muqallid ..
Gharib Dasi
Gharjawai
Ghirath
Ghisapantbi
Ghori
Gbosi
Gbulam
Gbuhm Abmad Mirza
Ghutti
Gidd irki dialect
Gilband
Gilgar
Giltsaz
• Gipsy languages
Giripari dialect
Gobind SIngbi
Goddesses, the tbree —
Goddeis worsbip
God's Faiib
Gola
Goitre, connection of — with deaf-mut-
ism ••• .•> •••
Golden Temple
Oorakbpanthi
Gosain .. ••• ...
Grain and p'llse dealers
Grain parchers
Greek Churcb
Gross cultivated area
Guga
Guga Pir
Gujar ... ... •■.
Gujrati language
Qnjari dialect
Gulab dasi
Gulab ahahi
Gur dena
Gurkba ..
Guru, initiation by the —
Guru Mantra
Guru Pir Das
Guru Punyakal
Guru Sar sultani
(iuru ^haka Das
Gum Sidh Liichhmi
Guru Sobha Ram
Hadi
Hajjam
Hail
Para.
594 (68)
fi:t4 (69)
594 (70)
594 (71)
471 (a)
bH (72)
448
594 (73)
1^4
59-4 (74).
4S2
]:fa
im
iiii
IKI
161
161
645
'35
594 (75)
473 (a)
594 (71),
(76)
632
386
134
132 (2)
594 (77)
594 (78)
233 (a)
189
.377
594 (13).
(47), (79)
195
361
594 (80)
594 (81)
240
400 (a)
480
594 '129)
594 (129)
594 (129)
475, 476
468 (2 I)
218
140
139
260
594 (81)
503
220
150
594 (82)
645
627
255
8
152
152
594 (83)
46;<
472 (a)
IKR
21)5
394
594 (84)
550
132 (2^
101
161
527
161
161
161
594 >R5)
594 (158)
594 (86),
(198)
Page.
454
455
456
455
360
455
34S
455
112
455
364
112
12.S
)25
12,^
125
:25
516
112
455
3til
455
508
280
112
110
456
456
168
143
2HG
447,
452,
45'i
144
280
456
456
168
299
363
464
464
464
361,
362
359
156
115
114
IH3
456
.378
157
120
456
516
506
181
i
121
120
456
3.56
3b I
143
184
298
4.iK
414
no
125
125
386
125
125
125
457
470
457,
475
Subject or term.
H — conlinued.
H»ma-o8t
Hunduri dialect
Hnrni
H>ith Yoga
Hazuri ... ,,,
Hhzui- Sahib ...
Hem Raj ...
Heri
Uesi ...
Hides, skina, etc., industry ...
Hijra
Hindi, Crdc. Panjabi oontroverBy ...
Hi'idu, definition of —
Hindu, causes of variation in — popu-
lation ,, ... ,,,
Hindu, derivation of —
Hindu, effects of the earth-quake of
1 905 on— population
Hindu era
Hindn, local eqnivalents of the term —
Hmdu, old — Sects
Hindu oriein of the term —
Hindn reformers
Hindu sects
Hindu sects analogous to other re-
litrions
Hinitn sects worshipping Muhammad
•in saints ... ... ..,
Hindu Sikhs
Hindu, those who do not worship —
gods
Hindu, viirintions in — population ...
Hindu, worship among the masses ...
Hinduism, conversions and reconver-
sions to— ... ,.,
Hinduism, essentials of —
Hinduism, influence of Islam on — ...
Hinduism, nature of —
Hinduism, tests of —
Hindus, attitude of— towards converts
Hindus, cUssification of — as Vaish-
navas or Shaivas
Hindus daily worship of the—
Hindus, defined
Mindnj, forms of worship of— .,,
Hindus, local distribution of —
Hindus, miscellaneous sects of —
Hindus, modern
Hindus, occasional worship by —
Hindus, sects of low caste —
Hindus, the untouchable-
Hindus, true measure of decrease in —
Hindus, who are not admitted to
temples
Hindus, who bury their dead
Hindus, who deny the authority of
the Vedas ...
Hindus, who deny the Supremacy of
Hrahmans
Hindus, who do not receive the
nmntra from a Brahman
Hindus, who do not reverence the cow
Hindus, who have no Brahman priests
"tall
Hindus, who have no good Brahmaos
as family priests
Hindus, worship in low caste-
Hindus, worship of earth in —
Hindustani
Historic period ...
History, ancient
History, modern
Hosiery factories
Hospitals, inmates of —
House, average number of persons
ner—
House, description of —
House, deBnition of —
Houses, number of — per Square mile
Houses, proximity of — „
Houses, type of — in towns and cities
Houses, recent improvement in the
type of —
Houses, type of — in rural tract
Para.
Page.
242
171
468 <4o)
359
694 ^b7)
457
1X2
141
219
156
219
156
187
142
594 (3)
444
531, 594
399,
(88)
457
616
602
594 yS9)
457
487
366
126
104
124
101
126
105
124
101
43
34,
128
1C5
143
116
127
105
178
133
142
116
205
148
171
130
225
158
132 (4>
110
123
99
136
113
212
150,
151
130
107
171
130
125
103
132
109
213
152
164
126
134
112
131
109
133
HI
122
99
• •■
142
129
106
135
112
174
132 (8ol
123
132 (7)
132 (9;
132 (3)
132 (1)
132 (2)
132 (10)
13-' (6)
132 (.5)
J 37
141
459
44
44
44
628
600 ^
39
35
37
38
40
35
36
35
131
111
100
111
HI
no
110
no
HI
111
111
H4
116
354
37
37
38
507
519
28
25
27
28
29
26
26
25
Census Beport, ]
Tl
INDEX.
Subject or term.
H — concluded.
Hoasehuld Bchedales
House numbering
Hoka Pani
Hunting
Hassain Rhagat
Hypergamy
Ice Factories
Immigratinn from Burma
Immis;raiion from Kashmir ...
ImmiiirHtion from Madras ,,,
Immigration from N. W. F, Province
Immigration from other countries
Immiijratiun from other Provinces of
India
Iramiirration fiom Rajpufeana
Immigration from United Provinces
Immi^rrHtioD into Cacal Colonies
Immigration, Intra-Provincial —
Immigration, variation inlntra-Pro-
vincia! —
Imperial Army
Indian Chri>tian3
Indian Sunday School Union
Indigo pluutations
Industrial Census
Indusi.rial development
Industrial Survey
Indu-^tries of luxury, etc.
Infants, superstitions regarding ill-
ness, etc., of — ...
Infirmities, comparison of the Bgures
of — ' ...
Insanity by castes
Insanity, causes of— ...
Insanity, local distribution of —
Insanity, variations in the figures
of—
Instruction
Interdining ... ... ...
Iron age ... ...
Irrieation, extension of—
Irrigation from wells
Islam
Israeli
J.
Jadnbansi
Jaiki'^hnis
Jail Industries ...
Jails, inmates of— and hospitals
Jain-Hiniius
Jain Kfligion ... ...
Jain aei'ta
Jaina, altitude of — towards Hinduism
Jains, local distribution of —
Jains, variation of — ... ...
Jniswara
JambliHJi
Janjua
Janma nam
Jap ...
Jarrah
Jat
Jataln
Jati
Jats, local distribntion of —
Jatt
Jaunsari dialect ... ...
Jesus Army
Jew
Jhabel
Jhelum colony, age distribntion of
immigrants to — by oaaie ...
Jhelum colony, age of immigrants
to—
Jhelum ool.my, immigration by caste
and occupation in — ...
Jhelum colony, immigration into
the— ...
Jhinwar
Para.
547
601
200
380
632
96
96
97
99
98
92
93
94
107
103
401
491
497
498
496
49 S
655
547
43
61
63
233
260
594(118)
197
660
6B0
207
228
229
230
227
227
594 (90'»
190
594(91)
409
134
594(158)
594 (92)
144
536
588
594 (39)
468(1)
260
284
594 (93)
112
292
111
111
594 (94)
Page.
105
81
649
516
252
180
74
liiO
600
494
595,610
486,
499
68
56
606
498
633
509
III
ii
411
49t;
146
291
508
76
76
76
76
77
74
74
75
82
80
Subject or term.
J — concluded,
Jhoja
.Iholi cha
Jholi chak
Jogi
Jogi-Rawal „.
Joharji
Joiners
Joint family system ...
Jonahir Singhi ... ... ...
Jnkera
Julaha ... ...
Jute spinning and weaving industry
K.
300
372
373
374
373
372
519
411
3e
51
54
162
183
463
1*4
520
519
148
159
160
160
159
159
457
143
457
303
112
470
458
117
4'i3
437
451
359
1S3
l!i2
458
86
201
85
85
458
Kabir
' Kabirbansi
Kabirpanthi
Kachhi
Kafaahdoz
Kaliar ...
KaSiut ... ... ■
Kakkezai
Kaladhari
Kalal
Kniaunt ...
Kaln Bhagat ...
Knlupanthi
Kalwal ,,,
Kalwar
Kamachi ...
Kamangar
Kamaoni dialect
Kamboh
Kanarese language
Kanashi language
Kanauri language
Kanchan
Kandera
Kanera
Kanet
Kangar
Kangna Khelna
Kanjar
Kanjri
Kapri
Karah Parshad
Karal
Karewa
Karma
Kasbi ...
Kashmiri
Kashmiri language
Kathia
Kaviisth
Ke'hhl
Keadhar: Hindu
Khailukue
Khokha
Khakrob
i Kbalsa
Khalsa Diwan ...
Khangurwah ...
Khanzada
Kharadgar
Kharadia
Kharasiil
Kharijis
Kharral
Khat
Kbati
Khalik
Khatri
Khattar
Khir cbatai
Para.
594 (95)
594 (89)
594 (89)
149, 594
(96)
594(97)
191
618
41
191
594 (72)
594(98)
611
153
594 (98)
153, 195,
594 (.98)
594 (99),
(13.=.)
594(124)
594 (94)
594 (\{m
594 (101)
196
594 (102)
594 1,183)
154
154
594 (lo2 1
594(102)
59-1(153)
594(103)
473 (6)
594(104)
449
448
448
531, 594
(105)
594 (172)
594(106)
594(107)
594 (108)
363
594(105),
(109)
594 (115)
594 1,110)
226
594 (102>,
(111)
369
169
594 (9S)
594 (,112)
452
594 (113)
594 1,114)
594 (115)
2(19
364
594 (116)
594 (52)
220, 594
(117)
220
594 (118)
594 (,118)
594 (2(8)
594 (208)
594 a 10 1
242
594 (1201
359
594 (SJi 8)
531, 594
(121 1,
(169)
594 iT22)
594 (123)
400 .6)
Page.
458
457
457
119,
459
459
143
502
29
143
455
460
500
121
460
121,
144,
460
460,.
465
469
458
460
460
144
4t>0
469
122
122
460
460
469
461
361
461
348
348
348
399,
461
472
461
461
461
280
461,
462
461
463
1.59
460,
463
282
129
460
462
350
462
462
462
143
280
462
453
156,
463
157
463
463
47G
476
463
171
403
279
476
398,
463,
471
4<;3
463
300
INDEX.
[ Punjab, 1911..
Subject or term.
Para.
Page.
Subject or term.
Para.
1
J'age.
K — concluded.
L — concluded.
Khiyat
594 (58)
453
Letters, arts and sciences
656
519
Khizar Pir
160
124
l^'lari
594 (133)
485
Khoja
594 (124)
, 464,
Liiia ;;; ;;;
594 a34)
465
(168)
471
Lime burners ... ...
630
508
Khokhar
594 (125)
464
LingriPir \\
245
173
Khawajasara ...
594 (89)
457
Literacy by age
418
319
Khamra ...
594(126)
464
Literacy by Districts and States ...
41b
318
Khushabi ...
594 (127)
464
Literacy by Naturnl Divisions
415
317
Khuara ... ...
594 (89)
457
Literacy by Religion
419
319
Kilna
408
303
Literacy by Religion and locality ...
419
320
Kirar
594 (139)
466
Literacy, comparaion of the figures
Kirni dialect
468 (1 b)
359
of— with 1901
436
331
Kishtiban
594(141)
467
Literacy iu British Territory
415
317
Kiuthali dialect
468 (4)
359
Literacy in Cities and selected Towns
417
318
Kiathali proper dialect
468 (4 6)
359
Literacy in Native States
415
317
Kochi dialect
468 (/)
360
Literacy in the Vernaculars
422
323
Kohara
594 (94)
458
Literacy in Vernaculars by Religions
424
325
Kohastani language ...
452
350
Liteaoy, variations by Districts and
Kori
594 (128)
464
States
437
332
Kothi
2t5
18
Literacy, variations in the figures
Ksheirapala ...
135
112
of — iu Vernaculars
425
325
Kuchband
694(201)
47-.
Literary activity
490
367
Knchgar
594 (201)
475
Literates, distribution of the— in
Knka
221
158
Vernaculars by age
426
326
Kulal
594 (129)
464
Lodha
594 (13,5)
465
Kuluhi dialect ...
469 (1)
360
Lohar
591 (1361
465
Kiilu Siraji dialact .-.
469 (2)
360
Lohia
594(136)
465-
Kutnhar
594 (129)
461
Lunatic Asylums "',
499
375
KundKar
594 (129)
464
Lunia
5941 (63)
470
Kanjra
594 (130)
464
Lutheran
255
181
Kurml
594 (131)
465
Kutana
594(157)
469
H.
Kuzagar
594 (129)
464
Machhera ...
594 (137)
465
L.
Machhi ...
594 (94),
(137)
458,
465
Labana ...
594 (132)
465
Madhvacharya
142
116
Labani dialect
477
362
Magh
594 (138;
46S
Labanki dialect
477
362
Mahabadarnes
43
34
Lahndi language
454
350
Mahabharata, date of —
43
36
Lahndi, ohaiaoteriaties of each group
Mahadev ...
223
158
of—
454
353
Mahajan "*
594 (139)
466
Lahndi, distribution of — according
Mahigir ...
594 (137)
465
to .Sir Gnorga Grierson
454
351
Uahtam ...
594 (140),
46&
Lahndi, local distribution of —
454
351
(141)
Lhhiidi, proposed diHtribntion of —
454
352
Maiyan
358
279
Lahore city, area population, etc.,
Mala ... „,
248
175
of—
33
24
Malamatis
242
171
Lahuli language
447
348
Malani
448
348
Lakhdata
172
130
Malaria... ...
50
42
Lalbegi
174, 176
131,
Mnlaria, measures for prevention of—
50
43.
133
Malaynlam language ...
449
348
Lalbegi Sikh
224
158
Male birth, measures taken to secure
Lalbliek ...
176
133
a—
330
236
Lalriasi _
176
133
Mali \[\
594 (142),
467-
Lai Guru
176
133
(143)
Lalla
594 (134)
465
Maliar
594(142),
467
Lai Paiithi
176
133
(143)
Lai Pir
176
133
Mallah
594 a44)
46r
Lai ^bahi ... ... ...
176
133
■Malwana ...
694 (215)
476
Language, Burman Group ...
44'<
347
Mandeali dialect
470 i^a)
360
Language, Eranian Brattch ...
450
348
Alandi Siraji, dialect
470 (c)
360
LaiiKuage, of Kurnpean Gipsiefl
484
364
Mangia ...
594 (110)
462
Language, PronOniinalized ilimalayan
Maniar ... ...
594 (145)
467
Gronp ...
448
348
Manu Simriti, age of — ,,,
536
403
Language, Standard Pfinjabi
465
357
Manufacture of iiiunj ropes
611
5oa
Lungnago, Tibetan Group
447
347
Manufacture of vegetable oil
624
505
Language, Tibeto-Chinese Family ...
445
347
Manushya Vagya ,,,
130
107
LangUHKes, Aryan of Indian
Marathi language
456
354
Branch
451
340
Marecha
594 (140)
467
LaiJgiiHgea, Asiatic — ...
485
365
Marija ...
594(148)
467
Languages, classiBcation of —
444
346
Marriage ... ... ,„
545
410
Languatreo, displaoenient of —
4H8
3i;6
Marriage, age of —
337
263
Languages, European —
48fi
365
Marriage, age of— among Hindus ...
338
265
Lassi Mundri
363
280
Marriage, Arya Samaj— customs
354
276
Law ... ... ...
653
518
Marriage, auspicious dates of — in
Latvan
355
277
Europe
341
269
Leper Aaylnms ...
5l:t
3H3
Marriage, Brahmo- customs
354
276
Lepers, local distribution of —
510
382
Marriage, consummation of —
366
280
Lepers, shrines and sacred places
Marritige, Oev Iiharam — cuBtoms ...
254
277
resorted to by —
521
385
Marriage, early — ...
337, : 4 >
263,
Lepers, VMriationa by age
509
382
410
Lepers, variation- since 1881
509
381
Marriage, early — common in the pri-
Leprosy by caste ...
511
383
mitive, stage of society
338
264
Leprosy, cansee of — ...
512 1
383
Marriage, early — in menial castes ...
338
266
Census Report. 1
vin
INDEX.
Subject or term.
Para.
Page.
Subject or term.
Para.
Page.
U — eontinued.
M — concluded.
MarriaKe, early— ia of Hindu origin. ..
338
2«6
Mines
602
497
Marriaue, effects of early — ...
338
2ti6
Mir
594 (153)
469
Marriat^e, f-xpeiiditure on — ...
545
410
Mirasi
594 (153)
469
JlarriaKe, fonnalitit-s before—
345
270
Mirsbikar ... .,
591 (501
452
Marriage, forms of — in Hindus
343
269
Mirza
594 (155)
469
JInrria(.'p, f.irmsof — in Muhammadane
344
270
Mirzada .. ...
594 (153)
469
MarriaL'p, forms of — in Sikhs
344
270
Mochi
531, 594
398,
MariinKS. forms of — now in vogue ...
343
270
(154)
469
Marriage, forms of — prescribed by
Mock marriage ..
371
283
Sliascras
343
269
Mock marriage of girls
373
284
Mairiago. freedom after—
383
293
Mock marriage of widowers ...
372
283
Marriage, functions performed by
Moghal ... ... ...
594 (156)
4ti9
certain kins in —
376
2K«
.\Iohana ...
594 (1 44 1
467
Marri'ig**. Hindu— customs ...
354
274
Money-lenders ...
639
614
MairiHgH, iiiauHpicious times of—
Monogamy ... ... ...
384
294
amcng MuhanimadanB
242
209
Moravian Mission
267
186
Marriage, Muhammadan — ...
248
175
Mother kin
375
285
Warri'ige, Miihamaiadan — customs ...
356
278
Muatazila
242
171
Marriage, origin of early — among
Mnhammadan believing in magic ...
2J5
173
Hindus
338
264
Muhamniadan castes of foreign origin
247
173
Marriage, other Reform Societies' —
Mnhammadan, classitioation of— sects
235
165
customs
354
277
Mnhammailan, composition of — popu-
Marriage, preliminary steps of — ...
345
270
lation...
247
173
Marriage, prevalence of early — in
Mnhammadan conversions ... ...
246
173
different religions ...
338
264
Muhamroadan, customs of— Meos ...
248
177
Marriagf, repetition of — ceremonies
367
280
.Mnhammadan, customs of —Rajputs
248
176
Marriage, restrictions on Hindu — ...
374
284
Mnhammadan, formation of — sects...
234
165
MarriHge, restrictions on Mnhamma-
Mnhammadan, influence of Hinduism
daii — ...
374
285
on the — population
248
174
Mai riage, restriction on Sikh —
374
2s5
Muhammadan law of inheritance ...
248
176
Marriage seasons ...
341
268
Mnhammadan, local distribution of—
231
160
Marriage, Sikh— customs
355
277
Muhammadan, observances of the —
Marriage, superstitions re —
353
274
masses ... ...
244
174
Marri.?ige invitation ...
352
274
Muhammadan sects analogous to
Marriage, the order of — of children...
340
268
other religions
243
171
Marriage, universality of — ...
334
261
Muhammadan, variations in — popula-
Marriage, widow —
545
410
tion
232
161
Marri:ige, work done by Reform
Mnhammadans, popular beliefs of —
245
172
8oci«ties re — ...
.-^3 9
286
Muhammadans, respect for trees
Marriage by service
377
286
among — ... ... ... ,,,
245
173
Marriage ceremonies
341
268
Muhammadans, superstition in — ...
248
176
M'lrriage customs
35*
274
Mujawir
594 (156)
469
Marriage dates
341
269
Mnkhannaa ...
594 (89)
457
Marriage days ..
341
269
Mnklava
366
280
Mirriiige months
341
268
Mukti
163, 167,
126,
Marriage nakshatras
341
269
170
129
Mashki
S94 (137>
465
Mula Jata
248
176
Masons ...
630
508
.MuUan
594 (21.5)
476
Mathaa ...
146
118
Mullana
594 (215)
476
Mawahid ••■
239 (■.)
168
Multaiii
594 (129)
464
Maya ... •••
168
12.1
.Mundlu
144
117
Mazhabi-Rasul
242
171
Municipal and other local services and
Ma'habi
594 (147!
468
village officials
651
518
Mazhabi Hindu
209
148
Mnrree Kahuta dialed
472 (b)
361
Mean« of transport, conatrnction of —
631
508
Murti
124
112
Medicine
654
518
MuShUi
2.32, 531,
162
Mfgli ...
594 (1481
468
594(157)
398,
M. hndi
358
279
469
M,.hra ...
594 (94)
458
Musical Instruments ...
633
509
Mehiar ...
594(52)
453
Mntthi Kholna
365
280
Melnnoglossia ...
692
4*3
Mutiib
594(153)
469
Memar ...
594 (183'i
473
Men
594 (149^
468
Mcndelian Law ...
593
44+
V.
M.'O ... ••• •'■• ...
.')94 (150)
468
Methodists ,
256, 209
181.
187
Naddaf
594 (172)
472
Metal industry
620
.V13
Niigarchi
591 (153)
469
Mewftti
594(150)
4<;8
Nai
594 (158)
470
Mian .. ... ... ...
594 (18f)
473
Naik
594(159)
470
M iaiia ... ... ...
594 (151)
469
Nainitali dialect
473 ((,)
361
Miani Mohra's ehrine
522
H86
Naipali language
474
.361
Migration ... ...
89
70
Vaived .. ... .. ...
134
112
Migration, casual
90(a)
71
Najjiir
594 (208)
476
Migration, Extra-Provincial ... • ...
91
73
Nalband
594(136)
465
Migration, Inira-Provinoial
101
78
Nama bansi ... ...
155, 594
122
Migration, Intra-Provincial— by Dis-
(49), (62)
452,
tricts and Statfls
ir2
79
453
Manration, Nature and types of— ...
90
71
Nama knrana ...
409
303
Migra-iou, perindio
90(c)
72
Namdeo
155
122
Miirration, permanent...
90 (e)
73
Nmndhari
221
158
Migrstion, Semi-permanent ...
90 (rf)
72
Viime giving among Muhammadans
409
304
Migration, temporary .
90 (b)
72
Name giving among Sikhs ...
409
305
Migration between British Territory
Name giving ceremony
409
303
and Native States .'.
113
87
Name giving ceremony among
Mina
594 (152)
469
Hindus
409
303
INDEX.
[ Punjab. 1911.
Subject or term.
Para.
Page.
Subject or term.
Para.
Page.
'S— concluded.
P — continued.
Namkgar
594 (163)
470
Kanankpanthis
129, 181
106,
140
Panchayat
552,553
415,
416
Nanbai
594 .,35)
450
Panchayal, advice of Brahmans in —
501
422
Naqib
59i (153)
469
Panchayats, caste — and trade guilds
568
425
Naqqal ... ...
594 (29)
449
Panchayats, (governing body) castes
Nar
S94 (1305
470
having —
553
416
Narainibal
408
303
Panchayat, castes having a standing —
555
418
Nat
.594, (26),
449
Panchayat, castes having no —
567
425
(X61)
470
Panchayat, classes of —
552
415
National Missionary Society of India
279
191
Panchayat, convt-ning a —
562
422
Natural Divisions
4
2
Panchayat, disposal of tines by — ...
566
425
Nativo States Army ...
649
517
Panchayat, institution of proceed-
Nau Muslim
594 (1991
475
ings in—
500
422
Naragrahas
135
112
Panchayat, jurisdiction of —
558
419
Neb
594 (102)
460
f'anchayat, matters dealt with by —
559
420
Nechari ...
242
171
Panchayat, matters regulating the
NeoSikh
220
156
sentence of a —
563
433
Net cultivated area ...
8
4
Panchayat, method of appointment
556
418
New dispensation
260
183
Pnnchayac, nature of punishment
Newspapers
441
334
awarded by—
564
423
Newspapers and magazine managers
Panchayat, number of members of a —
557
418
and editors, etc.
633
509
Panchayat, treatment of contumac-
Niaria
594 (162)
470
ious offenders by —
565
424
Nigahia
172
130
Panchayat, unit represented by the —
554
417
Nibang
222
158
Panchayatra
135
112
Nilari
594 (1331
465
Pangwali dialect
471 (d)
360
Nilgar
594 a33)
465
Panjabi langnaee
464
356
Nirali
594 (133)
465
Panjabi-Urdu-Hindi controversy
487
306
Niranjania
223
158
Panjabi, variations in the — speak.
Nininkari ... ...
192
143
ing population
464
356
Nirmalas
223
158
Panjpiria ... ...
156,157,
123,
Niyoga
368
281
172
130
Non-conformists
261
184
Paoli
594 (98)
460
Non-Sanekritic language
452
350
Paracha
594 (124),
464,
Non-synchronons tracts
Hi
(.168)
471
Non-.synchronous tracts, Census of —
46 '
39
Parchun
640
516
North India School of Medicine for
Parnamis
198
144
Christian women
275
190
Parsid Nam
409
303
Nunari ... ...
594 (163)
470
Pashto language
450
348
Nungar
594,(163),
470
Pa.si
531, 594,
398,
(200)
475
ln^^>
471
Nania
594 (1631
470
Pasture ... ...
600
495
P"than
594(170)
471
0.
Pathera
594(129;
464
Patni language...
448
884
Occupation, adherence to traditional —
G64
522
Patoi
594(151)
472
Occupation by caste ...
664
522
Patoli
594(171)
472
Occupation, distribution of — by classes
Patrang... ...
594(133)
465
and Hub-claases
599
492
Patwa
594(171)
472
Occu|iationfl, distributien of — by
Paungar ...
694(133)
465
Natural Divisions ...
W2
521
Pehowa ...
526
386
Occupation, distribution of each
Henja ...
594(172)
472
religion by —
663
521
Perna ... ..
594(173)
472
Occupation, the classification scheme
596
486
Perso.is living on their own income...
657
519
Occupations by religion
603
522
Pherara ..
594(133)
465
Occupations of females
673
530
►•hiplira
594(174)
472
Occupations of females by locality ..
673
531
Pir
245, 694
172,
Occupations, rural— ...
671
528
(197) .
474
Occupations, urban — ...
671
528
Piri moridi
2-15
172
Occupations, workers and dependants
672
529
Pirziida ...
594(197)
474
Od
203 (al
148.
Pitri yagya
130
107
594 (27)
449
Plague ...
49
41
164
470
Pnlioe
650
517
Odh
594(27)
449,
Pollution by touch or proximity
547
413
(16t)
470
Polyandry
378
287
OrJki dialect
481
364
Polygamy
379
289
Opium-sellers ...
645
510
Population, artificial methods of keep-
Optical goods makers ...
6.S3
510
ing down the —
87
65
Oriya language ...
457
354
Population, comparison of — with
Other Hindi languages
461
355
other Provinces and Countries ..
Population, distribution of — between
7
3
P.
urban and rural
Population, dislriDUtion of— by reli-
25
17
60
Pabuji
156
123
gion
79,119,
97
Pachadha ...
594 (65)
470
120
98
Padba
594(166)
470
Population, growth and decline of —
Pahol
226
159
in Natural Divisions
47
40
Painters, etc
633
509
Population of Natural Divisions
6
3
Paizawogar
594(129)
464
Populntion, principal causes of vari-
Pokhiwara
594(,167)
471
ation in —
85
64
•PakhiwaK ... ...
594(167)
471
Population, room for extension of —
86
65
Pamba ...
594(172)
472
Population, variations in — of each
Panch Gavya ...
402
301
religion
121
99
Panch Mahayagya
103
107
Population, variations in — since 1881
47
39
Census Report, ]
z
INDEX.
Subject or term.
P — roncluded.
Population, variation of— by age
periods
Population, variation of — by Districts
and iStatea
Population, variation of — by Natural
Divisions
Post and Telegraph
Post Office, Telegraph and Telephone
services ,., ...
Potters, &c. ...
Pranayam ...
Precious stones and metals, workers
in — ...
Preface
Pregnancy rites
Pregnant women, effect of eclipses
on — ... ...
Pre- historic period
Pre-marital communism
Presbyterians ...
Presbyterian Church of the United
States of America ...
Pritiloma
Production and transmission of physi-
cal force
ProfeasioDg and literal arts
Professors and teachers
Promiscuity ...
Prostitutes ...
Protestant ... ...
Protestant, minor — denomioationa ...
Protestants, unsectarian — ...
Protestants, unspecified — ...
Provisional totals
Puberty ceremonies ...
Public administration
Public health ...
Public health, improvement of —
Pujari ...
Punjab Religious Book Society
Punjab Triple Canal Project
Purbia
Purdah system
Faebp
Qalandar
Qasai
Para.
Page.
Subject or term.
Qawal ...
Qazi
Qazilbash
Quaker
Quarries of hard rocks
Qureshi
R.
Rab
Rababi
Race
Kachbband
Radhaswami ...
Rafiris
Rahbaris •..
RabDlls
Kai
Raidasia
Railways
Railway construction, labourers em-
ployed on —
Railway employes
Uailwaya, special arrangements for —
Railway trains, passengers is —
Raj ...
Rajasthani dialect
Rajput
77
75
so
67
638
622
134
633
394, 395
43
382
257,
270
370
128
632
652
655
384
661
259
2fiO
261
261
393
651
48
52
594 (175)
277
62
594 (176)
386
134
594(177)
594(178)
594 (178)
594(153)
594 (215)
594 (179)
255
603
594(180)
242
531,594
(181)
690
594 (201),
132 (3),
182
242
581, 594
(182)
158
594, (33)
158
65
637
637
lie"
594, (183)
462
594 (184),
(210)
60
61
55
514
5U4
112
509
i
298
298
34
292
182,
187
187
106
508
5IS
519
394
520
182
182
183
183,
184
iv
297
517
40
44
472
190
52
472
294
112
472
472
472
469
478
472
IM
492
472
171
399.
473
441
475
110
141
171
398
473
123
450
123
54
514
511
111
89
473
356
473
476
R — concluded.
Rajputs, local distribntion of —
Rajyoga —
Ramatinndi ... ...
Kaoiayana
Rainayana, date of —
Ramdasias
Uanigarhia
Kauijaur
Ranila Pir
Ramraia
Kandi
Kaughar
Kanghreta ...
Kangloi language
Kangreta
Rangrez
Raot
Kassibat ...
Kashi tiam
Ratan Dip
Rathi
Ravi Das ... ... ...
Rawat ...
R. C. Dutt
Uefonners, main sects of Mabam.
raaduDS ••• .. ... ...
Rehar
Rehgar ... ... ... ...
Be-iucarnation, customs connected
with ideas of —
Re-incarnation, doctrine of — in Vedas
Religion
Relit;iun, significance of the terms
denoting —
Rent-payers
Rent receivers ...
Kice buskers ...
Rice-pounders ...
Ritan
Rites on feeding children for the first
time ...
Rivci 8 and canals, persons employed
On the maintenance of — ...
Roads ...
Romnn Catholics
Roman Catholic, indefinite beliefs ...
Roman Catholic Mission
Roman Catholic, Sects not returned...
Ror
Rom ...
Russian Mission
Sabausaz
Sacred thread. ,, ... ...
Sadh
Sadbochi dialect
Sadhii
.Sadiq Nihang, shrine of — ...
Sahajdhari Hindu
b!alie baethua
Sahnsar...
8aini
Saint worI^hip in Mnbammadans
Saint worshippers
Saiqalgar
Snkhi .Sarwar
Salt
Salvation ... ... ...
.''alvation Army
Salvatinnists ...
Sanatan Dharma ... ••■
SaiiatHii Dharma Sikhs
Sanatanists
Sandal makers ..
Sandhyii
Sangtarasl
Sansar ...
I Sansi
Sansia dialect
Sanskaras ... *.« ...
Para.
Page.
588
182
193
175
43
177
594 (45)
594 (208)
594 (105)
161
159
594 (105)
594(184)
594 (147)
448
594 (52)
594(133)
594 (186)
594 (140)
409
134
158
594 (185)
594 (186)
259
239
594(187)
594(163)
398
130
652
118
600
600
625
625
394
400
635
G6
262
264
280
263
594 (188)
594 (7)
261
594 (209)
S48
594({»)
469 (3)
594 (68)
248
209
358
594
594
245
151
594
172,
525
604
169
271
258
161
224
129
628
134
594
594
202.
594
483
130
(191)
Vl89,
(190)
(192)
(191)
(193)
437
141
144
131
36
133
452
476
461
125
124
461
473
4i68
348
453
465
473
466
303
112
123
473
473
182
168
473
470
299
108
518
97
494
494
606
506
198
299
510
55
184
184
191
184
474
445
184
47t>
413
454
360
454
157
148
279
474
474
172
120
474
130
386,
498
129
188
182
124
158
106
507
112
474
474
147.
474
364
107
INDEX.
[ Punjab, 1911-
Subject or term.
S — cantinued,
Sanskrit ...
Sanskritio languages ...
Sansoi
SHuyas Asbram ... ...
Sanyasi
Bnnyaaig, ceremonies of initiation of —
Sanyatis, disoiplinu ,,,
Sapadha
Sapela
Sapenda
Sapiara
Saqqa
SarachaU dialect
Saraj
Sarehra
Sarera
Sarnai
S«rwala
Sarwan
Sarwaria
Satmasa
Sat Sahib
Satti
Saturn
Sawyers
Bayad
Scavengers
Scientists
Scripts employed
Seasons according to Hindu Shastras—
Selected towns, areas, population, &c.
of—
Bepi
S«rTice of the SatiTe 4 Foreign States
Service of the State
Sewak Darya
Sewak Darya Sikh
Sex, causation of —
Sex, comparison of the figures of —
proportions with vital staiistioB
Sex, divination of —
Sex, seasonal excess in birth of the
female —
Sex, variations in — proportions by
relifrion
Sex, variations in— proportions in
aetnal population
Sex, variationi< in — proportions in
natural popolarion
Sexe^ by ages ...
Sexes, causes of disparity of —
Sexes, by ages and castes
Sexes, effects of climate on proportion
of— ...
Sexes, effects of migration on —
Sexes in actual population
Sexes in natural population
Sexes in other countiiex
Sexes in other provinces of India ...
Sexes, proportion of — by castes
Sexes, proportion of — by religions
Sexes, true proportion nf —
Sexnal morality, influence of civili-
zation on — ...
Shah Shamas Tabrez
Shaiva
Shaivas, classification of — ...
Shaivas. classification of census fig-
ures into Vaishnavns and —
Shaivas, differences of — and Vaishna-
vaa
Shaivas, distinguishing marks of —
Shaivism, kinds of— «.
Shaktiks
Rhainsis
Sbankrachnrya'a organization of San-
ynsis ... ... ... ...
Sheikh
Shia
Shikha
Shiraz
Shoe-makpr3
Shop keepers ...
Para, j
4S3
453
59*
(56)
1:^8
14S
147
U8
594
(1941
594
(194)
5M4
(194)
594
(194,
594
(137)
468
(e)
594
(154)
594
(195)
594
(195)
594
U53>
376
594
(39)
172
^9i
Page.
(19T!
22.'?
594 1,196)
136
618
591
634
260
423
50
34
.594 (86),
(198)
651
651
160 .
224
329
315
331
311
314
312
313
311
317
311
srs
308
305
306
305
305
310
309
316
385
173
162
163
164
163
1R5
163
129
173
146
594 (199)
236
549
594 .154)
r.28
648
350
350
453
114
117
119
119
474
474
474
i74
465
360
469
474
474
469
286
451
130
298
158
474
113
502
474
510
183
324
43
25
457
475
617
517
124
158
236
228
237
224
227
227
227
224
230
226
220
218
217
218
217
217
221
220
230
294
130
125
125
127
125
128
126
106
130
lis
475
166
414
469
507
516
Subject or term.
Para.
S — concluded.
Shoragar ... ,
Shradha
I Shuddhi
Shuddhi, ancient usage of —
.Shuddhi ceremonies ... ...
Shuddhi, the new movement
Sia Supari ... ... .
Siddh ..'. ... ."
Sikh Hindu ..
Sikh, nie.aning of the term.—
Sikhism, conversions to —
Hikhs, causes of increase in —
Sikhs, local distribution of —
Sikhs, sGors of — .. ...
Sikhs, sects anaglogous to other re-
ligions ... ... ^^^
Sikhs, variations since 1881
Siik industiy
Simla Siraji dialect ..
Sindhi language
Sindhu
Sitigliari ... .,
Singh Sabha ... ... ...
Sirkiband
Sirmauri dialect ... ...
Skilled labourers ...
iSIip copying ... ... ...
Sniall-pox
Soi ,„ "'.
Soni
Sorting
S. P. G. and Cambridge Mission
Standard Panjabi
Stone and marble workers
Stotra
Sub-castes, formation of — on ac-
count of association
Sub-caates, formation of — on aoconnt
of change of language
Sub-castes, formation of— on acconnt
of degradation
Sub-caatss, formation of —on acoonnt
of divergence of religions views ...
Sub. castes, formation of — on acconnt
of golra ...
Sub-caates, formation of — on acoonnt
of occupation
Sub-castes, formation of — on acconnt
of residence in a locality
Sub-castes, formation of — on aoconnt
of social practioes
Sab-castes, formation of — on account
of status
Sub-castea, functional castes and — ...
Sub-castes, intermarriage and com-
menaality between —
Sub. castes, organization of — ...
Sub. castes, origin of —
Sud
Sufedhaf
Sugar industry ...
Suketi dialect ...
Sultani
Summer Census of .Simla, Dalhonsie
and Murree llill stations ...
Sunar
Snnnia ...
Sunni Hindus ...
Suni, misoollanpouR — sects
Supernatural power of the first born
Siirat Shahad Yoga
Swanii D.ayan.'iiid
Swargii ... ...
SwHiienborgian
Sweepers
Sweepers and Scavengers
Swt^etmeat makers
Syrian Church
T.
Tabakhi
Tabulation of results
.594(163),
(200)
130, 135
178, 200
211
213
212
361
129
209
216
226
215
214
217
224
215
614
468 (4o)
455
)27
594 (135)
220
594 (201)
4G8 (2)
58
51 *
594 (58)
594 (162)
267*
465
630
134
580
577
579
578
572
Page.
574
430
573
430
575
431
576
482
584
434
581
433
582
434
571
428
.'^04
(202)
475
594
98)
460
627
507
470
Id)
360
172
130
114
87
594
203)
475
237
167
208
148
238
167
405
302
182
141
178
134
170
130
260
183
634
510
634
510
627
506
2S5
181
594(35)
470
475
108,
113
135,
148
148
150
149
280
106
148
154
158
153
152
156
158
153
501
359
35^
10&
4«5
157
475
359
50
iv
43
453
470
V
186
357
508
112
433
432
433
432
429
45(»
Census Report. ]
xn
INDKX.
Subject or term.
Para. 1
Page. !
1
1
Subject or term.
Para, j
Page.
T — concluded.
V — concJudcd.
Tagah ...
5fl4 (204)
475
Vaishnavas, cliissification of —
163
125
Tailors ...
02S
507
Vaishiiavas, classitication of the Cen-
Tajik
Tamboli
594 (205)
475
sus figures into — and Shaivas
164
127
594 (206)
476
Vishiinvas, differences of— and Shai-
Tamil lacgnaRe
449
348
vas
163
125
Tar.aoli
594 ,207)
470
Vaiehnavas, distinguishing marks
Tanners ... «.
616
502
of — .. ...
165
128
Tarkhan
594 (208)
476
Vaitarni ..
130
108
Tiirii Taran .. ...
527
386
Yam margis ... ..
129, 184
106,
Tarochi dialect
468 (a)
359 1
142
Taru
594 (144)
467 1
Vara Shulka
351
274
Tatkhnlsa
220
156
Vari
359
279
Tawaif
594 (105)
46 1
Variations in Christians
250
178
Teachers
655
519
V«rna ...
536, 537
4C3
Tea plantations ...
600
494
Varanashram Dharma
128
105
Tel batna
358
279
Vatal
594 (52)
453
Telsfrraph ...
638
514 i
Vedas, date of—
43
35
Telephone
638
514
Vernaculars, mutual intelligibility
Teli
594 (209)
470
of the — ...
489
367
TeluRU language
449
348
Vigyan Mulak Dharm
180
1S9
Tent makera, &c.
629
508
Village, average area of a — ...
32
33
Terms of relationship
411
306
Village, average population of a — ...
30
22
Textile industry
007
498
Villages classilied according to popu-
Thakkar
100, 594
124,
lation ...
29
21
(184, 210)
473,
Village, definition of —
26
18
476
Villages, mean distance between — ...
31
23
Than Dhnlai
400 (a)
300
Village, significance of term —
26
19
Thatera
594 (211)
470
Village, variation in number of — ...
27
19
Thathiar
594(211)
476
Village watchmen
650
517
Thavi
594 (183)
473
Village site, character of — ...
28
20
Thoris
531, 594,
398.
Vital Statistics, accuracy of —
73
57
(212)
476
Vital Statistics, comparison of — with
Tilak .. '
134
112
Census figures ...
74
57
Toba
594 (213)
476
Vital Statistics, system of registra-
Tobarco manufacture...
627
507
tion of —
72
56
Tobacco, opium, ganja, Ac, sellers ...
645
516
Vivah
130
107,
Town, definition of — ...
15
12
108
Towns, density in —
21
15
Towns, recent growth of— ...
23
16
W.
Towns, sex proportion in —
19
13
Towns, size of — .-■
18
13
_ _
Towns, yariation in number of — ...
16
12
Wages, rise in —
58
49
Trade, development of —
69
56
Wages, the future course of —
58
51
Trade guilds, constitution of —
568
426
Wahabis
239(a)
168
Trade guilds, powers of —
568
426
Wandhas : i
26
18
Trade in articles of luxury
647
516
Wangrigar
594(53)
453
Trade in foodstuffs ...
645
5)5
Washing, cleaning and dyeing
Trade in metals
643
515
industry
628
507
Trade i" piece goods, &c.
641
515
Watch and clock makers
633
510
Trade in poitery ...
644
515
Western Hindi language
458
354
Trade in purchun shop
648
516
1 Western Pahari, Chamba group
471
360
Trade in ready-made clothing
646
516
• Western Pahari, Kolu group
469
360
Trade in skins, &c
642
515
Western Pahari langunge
467
35S
Transport by rail
637
511
Western Pahari, Mandi group
470
360
Transpoil by road
636
510
Western Pahari, other dialects
472
360
Transport by water
ri35
510
Western Pahari, Simla group
468
359
Tribe and clan
583
434
Western Pahari, unspecified dialects
; 472
361
Trikhal
404
M02
, Western Panjabi language ...
' 454
350
Turk
594 (214^
476
Wedding after twenty confinements
■ 367
281
Twins ...
406
302
; Widowhood, compulsory — ...
325
233
Widow marriage
368
281
U.
Widows, strength of— by castes
1 370
282
Wood industry
617
502
Udasi
145
117
Wool Industry
613
500
Udhala
(82
292
Ulama
594(215)
476
United Presbyterian Church of North
Y.
America
270
188
Unproductive occupations ...
660
519
Urban population, coraposicion of —
20
15
Vagyopnvit
130
107
Urban population, distribution of — b
7
Young Men's Christian Association
272
189
religions
20
14
Toung Women's Christian Associatior
1 273
189
Urdu
460
354
1
Urdu-Uindi-Panjabi controversy ..
V.
Vagrants
487
366
Z.
661
520
117
|ZahirPir
152
121
Znrgar .. ...
594 (208)
475
Vairag, kinds of —
146
448
1 Kind Ka'iana ... ..
160
124
Vaish
594 (16)
106,
' Zinda Pir, sl.rine of— (Dera Ghaz
Vainhnavas
129, 162,
125,
Khan)
524
388
166
128
Zoroastrian
283
192
'J
i
I
I
DATE DUE
APR
) 1973
JAN
10 1973'
f
GAYLORD
PRINTED ff^ USA.
,„„UT«Fn'!RfGWUBR»|;VJ«^^^^^
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